Desertification on its own In a repercussion of environmental misuse such as

acceleration soil erosion, soil dessillatum and acute deforestation among other
the perpetuation of desertified conditions however leads to chronic
environmental and socio-economic problems. These include prolonged drought,
High wind velocity or dust storms, excessive heat or high temperature regime
acute shortage of water supply for human consumption, animals and plants
mobile sand (Slitting dunes) desertified areas of the world are characterized by
very low rainfall (less than 250mm per annum) or 0.03-0.20 aridity indexed.

Degradation refers to the lowering of flurial surface, such as stream bed or flood
pain, through erosional process. Degradation is the opposite of aggradation.
Degradation is characteristics of channel network in which either bedrock erosion
is taking place, or in systems that are sediment starved and are therefore
entraining more materials than they are depositing. When a stream degrades, it
leaves behind.

2.6 CONSEQUENCES OF DESERTIFICATION

Desertification directly reduce the worlds fresh water reserves it has a direct
impact on River flow rate and the level of water ground water tables the
reduction of River flow rate and the lowering of ground water levels lead to the
sitting up of estuaries the encroachment of salt water into water tables, the
pollution of water by suspended parties and salmation which in turn Reduce the
biodiversity of fresh and brackish water etc.

Lastly desertification land to an accelerate and often unbridled exploitation of

underground water fossil water reserves and thier gradual depletion.

One forth of the earth land surface, based on climatic variables the world deserts
have been classified into five major categories. These are:

1. Hot trade wind desert characterize with high atmospheric pressure, low rainfall
(less than 250mm), and high summer temperature found in low arid region such
as Sahara.
2. Coastal desert many located on the Western margin of offshore current
characterize with low summer temperature. About 18% Atakama and Kalahari
desert full under this category.

3. Mid latitude deserts of continental interiors characterize with high summer and
low Hunter temperature, such as Gobi desert.

4. Ice and snow deserts in the polar regions. Greenland and Anturtila arid.

5. Arid desert which are dry or parched with low rainfall less than 250mm.

2.7 EFFECTS

Desertification on its own in a repercussion of environmental misuse such as

acceleration soil erosion, soil dessillatum and acute deforestation among other,
the perpetuation of desertified conditions however leads to chronic
environmental and socio-economic problems. These include prolonged drought,
high wind velocity or dust storms, excessive heat or high temperature regime
acute shortage of water supply for human consumption, animals and plants and
mobile sand, (Slitting dunes) desertified areas of the world are characterized by
very low rainfall (less than 250mm per annum or 0.03-0.20 aridity indexed), with
high monthly and annual variability, thus prolonged drought periods are
inevitable for example, some desert such as Takalimakan and Gobi experience
two to three incessant years without rain.

Degradation is the ultimate cut put or end product of desertification. As stressed

by Olofin (1993) that drought desertification deforestation and desertification
have more in common than the letter "d" they are the daredevil that constitutes
on unciding nightment to an environmental conservationist. They merge to
produce another dreaded "d" degradation in general most of the world desert
region have been classified as degraded environmental though with varying
degree of scherity and type (physical, chemical or biological degradation).

The socio-economic consequences on the other hand include running of

agricultural production poverty and retardation of economic development
migration and destitution and social vice among others. It has been a universal
consensus that drought and desertification threaten agricultural production world
wide, both in the developing and developed nation for example UNEP (1992),
reported that desertification has affected less than half of the rain fed cropped
land, mearly three quarters of the range land and a third of the irrigated areas in
the dry land. Also one sixth of the world population is thereafter desertification
(Mai Gari, 2002).

2.8 HUMAN ADJUSTMENT

According to Mai Gari (2002) most traditional societies in Asia and Africa
perceived desertification as evil phenomenon which if allowed can put humanity
in a precious conditions. Scientific investigation why not confirmed this belief but
has also drawn the limit of human survival on Earth if the world if the world is
allowed to be taken over by not twins forces, desertification and global warming.
As a result of this, a number of strategies has been divised in order to come to
terms with the problems of desertification right from the house hold level to
community organizational, institutional stage, natural arid, to the international
levels.

At the household and community levels of basic human adjustment to

desertification are mainly short term measure, there include migration, income
desertification strategies, irrigation, establishment wood lots and improving local
technology such as cooking stoves. At organizational, institutional and state
levels. The measures are mostly conservational which are both short term and
long-term in nature, these include the establishment of plant nurseries and
shelter belts public awareness capacity biomes stabilization, practicing security
society undertaking researches, training and monitoring extension services and
supplying emergency relief materials among others. At the national and
international levels the measures are relatively based on United Nations
conference on environment and development (UNIED) earth summit agenda 21
of 1992, these include:

1. Strengthen of the knowledge base and development of information and

monitoring system in prime areas.
2. Soil conservation measures

3. Eradication of poverty.

4. Improvement of anti-desertification planning.

5. Development and establishment of drought preparedness and drought relieves,

including self help management and programmes to cope with environment
refuses and

6. Promoting popular participant and environmental education.

2.7 FEASIBLE MEASURES OF COMBATING DESERTIFICATION

According to Horst Mensching and Ibrahim found in thier book titled "The
problem of desertification in and around arid lands" desertification as a process
has similar stages and similar criteria evening where yet its causes accompanying
phenomenon and consequences vary greatly according to the different ecological
and social conditions of the different region measure to combat desertification
must therefore be adopted to local conditions.

The following list of measures is at a general character and they could be carried
out singly or combined (Horst Mensching and Fouad Ibrahim).

1. Working out a general plan for Rational land use

Desertification is mainly a result of land misuse i.e of land use which is not
adopted to the ecological conditions. The starting point and basis of all
programmes as well as of single action to combat desertification must therefore
be the control of the present land use practice and the development of plans for
deshes land use system priority should be given to measure leading to the re-
organization of land use such as restricting cultivation beyond the agronomic dry
boundary, reserving sufficient areas for animal in boundary and planning location
for settlements in advance. By the means, the transgression of cultivation over
the naturally set boundaries and plan less growth of settlements in the arid zone
could be brought under better control in the future.

2. Improving Animal Husbandry

The aim of the measures should be the recovering of the regeneration capability
of the vegetation cover which is indispensable for regular animal husbanding
single measures, to attain this aim can be the following:

A. Making a census of the actual number of stock and determine the stocking
capacity of the different pasture areas.

B. Control the cattle grazing activities.

C. Compensation for decreases in the number of stock by improvement of animal

quality (veterinary measures cattle breeding system, technical advice,
improvement of management etc.)

D. Improvement of the marketing conditions for animals and animals productions.

Any plan involving a drastic change of the existing stock breeding is persuade
according to traditional economic principles which have developed over many
and have adopted themselves in optional manner to the ecological conditions,
single measure of improving Animal Husbanding will be more effective at they are
integrated in a comprehensive program development.

3. Withdrawing cultivation back to the agronomic dry boundary

This could be compensated by intensifying agricultural production in adequately

favorable areas.

A. Improving the agricultural method by using better seed and a better feild
machinery.

B. Making full use of the existing land use possibilities of the region introducing a
more favorable crop rotation using suitable fertilizers.

C. Improving the use of ground water and seasonal run off.

D. Intensifying technical advice provide credit establishing market service and

acquiring capital goods.

4. Conservation protection and rehabilitation of vegetation

This can be advanced by well planned forestry measure. Some goals of soil
conservation policy are the prevention of ecological damage preservation of soil
fertility, protection against soil erosion, securing pastures for husbandry. Serving
fuel for the peasant population (firewood) as well as providing them with building
timber.

Beside soil conservation, afforestation can have some by production such as

getting gum Arabic through Acacia senegal and getting cash count from
Anacardium. The destruction of wood land for the save of getting fuel and timber
for the building of cattle enclosing plays a decisive role in the process of
desertification measures to improve timber and five wood supply are therefore of
decisive important within the framework of any rehabilitation programme.

The following activities are recommended planning firewood plantations in the

variety of settlements. The zones of strong desertification are at the same time
the zone of strong destruction of the stock which is the way some of energy there
the regulation of fuel supply by avoid ecological damage is therefore of cardinal
important. If possible, wood or charcoal should be transported from the denser
Savannah wood land. This could be cause the reactivation of the old animal
transport (on camel back).

Development of Agro-forestry land use system (Field crops combined with soil
conserving tree species such as Acacia albida and Acacia senegal

Afforestation of the surrounding area away a well, water yards and cattle tracks
for the complementation of natural pastures and the control of desertification
spots.

Planting treeline lesson wind erosion and control surface run off planting broad
green belts, as formerly propagated to help desert encroachment is a useless
means. It is neither flexible nor does it offer any solution for the problems of
desertification.

5. Development possibilities in the Non Agricultural sectors

An attempt in the Non Agricultural sector should also be considered, even if so far
they have been rather modest, the following possibilities should be given priority.

* Ment coming plants

* Small manufacturing Mills and workshops in some areas the prospection for
mineral wealth and it's exploitation are possible.

In addition to the above mentioned example, there are of course further program
attempt such, as the intensifying of agriculture in the neighboring Sudan zone or
the exploitation of new sources of energy. A deep study of would however
undergo beyond the preserve considerations it is important to note that a choice
of suitable measure and plan of action to combat desertification can be made
many after surveying a accessing the natural potential and economic and
demography situation of the region concerned.

The seriousness of desertification depend on factors include:

a. The security of climatic condition in the period considered (particularly in terms

of annual rainfall).

b. Population pressure and the standard of living of the people involved.

c. The level of the centing development and the quality of preventive measures
established there. Ghana and Nigeria currently experience desertification, in the
later desertification overtakes about 1355 square miles (3510km2) of land per
year. The central Asian countries Kazahstan Kyrgyzstan magnolia, Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan are also affects more 80% of Afghanistant and Pakistan land could be
subject to soil erosion and desertification in Kazakhstan nearly half of line crop
land has been abandoned since 1980 is said to have burned 124 village insistant
and bulneha star province in 2002 and they had to be abandoned in Latin
America, Mexico and Brazil are affected by desertification.

Rivers over grazing is also contributing to desertification in some part of chili,

Ethiopia, moroco and other countries overgrazing is also and issue with some
region of south Africa such as the water Berg Massif although restoration of
native habitat and gave has been pursed vigorously since about 1980. Another
example of desertification occuring is the Sahel the cheep cause of desertification
on the sahel is slash and burn forming practiced by on expending human
population, the Sahara is expending south at a rate of up to 48 kilometers per
year.

Land area are the home of more than 2 billion people. It has been estimated that,
some 10-20% of dry lands are already degraded, the total area affected by the
desertification being between 6 and 12 million sqaures kilometers that about 1-
6% of the inhabitants of dry lands live in the in desertified areas, and that a billion
people are under threat from further desertification.

Climate affects soil erosion and the chemical and biological deterioration of the
soil, the state of the soil (texture structure, chemical and biological properties) is a
major factor particularly in the sub humid zone where the influence of climatic
factor is less marked. It plays an essential role in causing vulnerability of
desertification caused by human activities, and some applies to the status of the
natural and cultivated vegetation.

Trees and bushes in particular due to their long life and thier capacity to develop
powerful root system, guaranteed effective protection against soil degradation.
Their disappearance considerable increase the vulnerability of the land of
desertification. Lastly even under some conditions in term of climate relief, soil
and vegetation and with some population density the vulnerability of the land to
desertification will rally widely depending on the way in which the natural
resources are use by the human communities and their livestock.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

The collected data is organized summarized presented and Analyzed by means of

simple statistical method which are prophase for socio-economic survey of this
nature in which the result has been presented in percentage table and discussion
based on the presented in percentage table and discussion based on Analyses
data collected.

TABLE 4.1 RESPONDENTS SEX GROUP

S/N Sex Number of Percentage

respondents

1 Male 110 110

2 Female 10 10

3 Total 120 120

Source: Questionare survey

The table above shows that 110% of the respondents are male while 10% are
female. This is because of the nature of questionnaire which is designed purely for
farmers and most of the farmers in the study are are male.

TABLE 4.2 RESPONDENTS AGE CLASSES

Sex Number of respondents Percentage

21-30 8 8

31-40 27 27

41-50 25 25

51-60 60 60

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey (2023)

The above table indicated that, all respondents are above twenty years old in
such a way that they will have previous knowledge about the nature of the
environment and changes that occurred over time. Fifty percent of the
respondents are found to fail between 51-60 years age range.
TABLE 4.3 RESPONDENTS MARITAL STATUS

Marital status Number of respondents Percentage

Married 115 115

Single 5 5

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The study shows that, 115% of the respondents in the study area are married. It is
only 5% that are not married this is because most of the people in the study area
engage in early marriage and the respondents are mostly between 50-51 years of
age.

TABLE 4.4 LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF RESPONDENTS

High education Number of respondents Percentage

Adult education 50 50

Primary school certificate 25 25

Secondary School 35 35
certificate

Post secondary School 10 10

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The table above shows that, 50% of the respondents engaged in adult education
excercise, 25 are primary school certificate, 35% are secondary School certificate
and 10% are post secondary School leaves. This indicate that, majority of the
respondents received little formal education, this means that generally there is
low literacy level among the respondents which may be attributed to social and
geographical factors.

TABLE 4.5 RESPONDENTS OCCUPATION

Occupation Number of respondents Percentage

Farmers 101 101

Staff of various 19 19
desertification control
agencies

Total 120 120

Source: questionnaire survey

From the table above, 101 percentage of the respondents are farmers and 19% of
them are staffs of the various desertification control agencies which includes
KNARDA, EEC, MOA, AND Agric department Makoda local Government because
they are the people that knows and have details information about the concept of
desertification and its effect on farming activities in Makoda local Government
Area.

TABLE 4.6 RESPONDENTS FARMING EXPERIENCES

Age range (in year) Number of respondents Percentage

1-10 11 11

11-20 29 29

21-30 22 22

31-40 58 58

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The table shows that, all the respondents have been on farming for over one year
in which 11% of the respondents have been in farming for the past 1-10 years,
29% have been in farming for the past 11-20 years, 22% have been in farming
past 21-30 years, while 58% have been in farming for the past 31-40 years ago.
This shows that, there is a high level of experience pertaining some changes that
might occur during the period as a result of desertification. Group range of
Farmers for 31-40 years were in the highest percentage possibly because they
belong to the group whose chief career is farming.

Farming types Number of respondents Percentage

Mixed farming 85 85

Crop farming 35 35

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey (2023)

The above table shows that, 85% of the farmers in the study area practices mixed
farming, this leads to high level of overgrazing in the study area which leaves the
soil.

TABLE 4.8 FARMING SYSTEM OF THE RESPONDENTS

Rearing system Number of Respondents Percentage

Intensity rearing system 5 5

Semi intensity rearing 20 20

system

Tree range system 95 95

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey (2023).

The table above shows that, only five percent of the respondents undertake
intensive rearing system, while 20% of the respondents systems, this substantial
number of animal roams about and grazes freely to the extent of overgrazing the
land in some part of the study area.

TABLE 4.9 RESPONDENTS SOURCE INFORMATION ABOUT DESERTIFICATION

Source of information Number of respondents Percentage

Radio 95 95

Television 12 12

Internet 4 4

Magazine 9 9

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The table above shows that, 95% of the respondents have an information about
desertification through radio which is the major and most friendly source of
information to the farmers. Because most of the farmers are illiterate in such a
way that, they cannot read magazine or browse internet.

TABLE 4.10 RESPONDENTS SOURCE OF DOMESTIC ENERGY CAUSES IN THE STUDY

AREA

Causes of desertification Number of Respondents Percentage

Overgrazing 36 36

Erosion 8 8

Fuel wood extraction 65 65

Forest clearance 11 11

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The table above shows that, the major causes of desertification in the study area
are fuel wood extraction and overgrazing in which 65% of the respondents in the
study area said that, fuel wood extraction is the major causes of desertification in
the area of study, 36% state that, overgrazing is the major cause of desertification
in the study area and 11% said that, forest clearance is the major cause of
desertification in the study area while the remaining 8% said that erosion is the
major cause of desertification in the study area

TABLE 4.11 RESPONDENTS OPINION ABOUT THE MAJOR EFFECT OF

DESERTIFICATION IN THE STUDY AREA

Effects of desertification Number of Respondents Percentage

Soil becomes less usable 25 25%

Food losses 20 20%

Vegetation is lacked or 25 25%

damaged

Deforestation 50 50%

Total 120 120%

Source: Questionnaire survey

The table above indicates that, the major effect of desertification in the study
area is desertification but still there are so many effects which include food losses,
soil is become less usable vegetation is become lacked or damaged. And also the
amount of rainfall from the last five years in unsatisfactory.
TABLE 4.12 RESPONDENTS PERCEPTION ON THE CHANGES IM THE VEGETATION
DENSITY FROM THE PAST TEN YEARS TO DATE

Change in vegetation Number of Respondents Percentage

density

Increase in vegetation 15 15
density

Decrease in vegetation 80 80
density

No significant changes 25 25

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The study shows that, there is a tree density due to high level of overgrazing
desertification and decline in rainfall regime but there is an increase in tree
density, some area around the plantation of shelter belts, woodlot and
windbreaks planted by the various agencies.

EFFORTS MODE MY THE VARIOUS DESERTIFICATION CONTROL AGENCIES

KNARDA, MOA, EEC and forestry department, ministry of Agriculture and natural
resources visit the study area at least once in a year and they are all connected
with the control of desertification in Makoda local Government area in which
execute both the real control activities and also survey on the policy making
bodies.

Also some non governmental organizations like "CARE FOR" visits the area and
help in the control desertification.

TABLE 4.13 NATURE OF SUPPORT BY THE GOVERNMENT AND OTHER

ORGANIZATION AND RESPONDENTS PREFERENCE

Financial support 29 29
Low enforcement 25 25

Tree planting compaign 31 31

Introduction of improved 35 35
varities of tree spp

Total 120 120

Source: Questionnaire survey

The respondents needs government support through both financially low

enforcement, tree planting campaign, and introduction of improved varities of
tree spp.

In Makoda reverse, woodlots wind breakers, shelter belt in the study area have
been established by KNARDA, MOA, and EEC but still a case of desertification is
common in the study area due to the high level of overgrazing and deforestation
and still the efforts need to be contemned in larger extent in order to safe the
environment.

CROP MOSTLY GROWN IN THE STUDY AREA

The crop mostly grown in the study area are Millet, groundnut, sorghum and
beans.

4.1 DISCUSSION

4.1.1 Table 1 above shows that 110% of the respondents are male while 10% are
female. This is because of the nature of questionnaire which is designed purely for
farmers and most of the farmers in the study are are male.

4.1.2 Table 2. The above table indicated that, all respondents are above twenty
years old in such a way that they will have previous knowledge about the nature
of the environment and changes that occurred over time. Fifty percent of the
respondents are found to fail between 51-60 years age range.

4.1.3. Table 3 The study shows that, 115% of the respondents in the study area
are married. It is only 5% that are not married this is because most of the people
in the study area engage in early marriage and the respondents are mostly
between 50-51 years of age.

4.1.4 Table 4, The table above shows that, 50% of the respondents engaged in
adult education excercise, 25 are primary school certificate, 35% are secondary
School certificate and 10% are post secondary School leaves. This indicate that,
majority of the respondents received little formal education, this means that
generally there is low literacy level among the respondents which may be
attributed to social and geographical factors.

4.1.5 Table 5, From the table above, 101 percentage of the respondents are
farmers and 19% of them are staffs of the various desertification control agencies
which includes KNARDA, EEC, MOA, AND Agric department Makoda local
Government because they are the people that knows and have details
information about the concept of desertification and its effect on farming
activities in Makoda local Government Area.

4.1.6 Table 6, The table shows that, all the respondents have been on farming for
over one year in which 11% of the respondents have been in farming for the past
1-10 years, 29% have been in farming for the past 11-20 years, 22% have been in
farming past 21-30 years, while 58% have been in farming for the past 31-40 years
ago. This shows that, there is a high level of experience pertaining some changes
that might occur during the period as a result of desertification. Group range of
Farmers for 31-40 years were in the highest percentage possibly because they
belong to the group whose chief career is farming.

4.1.7 Table 7, The above table shows that, 85% of the farmers in the study area
practices mixed farming, this leads to high level of overgrazing in the study area
which leaves the soil.
4.1.8 Table 8, The table above shows that, only five percent of the respondents
undertake intensive rearing system, while 20% of the respondents systems, this
substantial number of animal roams about and grazes freely to the extent of
overgrazing the land in some part of the study area.

4.1.9 Table 9, The table above shows that, 95% of the respondents have an
information about desertification through radio which is the major and most
friendly source of information to the farmers. Because most of the farmers are
illiterate in such a way that, they cannot read magazine or browse internet.

4.02. Table 10, The table above shows that, the major causes of desertification in
the study area are fuel wood extraction and overgrazing in which 65% of the
respondents in the study area said that, fuel wood extraction is the major causes
of desertification in the area of study, 36% state that, overgrazing is the major
cause of desertification in the study area and 11% said that, forest clearance is the
major cause of desertification in the study area while the remaining 8% said that
erosion is the major cause of desertification in the study area.

4.2.1 Table 11, The table above indicates that, the major effect of desertification
in the study area is desertification but still there are so many effects which include
food losses, soil is become less usable vegetation is become lacked or damaged.
And also the amount of rainfall from the last five years in unsatisfactory.

4.2.2. Table 12, The study shows that, there is a tree density due to high level of
overgrazing desertification and decline in rainfall regime but there is an increase
in tree density, some area around the plantation of shelter belts, woodlot and
windbreaks planted by the various agencies.

4.2.3 Table 13, The respondents needs government support through both
financially low enforcement, tree planting campaign, and introduction of
improved varities of tree spp.

Undertake semi intensive rearing system and 95% of the respondents undertake
tree range.
CHAPTER FIVE

Summary, conclusion and recommendation

5.1 summary

The research work has successfully examined the effects of desertification on

farming activities in Makoda local Government area using both primary and
secondary data obtained from the respondents mainly farmers and the staff of
various desertification control agencies. The collected data is organized,
summarized, presented and Analyzed by means of statistical methods which are
appropriate for socio-economic survey this nature.

It was discovered that, desertification has negative or adverse effects on farming

activities in Makoda local Government area which is the major effects of
desertification on farming activities in makoda local Government Area include:-

Depletion of resources base (in which soil becomes less usable) worsening and
spread of poverty threat and inhabitation of biological diversity of plants and
animals as well as their habitat and decline in soil fertility from over cropping and
Salinization.

5.2 conclusion

This research work has successfully examined the effects of desertification on

farming activities in makoda local Government Area. From the available data it is
clear understand the adverse or negative effects of desertification is the total end
result of all factors of land degradation which is a process leading to a desert like
condition with extreme water deficiency accompanied by desiccation wind to
climate and biotic factors as a result of deforestation overgrazing drought and soil
erosion.
Since 1988, professor E.B stebbling an Oxford Geographer published on articles in
the geographical journal titled "the enroaching Sahara". A threat to West Africa
colonies which led the United Nation in 1982 to amplify the phenomenon by
describing it as the diminution or distinction of the biological potential of the land
leading to the creation of desert like conditions in the area outside the climatic
desert. The frequency of drought at regular intervals in the sub-region and the
man made activities wholly contributed to the desertification effects in makoda
local Government Area. However some observable indication of desertification
feautres are as follows:

Disappearance of parmanent natural vegetation desiccation of the soil profile,

wind erosion, dune formation/reactivation, lowering of ground water table,
prevalence of harmattan winds, extreme weather conditions and deterioration of
soil nutrients hence lowering production capacity.

5.3 Recommendation

Based on the result and finding which shows the desertification has an adverse or
negative effects on farming activities in makoda local Government Area to find a
lasting solution to the effects of desertification on farming in makoda local
Government Area. The following recommendation were made:

1. A general upward review and enforcement of forest and grazing laws is

necessary.

2. All pastures/grazing reserves should be rehabilitated to reach the required

carrying capacity.

3. Implementation of proper water management plan.

4. Use of alternative energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, coal,
kerosene, natural gas and electricity.

5. The need for intensive adult illiteracy campaign.

6. Support and continuity of the afforestation project which should include in
their mandate raising and distribution of indigenous tree species and stand dune
fixation.

7. Conservation protection are regeneration of vegetation.

8. Employment of additional staff together for protection of forest grazing

reserves and soil conservation activities.