AL AHRAM EDUCATIONAL CENTRE, AL WAKRA

Notes 2023- 2024

Class &Div. : XI Subject: Physics

Lesson / Topic : Mechanical Properties of Fluids
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INTRODUCTION:-
In this chapter, we shall study some common physical properties of liquids and
gases. Liquids and gases can flow and are therefore, called fluids. It is this property that
distinguishes liquids and gases from solids in a basic way. Fluids are everywhere around us.
Earth has an envelope of air and two-thirds of its surface is covered with water. Water is not only
necessary for our existence; every mammalian body constitute mostly of water. All the processes
occurring in living beings including plants are mediated by fluids. Thus understanding the
behavior and properties of fluids is important.

Pressure:-

All fluids exert pressure.

Pressure = Thrust/area.

S.I unit of pressure is Nm-2 or pascal.

Dimensional formula is ML-1 T-2

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Expression for the pressure at a point inside a liquid at rest:-

A liquid exerts a pressure at every point within it. Consider a liquid of density ρ contained in
a vessel. Let us find the pressure P at a point O inside the liquid at a depth h below the surface of
the liquid. Imagine a horizontal area A around the point O.

Thrust on the area = Weight of vertical column of liquid over the area A.

Pressure = Thrust/area = mg/A = V ρ g/A = A h ρ g/A = h ρ g

So, Pressure P = h ρ g.

Absolute pressure = H + h ρ g, where H is the atmospheric pressure.

Pascal’s law:-

Pascal’s law states that, in a continuous fluid in equilibrium, the pressure applied at any point
is transmitted equally to every other point in the fluid.

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Hydraulic lift:-

Hydraulic lift is used to lift heavy loads. Car lifts and jacks, hydraulic brakes, dentist
chairs are all devices that make use of the principle of hydraulic lift. Their working is based on
Pascal’s law.

The hydraulic lift consists of two cylinders of area of cross-section A1 and A2; A1 <<<
A2.These cylinders are fitted with smooth pistons and are connected to each other by a tube. The
cylinders are filled with an incompressible liquid.

o Hydraulic lift is a lift which makes use of a fluid.

Hydraulic lifts that are used in car service stations to lift the cars.

o Inside a hydraulic lift there are 2 platforms, one has a smaller area and the other one has a
larger area.

o It is a tube like structure which is filled with uniform fluid.

o There are 2 pistons (P1 and P2) which are attached at both the ends of the tube.
o Cross-sectional area of piston P1 is A1 and of piston P2 is A2.
o If we apply force F1 on P1, pressure gets exerted and according to Pascal’s law the pressure
gets transmitted in all the directions and same pressure gets exerted on the other end. As a
result the Piston P2 moves upwards.

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o Advantage of using hydraulic lift is that by applying small force on the small area we are
able to generate a larger force.

o Mathematically:- F2=PA2
o where F2 = Resultant Force,A2 = area of cross-section
o F2= (F1/A1)A2 where P=F1/A1 (Pressure P is due to force F1 on the area A1)
o F2 =(A2/A1)F1. This shows that the applied force has increased by A2/A1.

o Because of Pascal’s law the input gets magnified.

Surface Tension:-
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface which arises due to the fact that
surface molecules have extra energy. Liquid surface behaves like an elastic membrane with a
tendency to contract, so as to occupy a minimum surface area.

Surface tension can be defined as the force acting tangential to liquid surface and
perpendicular to its unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the surface of the liquid.

Surface tension S = Force/length

S.I unit of Surface tension Nm-1.Dimensions :-MT-2.

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Surface Energy:-

The potential energy per unit area of the liquid surface is called surface energy. Surface
energy is numerically equal to Surface tension.

Surface energy = Work done in increasing surface area / Increase in surface area.

S.T Surface tension is equal to Surface Energy:-

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Consider a rectangular wire frame ABCD. The side AB is movable. A liquid film (eg:-soap
film) is formed on it. Let the length of the side AB be l and surface tension of the liquid be S.

The wire AB is pulled inward by the surface tension of the film acting normally to the
wire.

The force acting on AB = 2(l x S) = 2lS.

The factor 2 appears because there are two surfaces for the film.

If the wire AB is pulled down by a small distance x to the position A’B’ then

Work done = Force x displacement = 2lS x x

Therefore the increase in potential energy = 2lSx

Increase in surface area =2lx

Surface energy of the film = Potential energy / Area = 2lSx / 2lx = S.

Hence, surface energy of a liquid is numerically equal to the surface tension of the liquid

Molecular forces:-
There are two types of molecular forces.
1. Cohesive force:-The force of attraction between molecules of same substance is called
cohesive force.

Fsolid > Fliquid >Fgases

2. Adhesive force:- The force of attraction between the molecules of different substances is
called force of adhesion.

Eg- Adhesive force between paper and gum molecules.

Molecular range and Sphere of influence:-

The maximum distance up to which cohesive force between two molecules can act is
called molecular range.

A sphere drawn with a molecule as center and with a radius equal to the molecular range is
called the Sphere of influence.

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Surface tension on the basis of molecular theory:-

A B
Consider two molecules A and B of a liquid. Molecule A is well inside
the liquid and is attracted equally in all directions by other molecules. Therefore, no resultant
force acting on it. Molecule B lies on the surface. Its inward pull is maximum. This is because,
lower half is full of molecules, upper half is empty.

If a molecule is brought to the surface from the interior, work has to be done against the
inward pull. Therefore, molecules on the surface have additional potential energy. Any stable
system tries to have minimum energy. Therefore we should have minimum number of
molecules on the surface to have minimum energy. So surface area should be minimum.
Therefore liquid tries to have minimum area and thereby, it behaves like a stretched elastic
membrane.

Examples of Surface tension:-

You must have noticed that, oil and water do not mix; water wets you and me
but not ducks; mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to it, oil rises up a cotton wick,
inspite of gravity, Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree, hairs of a paint brush
do not cling together when dry and even when dipped in water but form a fine tip when taken
out of it. All these and many more such experiences are related with the free surfaces of liquids.

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Detergents and Surface Tension:-

We clean dirty clothes containing grease and oil stains sticking to cotton or other fabrics by
adding detergents or soap to water, soaking clothes in it and shaking. Let us understand this
process better. Washing with water does not remove grease stains. This is because water does not
wet greasy dirt; i.e., there is very little area of contact between them. If water could wet grease,
the flow of water could carry some grease away. Something of this sort is achieved through
detergents. When detergent is added to water, it reduces surface tension, wets the grease. The
molecules of detergents are hairpin shaped, with one end attracted to water and the other to
molecules of grease, oil or wax, thus tending to form water-oil interfaces. When clothes are
rinsed in water, the greasy dirt is washed away by running water.

Angle of contact (θ):-

It is seen that when a liquid comes in contact with a solid surface, it is generally curved.

The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface
inside the liquid is called angle of contact.

(1) Angle of contact for pure water and clean glass is zero.

(2) Angle of contact for ordinary water and glass is acute θ = 80.

(3) Angle of contact for mercury and glass is obtuse θ = 1350.

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Pressure difference across a curved liquid surface:-

The surface of a liquid may be concave, convex or plane.

(1) Concave Surface:- If the surface is concave, the resultant force R on molecule M due to
surface tension S acts in the upward direction. Molecules experiencing a net upward force. The
molecule will be in equilibrium if pressure on concave side is more.

(2) Convex Surface:- If the surface is convex, the resultant force R on molecule M due to
surface tension S acts in the downward direction. Molecules experiencing a net downward force.
The molecule will be in equilibrium if pressure on concave side is more.

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(3) Plane Surface:- If the surface is plane molecule placed equally in all direction. No net
force acts on it. No excess pressure, inside or outside the liquid surface.

Note:- A curved surface will be in equilibrium, only if there is an excess of pressure on the
concave side of the curved surface.

Excess of Pressure:-

(1) Inside a drop:- Excess pressure P = 2S/R, S is the surface tension and R is the radius of the
drop.

(2) Inside a bubble in free space:- Excess pressure P = 4S/R, S is the surface tension and R is
the radius of the drop.

(3) Inside a bubble in a liquid:- Excess pressure P = 2S/R, S is the surface tension and R is the
radius of the drop.

Capillarity:-

A tube of very fine bore is called a capillary tube. The rise or fall of a liquid inside
capillary tube is called capillarity.

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Capillary ascent formula:-

Consider a capillary tube of radius r open at both ends and dipped vertically in a liquid of
density ρ and surface tension S. The meniscus inside the liquid is concave. Let r’ be the radius
of concave meniscus, θ is the angle of contact and h is the height of the liquid column raised in
the tube from the level of liquid surface.

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 Consider a capillary tube of radius r dipped vertically in a liquid of density ρ and
surface tension S. The meniscus of the liquid inside the tube is concave. Hence the liquid rises
through the tube upto a certain height. Let r’ be the radius of the meniscus, θ the angle of contact
and h the height of the liquid column in the tube with respect to the level of liquid outside. The
pressure just below the concave side of the liquid in the tube will be less than above it by an
amount, p = 2S/r’

Pressure just above the meniscus in the tube = H, the atmospheric pressure.

Pressure at C, just below the meniscus = H – 2S/r’

Since the pressure at the same horizontal level is same,

Pressure at A = Pressure at B ; H = H – 2S/r’ + h ρ g

h = 2S / r’ ρ g = 2Scosθ / r ρ g

( In the right angled triangle ODE, OD = r’, DE = r and ODE = θ, cosθ = DE/DO = r/r’ so
r’ = r/cosθ)

In the case of water and water-like liquids which wet the tube, θ is nearly equal to 0.

Cos0 = 1, therefore h = 2S/ r ρ g

Viscosity:-
The property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal frictional force acts between its
different layers which opposes their relative motion is called viscosity. This internal frictional
force is called viscous force.
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Viscous force:-

Viscous forces are intermolecular forces acting between the molecules of different layers of
liquid moving with different velocities. Consider a liquid flowing over a horizontal solid surface
in the form of parallel layers. Due to viscosity, a force acts in opposite direction to destroy the
relative motion. The viscous force F depends upon the following factors-

(1) It is directly proportional to the area of the layers in contact F α A.

(2) It is directly proportional to velocity gradient between layers F α dv / dx

F α A dv / dx

Viscous force F = η A dv / dx

where, (dv/dx) = rate of change of velocity with distance called velocity gradient, A = area of
cross-section and η is a constant called coefficient of viscosity. η depends on nature of liquid.

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 Coefficient of viscosity:-

Viscous force F = η A dv / dx if A = 1 , dv / dx = 1 then η = F. Coefficient of viscosity of a

liquid may be defined as the tangential viscous force, which maintains unit velocity gradient
between two parallel layers, each of unit area.SI unit of η is Nsm-2 or pascal-second. Its
dimensional formula is [ML-1T-1]

The knowledge of the coefficient of viscosity of different oils and its variation with temperature
helps us to select a suitable lubricant for a given machine. Viscosity is due to transport of
momentum. The value of viscosity for ideal liquid is zero. The viscosity of liquids decreases
with increase in temperature. The viscosity of liquids increases with increase in pressure but the
viscosity of water decreases with increase in pressure.

Stoke’s Law:-

The viscous force F experienced by a spherical ball of radius ‘r’ moving through a viscous
medium of coefficient of viscosity η with a velocity v is F = 6 π η r v .This is Stoke’s law,
where, r = radius of the body, v = velocity and η = coefficient of viscosity.

Importance of Stoke’s Law

1. This law is used in the determination of electronic charge by Millikan in his oil drop experiment.
2. This law helps a man coming down with the help of parachute.
3. This law account for the formation of clouds.

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Terminal velocity:-

Terminal velocity is the maximum constant velocity acquired by a body while falling freely
through a viscous medium

Consider a small and heavy sphere of radius ‘r’ and density ‘ρ’ falling through a
liquid of density ‘σ’ and coefficient of viscosity ‘η’. The various forces acting on the sphere are

(1) Weight of the ball acts downward

W = mg = Vρg = 4/3πr3ρg.

(2) Upthrust or Buoyant force of the displaced liquid acting upward

Upthrust = Weight of the liquid displaced
U = mg = Vσg = 4/3πr3σg.

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 (3) Viscous force F acting upward
F=6πηrv

where v is the velocity of the sphere. When sphere falls through the liquid, its velocity
increases gradually. Then gravitational force is balanced by upthrust and viscous force.
Therefore, the sphere continues to move with uniform velocity. This velocity is called
terminal velocity.

At terminal velocity,

Weight of the ball = upthrust + viscous force

4/3πr3ρg = 4/3πr3σg + 6 π η r vt
6 π η r vt = 4/3πr3(ρ-σ)g

vt = 4/3πr3(ρ-σ)g/6 π η r
vt = 2r2(ρ-σ)g/9 η

If σ is negligible compared with ρ

Then vt = 2r2ρg/9 η
vt α r2

vt =2r2(ρ – σ)g/9 η .

This is the terminal velocity.

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