MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........

FULL NOTES

Introduction:Fluids
o Fluids can be defined as any substance which is capable of
flowing.
o They don’t have any shape of their own.
o For example:-water which does not have its own shape but it
takes the shape of the container in which it is poured.
But when we pour water in a tumbler it takes the shape of the
tumbler

o Both liquids and gases can be categorised as fluids as they

are capable of flowing.
o Volume of solids,liquids and gas depends on the stress or
pressure acting on it.
o In this chapter we will study if we apply force on the fluid how
does it affects the internal properties of fluids.
o Fluids offer very little resistance to shear stress.
o We will also study some characteristic properties of fluids.

Pressure
o Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
o Pressure = Force/Area
o For Example:-
o Consider a very sharp needle which has a small
surface area and consider a pencil whose back is very
bluntand has more surface area than the needle.
o If we poke needle in our palm it will hurt as needle gets
pierced inside our skin.Whereas if we poke the blunt side of
the pencil into our hand it won’t pain so much.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o This is because area of contact between the palm and

the needle is very small therefore the pressure is large.
o Whereas the area of contact between the pencil and
the palm is more therefore the pressure is less.

   
o Conclusion: Two factors which determine the magnitude of
the pressure are:-
o Force – greater the force greater is the pressure and vice-
versa.
o Coverage area –greater the area less is the pressure and
vice-versa.
Example:-
o Consider a stuntman lying on the bed of nails which means
there are large numbers of nails on any rectangular slab. All the
nails are identical and equal in height.
o We can see that the man is not feeling any pain and he is
lying comfortably on the bed. This is because there isa large
number of nails and all the nails are closely spaced with each
other.
o All the small pointed nails make large surface area therefore
the weight of the body is compensated by the entire area of all
the nails.
o The surface area increases therefore pressure is reduced.
o But even if one nail is greater than the others then it will
hurt. Because then the surface area will be less as a result
pressure will be more.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Stuntman lying on bed of nails.

Problem:- A 50 kg girl wearing high heel shoes balances on a single
heel. The heel is circular with a diameter 1.0 cm. What is the
pressure exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor?
Answer:-
Mass of the girl, m = 50 kg
Diameter of the heel, d = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Radius of the heel, r = d/2 = 0.005m
Area of the heel = πr2 = π (0.005)2 = 7.85 × 10–5 m2
Force exerted by the heel on the floor:
F = mg = 50 × 9.8 = 490 N
Pressure exerted by the heel on the floor:
P=Force/Area =490/(7.85x10-5)
= 6.24 × 106 N m–2
Therefore, the pressure exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor
is 6.24 × 106 Nm–2.

Pressure in Fluids:-
o Normal force exerted by fluid per unit area.
o This means force is acting perpendicular to the surface of
contact.
o Consider a body submerged in the water, force is exerted by
the water perpendicular to the surface of the body.
o If there is no force applied perpendicularly but in the
parallel direction then there will be motion along the horizontal
direction.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o Since fluid is at rest and body is submerged in the fluid.

Therefore there cannot be motion along the horizontal
direction.
o Therefore we always say the force is applied
perpendicularly.
o Pressure is a scalar quantity. Because the force here is not a
vector quantity but it is the component of force normal to the
area.
o Dimensional Formula [ML-1T-2]
o I Unit: N/m2 or Pascal(Pa).
o Atmosphere unit (atm) is defined as pressure exerted by the
atmosphere at sea level.It is a common unit of pressure.
o 1atm=1.013x105 Pa

Problem:- The two thigh bones (femurs), each of cross-sectional

area10 cm2 support the upper part of a human body of mass 40 kg.
Estimate the average pressure sustained by the femurs.
Answer:-
Total cross-sectional area of thefemurs is A = 2 × 10 cm2 = 20 × 10–
4
 m2. The
force acting on them is F = 40 kg wt. = 400 N(taking g = 10 m s –2).
This force is acting
vertically down and hence, normally on thefemurs.
Thus, the average pressure is= 2 × 105 N m−2

Pascal’s Law
o Pascal’s law states that if the pressure is applied to uniform
fluids that are confined,the fluids will then transmit the same
pressure in all directions at the same rate.
o Pascal’s law holds good only for uniform fluids.
o For example:-
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o Consider a vessel filled with water which is uniform

throughout as there is only one type of fluid which is water.
o Consider a vessel which has oil and water then it is not
uniform.As it have two different fluids.

 
o Fluid should be confined meaning fluid is present within
region in space.It is not allowed to spread.
o For example 1:-
o A balloon filled with water and when we press it hard
against the wall.
o We will see the shape of the balloon changes. This is
because if we apply force on balloon, pressure is exerted on
the water.
o Water is uniform fluid and it is confined with in this
balloon and is not allowed to spread.
o On applying pressure it is transmitted in all other
directions.
o For example 2:-
o Consider a vessel of circular shape filled with water
which has 4 openings and in the entire openings 4 pistons are
attached.
o Apply force on the first piston; this piston will move
inward and all other pistons will move outwards.
o This happens because when this piston moves inwards
the pressure is exerted on the water.Water transmits this
pressure in all the directions.
o The other pistons,except A, moves at the same speed
which shows water has exerted pressure in all the directions.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

A circular vessel fitted with 4 pistons. If piston ‘A’ moves inwards all
other piston moves outwards.

Conclusion:-
1. For a uniform fluid in equilibrium, pressure is same at all
points in a horizontal plane. This means there is no net force acting
on the fluid the pressure is same at all the points.
2. A fluid moves due to the differences in pressure. That means
fluid will always move from a point which is at a higher pressure to
the point which is at a lower pressure.
Example: - Blowing of Wind. Wind is nothing but moving air. Air is a
fluid so the air moves from the region of higher pressure to the
region of lower pressure.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Variation of pressure with depth

o Consider a cylindrical object inside a fluid;consider 2 different
positions for this object.
o Fluid is at rest therefore the force along the horizontal
direction is 0.
o Forces along the vertical direction:-
o Consider two positions 1 and 2.
o Force at position 1 is perpendicular to cross sectional
area A, F1= P1
o Similarly F2=P2
o Total force Fnet= -F1+F2 as F1 is along negative y axis therefore
it is –ive. And F2 is along +ive y -axis.
o Fnet =(P2-P1)A
o This net force will be balanced by the weight of the
cylinder(m).
o Therefore under equilibrium condition
o Fnet=mg=weight of the cylinder = weight of the fluid
displaced.
o =ρ Vg where ρ=density=volume of the fluid
o =ρhAg   where V=hA(h=height and A= area)
o Therefore (P2-P1) A=ρhAg
o P2-P1 = ρhg,Therefore the difference in the pressure is
dependent on height of the cylinder.
o Consider the top of the cylinder exposed to air therefore
P1=Pa(where Pa= P1 is equal to atmospheric pressure.)
o Then P2=Pa+ ρhg
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o Conclusion: The pressure P, at depth below the surface of a

liquid open to the atmosphere is greater than atmospheric
pressure by an amount ρhg.
o The pressure is independent of the cross sectional or base
area or the shape of the container.

 
Cylinder is inside the fluid.
Problem:- What is the pressure on aswimmer 10 m below the
surface of a lake?
Answer:-
 Here, h = 10 m and ρ = 1000 kg m-3. Take g = 10 m s–2
P = Pa + ρgh
= 1.01 × 105 Pa + 1000 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 × 10 m
= 2.01 × 105 Pa
≈ 2 atm
This is a 100% increase in pressure fromsurface level. At a depth of
1 km the increase in
Pressure is 100 atm! Submarines are designedto withstand such
enormous pressures.
Problem:- A vertical off-shore structure is built to withstand a
maximum stress of 109 Pa. Is the structure suitable for putting up on
top of an oil well in the ocean? Take the depth of the ocean to be
roughly 3 km, and ignore ocean currents.
Answer:- Yes
The maximum allowable stress for the structure, P = 10 9 Pa
Depth of the ocean, d = 3 km = 3 × 103 m
Density of water, ρ = 103 kg/m3
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2

The pressure exerted because of the sea water at depth, d = ρdg
= 3 × 103 × 103 × 9.8 = 2.94 × 107 Pa
The maximum allowable stress for the structure (109 Pa) is greater
than the pressure of the sea water (2.94 × 107 Pa). The pressure
exerted by the ocean is less than the pressure that the structure
can withstand. Hence, the structure is suitable for putting up on top
of an oil well in the ocean.

Hydrostatic Paradox
o Hydrostatic Paradox means: - hydro = water, static =at rest
            Paradox means that something taking place surprisingly.
o Consider 3 vessels of very different shapes (like thin
rectangular shape, triangular and some filter shape) and we
have a source from which water enters into these 3 vessels.
o Water enters through the horizontal base which is the base of
these 3 vessels we observe that the level of water in all the 3
vessels is same irrespective of their different shapes.
o This is because pressure at some point at the base of these 3
vessels is same.
o The water will rise in all these 3 vessels till the pressure at the
top is same as the pressure at the bottom.
o As pressure is dependent only on height therefore in all the 3
vessels the height reached by the water is same irrespective of
difference in their shapes.
o This experiment is known as Hydrostatic Paradox.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Thethree vessels A, B and C contain differentamounts of liquids, all

up to the same height

Fluid is under gravity. The effect of gravityis illustrated through

pressure on a vertical cylindrical column

Atmospheric Pressure
o Pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.
o Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. All these gas
molecules together constitute some weight. By virtue of this
weight there is some pressure exerted by the atmosphere on all
the objects.
o This pressure is known as atmospheric pressure.
o Value of atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.01*10 5
o 1atm = 1.01*105Pa
Problem:- What is the pressure inside the drop of mercury of radius
3.00 mm at room temperature? Surface tension of mercury at that
temperature (20°C) is 4.65 × 10–1 N m–1. The atmospheric pressure
is 1.01 × 105 Pa. Also give the excess pressure inside the drop.
Answer:-
Radius of the mercury drop, r = 3.00 mm = 3 × 10–3 m
Surface tension of mercury, S = 4.65 × 10–1 N m–1
Atmospheric pressure, P0 = 1.01 × 105 Pa
Total pressure inside the mercury drop
= Excess pressure inside mercury + Atmospheric pressure
=2S/r + P0
= (2x4.65x10-1)/(3x10-3)
= 1.0131 × 105 = 1.01 ×105 Pa
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Excess pressure = 2S/r = (2x4.65x10-1)/3x10-3

= 310 Pa
How to measure atmospheric pressure?
o Atmospheric pressure is measured by Mercury Barometer.
o Mercury barometer consists of trough filled with
mercury(Hg).There is a tube which also contains mercury and it
is invertedinside the trough.
o The one end of tube is closed and other end of the tube is
placed inverted inside the trough.
o The inverted tube which also contains mercury up to a certain
level and the space above mercury in the tubeis occupied by the
vapours of mercury. The pressure can be considered as 0 at this
place.
o The atmosphere will exert some atmospheric pressure on the
mercury level as a result the level of mercury decreases in the
trough andit increases in the tube.
o This increase in level will determine how much pressure was
exerted by the atmosphere.
o The pressure exerted is directly ∝to the increase in the
mercury column of the tube.
o We can say that pressure at point A is same as pressure at
point B.
o Patm=hρg.
o It is measured in terms of how many mm of Hg rose in the
column.
o Greater the height greater is the atmospheric pressure.
o When the height in this column becomes 76cm Hg we can
say that the pressure applied is equal to 1atm.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

 
After applying the pressure level of mercury rises in the tube.

Mercury Barometer
 
Units of Pressure:-
1.SI unit: Pascal (Pa)
o Pressure is always measured by taking sea level as the
reference level. At sea level P=1.01*105 Pa.
2. Atmosphere (atm)
o Reference level is at sea level.
o Pressure equivalent of 76cm of Hg column
o 1atm=76cm of Hg column
o 1atm=1.01*105 Pa
3. Torr
o Pressure equivalent of 1mm of Hg column.
o 1torr =133 Pa
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

4. Bar
o 1bar = 105 Pa
Problem:- A U-shaped wire is dipped in a soap solution, and
removed. The thin soap film formed between the wire and the light
slider supports a weight of 1.5 × 10–2 N (which includes the small
weight of the slider). The length of the slider is 30 cm. What is the
surface tension of the film?
Answer
The weight that the soap film supports, W = 1.5 × 10 –2 N
Length of the slider, l = 30 cm = 0.3 m
A soap film has two free surfaces.
Total length = 2l = 2 × 0.3 = 0.6 m
Surface tension, S = (Force or Weight)/2l
=(1.5x10-2)/0.6 = 2.5x10-2N/m
Therefore, the surface tension of the film is 2.5 × 10 –2 N m–1.

Gauge Pressure
o Pressure difference between the system and the atmosphere.
o From relation P=Pa+ ρgh where P= pressure at any point, Pa =
atmospheric pressure.
o We can say that Pressure at any point is always greater than
the atmospheric pressure by the amount ρgh.
o P-Pa=ρgh where
o P =pressure of the system, Pa=atmospheric pressure,
o (P-Pa) = pressure difference between the system and
atmosphere.
o hρg = Gauge pressure.
How to measure Gauge pressure
o Gauge pressure is measured by Open Tube Manometer.
o Open Tube Manometer is a U-shaped tube which is partially
filled with mercury(Hg).
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o One end is open and other end is connected to some device

where pressure is to be determined.This means it is like a
system.
o The height to which the mercury column will rise depends on
the atmospheric pressure. Similarly depending on the pressure
of the system the height of mercury in another tube rises.
o The pressure difference between these two heights is the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and system.
o This difference in pressure is the gauge pressure.
o Consider if the level of mercury column is same in both the U-
tubes.
o Patm=P, therefore the difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the pressure of the system is 0.
o Gauge Pressure is 0.
o Patm = 760torr.

Open tube manometer

Closed end manometer

Problem:- What is the excess pressure inside a bubble of soap
solution of radius 5.00 mm, given that the surface tension of soap
solution at the temperature (20 °C) is 2.50 × 10 –2 N m–1? If an air
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

bubble of the same dimension were formed at depth of 40.0 cm

inside a container containing the soap solution (of relative density
1.20), what would be the pressure inside the bubble? (1
atmospheric pressure is 1.01 × 105 Pa).
Answer:
Excess pressure inside the soap bubble is 20 Pa;
Pressure inside the air bubble is
Soap bubble is of radius, r = 5.00 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
Surface tension of the soap solution, S = 2.50 × 10 –2 Nm–1
Relative density of the soap solution = 1.20
Density of the soap solution, ρ = 1.2 × 103 kg/m3
Air bubble formed at a depth, h = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Radius of the air bubble, r = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
1 atmospheric pressure = 1.01 × 105 Pa
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
Hence, the excess pressure inside the soap bubble is given by the
relation:
P=4S/r
=(4x2.5x10-2)/5x10-3
=20Pa
Therefore, the excess pressure inside the soap bubble is 20 Pa.
The excess pressure inside the air bubble is given by the relation:
P’=2S/r
=(2x2.5x10-2)/5x10-3
=10Pa
Therefore, the excess pressure inside the air bubble is 10 Pa.
At a depth of 0.4 m, the total pressure inside the air bubble
= Atmospheric pressure + hρg + P’
=1.01x105+0.4x1.2x103x9.8+10
=1.057x105Pa
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

=1.06x105Pa
Therefore, the pressure inside the air bubble is 1.06x10 5Pa.
Absolute Pressure
o Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure above the zero
value of pressure.
o It is the actual pressure which a substance has.
o It is measured against the vacuum.
o Absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero
pressure.
o It is sum of atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.
o P =Pa+hρg where P = pressure at any point, Pa = atmospheric
pressure and hρg= gauge pressure.
o Therefore P =Pa + Gauge Pressure. Where P = absolute
pressure.
o It is measured with the help of barometer.
Problem:  The density of theatmosphere at sea level is 1.29
kg/m3.Assume that it does not change withaltitude. Then how high
would theatmosphere extend?
Answer:
From equation: - P=Pa+ρgh
ρgh = 1.29 kg m–3 × 9.8 m s2 × h m = 1.01 × 105 Pa
∴ h = 7989 m ≈ 8 km
In reality the density of air decreases withheight. So does the value
of g. The atmospheric
cover extends with decreasing pressure over100 km. We should
also note that the sea level
atmospheric pressure is not always 760 mm ofHg. A drop in the Hg
level by 10 mm or more isa sign of an approaching storm.
Problem:- At a depth of 1000 m in anocean (a) what is the absolute
pressure?(b) What is the gauge pressure? (c) Findthe force acting
on the window of 20 cm × 20 cm of a submarine at this
depth, the interior of which is maintainedat sea-level atmospheric
pressure. (Thedensity of sea water is 1.03 × 103 kg m-3,g = 10m s–2.)
Answer:
Here h = 1000 m and ρ = 1.03 × 103 kg m-3.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

(a) From Eq. P2 − P1= ρgh, absolute pressure

P = Pa + ρgh
= 1.01 × 105 Pa+ 1.03 × 103 kg m–3 × 10 m s–2 × 1000 m
= 104.01 × 105 Pa
≈ 104 atm
(b) Gauge pressure is P − Pa = ρgh = Pg
Pg = 1.03 × 103 kg m–3 × 10 ms2 × 1000 m
= 103 × 105 Pa
≈ 103 atm
(c) The pressure outside the submarine isP = Pa + ρgh and the
pressure inside it isPa. Hence, the net pressure acting on thewindow
is gauge pressure, Pg = ρgh. Sincethe area of the window is A =
0.04 m2, theforce acting on it is
F = Pg A = (103 × 105 Pa) × 0.04 m2 = 4.12 × 105 N

Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure

o Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure states that
thepressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid
is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions
throughout the fluid.
o The above law means that if we consider a fluid which is
restricted within a specific region in space and if the volume of
the fluid doesn’t change with the pressure,then the amount of
pressure exerted will be same as the amount of pressure
transmitted.
o Consider a circular vessel which have 4 openings and
along these 4 openings 4 pistons are attached.
o When piston A is moved downwards pressure is
exerted on the liquid in the downward direction, this pressure
gets transmitted equally along all the directions. As a result all
the other 3 pistons move equal distance outwards.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

 
A circular vessel fitted with movable piston at all the four ends and
when piston A is moved downward a pressure is exerted
downward. Equal amount of pressure is exerted along all the
directions as a result they will move equal distances outward.
Applications:Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
Hydraulic lift:-
o Hydraulic lift is a lift which makes use ofa fluid.
o For example: Hydraulic lifts that are used in car service
stations to lift the cars.
o Principle: -
o Inside a hydraulic lift there are 2 platforms,one has a smaller
area and the other one has a larger area.
o It is a tube like structure which is filled with uniform fluid.
o There are 2 pistons (P1 and P2)which are attached at both the
ends of the tube.
o Cross-sectional area of piston P1 is A1 and of piston P2 is A2.
o If we apply force F1 on P1, pressure gets exerted and
according to Pascal’s law the pressure gets transmitted in all the
directions and same pressure gets exerted on the other end.As a
result the Piston P2 moves upwards.
o Advantage of using hydraulic lift is that by applying small
force on the small area we are able to generate a larger force.
o Mathematically:- F2=PA2
o where F2 = Resultant Force,A2 = area of cross-section
o F2= (F1/A1)A2 where P=F1/A1 (Pressure P is due to force
F1 on the area A1)
o F2 =(A2/A1)F1. This shows that the applied force has
increased by A2/A1.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o Because of Pascal’s law the input gets magnified.

The above figure shows the internal structure of the hydraulic lift.
Problem: A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a
maximum mass of 3000 kg. The area of cross-section of the piston
carrying the load is 425 cm2. What maximum pressure would the
smaller piston have to bear?
Answer:-
The maximum mass of a car that can be lifted, m = 3000 kg
Area of cross-section of the load-carrying piston, A = 425 cm 2 = 425
× 10–4 m2
The maximum force exerted by the load,
F = mg = 3000 × 9.8 = 29400 N
The maximum pressure exerted on the load-carrying piston, P =
F/A
=29400/425x105
= 6.917 × 105 Pa
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Pressure is transmitted equally in all directions in a liquid.

Therefore, the maximum
pressure that the smaller piston would have to bear is 6.917 ×
105 Pa.
Hydraulic Brakes
o Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal’s law.
o According to this law whenever pressure is applied on a fluid
it travels uniformly in all the directions.
o Therefore when we apply force on a small piston, pressure
gets created which is transmitted through the fluid to a larger
piston. As a result of this larger force,uniformbrakingis applied on
all four wheels.
o As braking force is generateddue to hydraulic
pressure,theyare known as hydraulic brakes.
o Liquids are used instead of gas as liquids are incompressible.
Construction
o The fluid in the hydraulic brake is known as brake fluid.
o It consists of a master cylinder, four wheel cylinders and
pipes carrying brake fluid from master cylinder to wheel
cylinders.
o Master cylinder consists of a piston which is connected to
pedal through connecting rod. 
o The wheel cylinders consist of two pistons between which
fluid is filled.
o Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This
drum is mounted on the inner side of wheel. The drum revolves
with the wheel.
o Two brake shoes whichare mounted inside the drum remain
stationary.
Working
o When we press the brake pedal, piston in the master cylinder
forces the brake fluid through a linkage.
o As a result pressure increases and gets transmitted to all the
pipes and to all the wheel cylinders according to Pascal’s law.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o Because of this pressure,both the pistons move outand

transmit the braking force on all the wheels.
Advantages:-
o Equal braking effort to all the four wheels.
o Less rate of wear due to absence of joints.
o By just changing the size of one piston and cylinder, force can
be increased or decreased.
Disadvantages:-
o Leakage of brake fluid spoils the brake shoes.
o Even the slightest presence of air pockets can spoil the whole
system.

Inside of the cylinder

Problem:- Two syringes of differentcross sections (without needles)
filled withwater are connected with a tightly fittedrubber tube filled
with water. Diametersof the smaller piston and larger piston are1.0
cm and 3.0 cm respectively. (a) Findthe force exerted on the larger
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

piston whena force of 10 N is applied to the smallerpiston. (b) If the

smaller piston is pushed in through 6.0 cm, how much does
thelarger piston move out?
Answer:
o Since pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid,
F2 = (A2/A1) F1= (3/2 10-2m2/1/2 10m-2 m2) 10N
=90N.
(b) Water is considered to be perfectlyincompressible. Volume
covered by themovement of smaller piston inwards is equal
tovolume moved outwards due to the larger piston.
L1 A1 = L2 A2
= 0.67 × 10-2 m = 0.67 cm
Note, atmospheric pressure is common to bothpistons and has
been ignored.
Problem:- In a car lift compressed airexerts a force F1 on a small
piston havinga radius of 5.0 cm. This pressure istransmitted to a
second piston of radius 15 cm. If the mass of the car tobe lifted is
1350 kg, calculate F1. What isthe pressure necessary to accomplish
thistask? (g = 9.8 ms-2).
 Answer:-
Since pressure is transmittedundiminished throughout the fluid,
F1=A1/A2 F2
= (5x10-2 m2/15x10-2m2) 1350N x 9.8ms-2
=1470N = 1.5x103N
The air pressure that will produce thisforce is
P=F1/A1 = (1.5x103N/5x10-2m2)1.9x105 Pa
This is almost double the atmosphericpressure.

Types of Fluid flow: Steady Flow

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Some streamlines for fluid flow

o The flow of a fluid is said to be steady, if at any point,the
velocity of each passing fluid particle remains constant within
that interval of time.
o Streamline is the path followed by the fluid particle.
o It means that at any particular instant the velocities of all the
particles at any point are same.But the velocity of all the particles
won’t be same across all the points in the space.
o Steady flow is termed as ‘Streamline flow’ and ‘Laminar flow’.
o Consider a case when all the particles of fluid passing point A
have the same velocity. This means that the first particle will
have velocity V1 and second will have velocity V1 and so on. All
the particles will have the same velocity V1at point A.
o At point B,all particleswill have velocity V2.
o Similarly at point C the velocity of all the particles is V3.
o We can see that the velocity is changing from point to point
but at one particular point it is same.
o No two streamlines can intersect.
o If two streamlines intersect each other, the particleswon’t
know which path to follow and what velocity to attain.That is why
no two streamlines intersect.

The meaning of streamlines:- (a) A typicaltrajectory of a fluid

particle.
(b) A region of streamline flow.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Equation of Continuity
o According to the equation of continuity Av = constant . Where
A =cross-sectional area and v=velocity with which the fluid flows.
o It means that if any liquid is flowing in streamline flow in a
pipe of non-uniform cross-section area, then rate of flow of liquid
across any cross-section remains constant.
o Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying thickness.
o Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1 and cross-
sectional area of other end (II)= A2.
o The velocity and density of the fluid at one end
(I)=v1,ρ1respectively, velocity and densityof fluid at other end (II)=
v2,ρ2
o Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time
∆t,across left cross-sectional is Area (I) =A1xv1x∆t
o Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time
∆tacrossright cross-sectional Area(II) = A2x v2x∆t
o Fluid inside is incompressible(volume of fluid does not
change by applying pressure) that is density remains sameρ 1=ρ2.
(equation 1)
o Along(I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along second point (II) mass =
ρ2A2 v2∆t
o By using equation (1). We can conclude that A1 v1 = A2 v2.This
is the equation of continuity.
o From Equation of continuity we can say that Av=constant.
o This equation is also termed as “Conservation of mass of
incompressible fluids”.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

Conclusion:
1. Volume flux/Flow rate remains constant throughout the pipe.
This means rate of flow of fluid of liquidis more if cross-sectional
area is more, then the velocity will be less,andvice-versa.
1. But the Av will remain constant.
2. So the volume which is covered by the fluid at any cross-
sectional area is constant throughout the pipe even if pipe has
different cross-sectional areas.
2. The fluid is accelerated while passing from the wider cross
sectional area towards the narrower area. This means if area is
more the velocity is less and vice-versa.
Problem: - The cylindrical tube of a spray pump has a cross-section
of 8.0 cm2 one end of which has 40 fine holes each of diameter 1.0
mm. If the liquid flow inside the tube is 1.5 m min–1, what is the
speed of ejection of the liquid through the holes?
Answer:-
Area of cross-section of the spray pump, A1 = 8 cm2 = 8 × 10–4 m2
Number of holes, n = 40
Diameter of each hole, d = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Radius of each hole, r = d/2 = 0.5 × 10–3 m
Area of cross-section of each hole, a = πr2 = π (0.5 × 10–3)2 m2
Total area of 40 holes, A2 = n × a = 40 × π (0.5 × 10–3)2 m2
 = 31.41 × 10–6 m2
Speed of flow of liquid inside the tube, V1 = 1.5 m/min = 0.025 m/s
Speed of ejection of liquid through the holes = V2
According to the law of continuity, we have:
A1V1=A2V2
V2= A1V1/ A2
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

= (8 × 10–4x0.025)31.61x10-6
= 0.633 m/s
Therefore, the speed of ejection of the liquid through the holes is
0.633 m/s.

Turbulent Flow:
o A fluid flow is said to be turbulent if the velocity of the
particles vary at any point erratically.
o This means fluid particles are moving here and there, they
are not moving in organised manner. They all will have different
velocities.
o Eddies are generated by this flow.Eddies are same as ripples.
o All the particles are moving here and there randomly.

Bernoulli’s Principle
o For a streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressure (P), the
kinetic energy per unit volume (ρv2/2) and the potential energy
per unit volume (ρgh) remain constant.
o Mathematically:- P+ ρv2/2 + ρgh = constant
o where P= pressure ,
o E./ Volume=1/2mv2/V = 1/2v2(m/V) = 1/2ρv2
o E./Volume = mgh/V = (m/V)gh = ρgh
Derive: Bernoulli’s equation
Assumptions:
1. Fluid flow through a pipe of varying width.
2. Pipe is located at changing heights.
3. Fluid is incompressible.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

4. Flow is laminar.
5. No energy is lost due to friction:applicable only to non-viscous
fluids.
o Mathematically: -
o Consider the fluid initially lying between B and D. In an
infinitesimal timeinterval Δt, this fluid would have moved.
o Suppose v1= speed at B and v2= speedat D, initial
distance moved by fluid from to C=v1Δt.
o In the same interval Δtfluid distance moved by D to E =
v2Δt.
o P1= Pressureat A1, P2=Pressure at A2.
o Work done on the fluid atleft end (BC) W1 = P1A1(v1Δt).
o Work done by the fluid at the other end (DE)W2 =
P2A2(v2Δt)
o Net work done on the fluid is W1 – W2 = (P1A1v1Δt− P2A2v2Δt)
o By the Equation of continuity Av=constant.
o P1A1 v1Δt - P2A2v2Δt where A1v1Δt =P1ΔV and A2v2Δt =
P2ΔV.
o Therefore Work done = (P1− P2) ΔVequation (a)
o Part of this work goes in changing Kinetic energy, ΔK =
(½)m (v22 – v12) and part in gravitational potential energy,ΔU
=mg (h2 − h1).
o The total change in energy ΔE= ΔK +ΔU = (½) m (v22 – v12) +
mg (h2 − h1). (i)
o Density of the fluid ρ =m/V or m=ρV
o Therefore in small interval of time Δt, small change in mass
Δm
o Δm=ρΔV (ii)
o Putting the value from equation (ii) to (i)
o ΔE = 1/2 ρΔV (v22 – v12) + ρgΔV (h2 − h1)  equation(b)
o By using work-energy theorem: W = ΔE
o From (a) and (b)
o (P1-P2) ΔV =(1/2) ρΔV (v22 – v12) + ρgΔV (h2 − h1)
o P1-P2 = 1/2ρv22 - 1/2ρv12+ρgh2 -ρgh1(By cancelling ΔV
from both the sides).
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

o After rearranging we get,P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 =

(1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h2
o P+(1/2) ρv2+ρg h = constant.
o This is the Bernoulli’s equation.

The flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe ofvarying cross section. The fluid
in asection of length v1Δt moves to the sectionof length v2Δt in time
Δt.
Bernoulli’s equation: Special Cases
1. When a fluid is at rest. This means v1=v2=0.
o From Bernoulli’s equation P1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 = (1/2) ρ v22 +
ρg h2
o By puttingv1=v2=0 in the above equation changes to
o P1-P2= ρg(h2-h1). This equation is same as when the
fluids are at rest.
2. When the pipe is horizontal.h1=h2.This means there is no
Potential energy by the virtue of height.
o Therefore from Bernoulli’s equation(P 1 + (1/2) ρ v12 + ρg h1 =
(1/2) ρ v22 + ρg h2)
o By simplifying,P+(1/2) ρ v2 = constant.
Problem:-
Water flows through a horizontal pipeline of varying cross-section.If
the pressure of waterequals 6cm of mercury at a point where the
velocity of flow is 30cm/s, what is the pressure at the another point
where the velocity of flow is 50m/s?
Answer:-
At R1:- v1 = 30cm/s =0.3m/s
P1=ρg h=6x10-2x13600x9.8=7997N/m2
At R2:- v2=50cm/s=0.5m/s
From Bernoulli’s equation: - P+ (1/2) ρ v2+ρg h=constant
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ….........FULL NOTES

P1+ (1/2) ρ v12 = P2(1/2) ρ v22

7997+1/2x 1000x (0.3)2 = P2+1/2x 1000x (0.5)2
P2=7917N/m2
=ρg h2 = h2x13600x9.8
h2 = 5.9cmHg.