ELECTROSTATICS

VINEET SETIA’S PHYSICS & MATHS NOTES
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Syllabus: Electric Charges; Conservation of charge, Coulomb’s law-force between two
point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous
charge distribution. Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines;
electric dipole, electric field due to a dipole; torque on a dipole in uniform electric field.
Electric flux, statement of Gauss’s theorem and its applications to find field due to
infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged
thin spherical shell (field inside and outside).Electric potential, potential difference,
electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and system of charges; equipotential
surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges and of electric dipole
in an electrostatic field. Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a
conductor. Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance, combination
of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and
without dielectric medium between the plates, energy stored in a capacitor. Van de Graaff
generator.
1 ELECTROSTATIC: Is the study of charge at rest.
It is also called Frictional electricity or Static electricity.
Some applications of electrostatics are
(i) Different types of appliances work on the principle of electrostatics e.g.,
microphones, cathode ray tubes, components like capacitors in radio,
television computer, radars etc. Sensitive instruments are protected from
external electric fields with the help of electrostatic shielding.
(ii) Natural phenomena like Lightning and thunders can be explained by using the
knowledge of electrostatics.
(iii) Energy conservation is done with the help of power factor correctors which
work on the principle of electrostatics
(iv) Spraying of paints and powdered coatings are done with the help of principle
of electrostatics.
(v) Pollution is being checked by methods of electrostatics by electrostatic
precipitation of fly ash.
2 ELECTRIC CHARGE: Electric charge is an intrinsic characteristic of the
fundamental particles due to which these experiences a force of attraction or
repulsion. Since the study of electric charge at rest is called static electricity, we
also can say charge is the amount of the electricity carried out by a substance.
SI unit of charge is coulomb (C).
CGS unit of charge is stat coulomb, 1C = 3 x 109 stat coulomb
2.1 TWO KINDS OF CHARGES: When two bodies are rubbed against each other then
due to friction charge is produced. When we rub two bodies, one body gains
electrons while other body loses. The bodies which gain the electrons acquire –ve
charge and the body which losses the electrons acquire +ve charge. Unlike charges
attract each other and the like charges repel each other.
3 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
3.1 Additivity of charges
Charges add up like real numbers. If a system contains n charges q1, q2, q3,…………
qn. Then the total charge of the system is q1 + q2 + q3 + ……..…+ qn.
3.2 Conservation of charge: Net charge can neither be created nor be destroyed in
an isolated system.
Examples Showing the conservation of charge
(i) In pair production also, the charge is conserved. In this case, γ-ray photon on
interacting with matter transforms into an electron (e-) and positron (e+).
γ → e- + e+ (pair production)
(ii) In annihilation of matter, an electron (e-) combines with a positron (e+) to
produce two γ ray photons.
VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 1
Lect Maths. 8813013015
http://www. v ineetsetia.blogspot .com
-
e + e+ → γ + γ
3.3 Quantization of charge: According to the quantization, charge on a body is

always integral multiple of the smallest basic unit of the charge i.e. of ‘e’
Let q = total charge on body, and e = 1.6 x 10-19C charge on electron then
q = ±ne where n = 1,2,3,4………..
Cause of Quantization: because only integral no. of electrons transferred from a
body to another body therefore charge on the other body is always the multiples of
the charge on an electron.
4. METHODS OF CHARGING:
(i) Conduction Electrification i.e. charging by physical
contact: If an uncharged conductor is touched by a charged
conductor, the uncharged conductor may acquire charge
similar to the charged conductor. It happens because some of
the electrons are shared at the point of contact of the
conductors.
(ii) Charging by Positively Charged Materials Negatively Charged Materials
friction i.e. frictional
electrification: Wool Plastic
Electricity produced Dry Hair Plastic Comb
by rubbing two
Glass rod Silk cloth
suitable materials is
called charging by Fur or Wool Ebonite or Rubber or Amber
friction. Suitable materials when rubbed together get electrified. One of the
rubbed materials loses electrons and the other material gains these electrons. The
transfer of electrons causes charging of the materials. The material which loses
electrons is said to be positively charged and the material
which gains electrons is known as negatively charged.
(iii) Charging by Induction: The process by which a charged
body makes another body have a charge of opposite sign
without touching the body is known as charging by induction.
5 COULOMBS LAW: It states that the force of interaction between two charges is
a) is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges;
b) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.
Mathematically
F  q1q2 ------------------- (1)
1
F 2 ------------------- (2)
r
q1q2 k q1q2 q1q2
Combining (1) & (2) F  F  F
r2 r 2
4 0 r 2
Where k is constant of proportionality and is called electrostatic force
1 1
constant. k in SI = 9 x 109 Nm2C-2 and in cgs k =
4 0 4 0
1dynecm2statC-2
 0 is called absolute electric permittivity due to free space
 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2

COULOMBS LAW IN VECTOR FORM:

Let q1 and q2 be two charges at A and B resp.
FAB = force on A due to B
F BA = force on B due to A
r12 = P.V. from A to B
r21 = P.V. from B to A
let q1q2 > 0
qq
Then F BA  1 2 2 r12 Towards AB produced.
4 0 r
qq
F AB  1 2 2 r 21 Towards BA produced.
4 0 r
From the directions of F AB and F BA it is clear that F AB = - F BA i.e the force
exerted by two charges on each other is equal and opposite. Thus Coulomb’s
law is in accordance with Newton’s third law.
Note: if q1q2 < 0 then
Coulomb's Law in terms of position vectors

Consider two point charges ql and q2 lying in free space.
Let r 1 and r 2 be their position vectors respectively
Force on q2 due to ql is
q1q2
F 21  r towards AB produced
2 12
4 0 AB
AB = p.v. of B- p.v. of A = r 2 - r 1 = r12
r r
Also r12  2 1
r2  r1
Therefore F 21 

q1q2 r2  r1 
3
4 0 r2  r1
-lly we have force on ql due to q2 is F 12 


q1q2 r1  r2 
3
4 0 r1  r2
6 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES or SUPER POSITION PRINCIPAL

According to the principle of superposition, total force acting on a given charge
due to a number of charges around it is the vector sum of the individual forces
acting on that charge due to all the charges.
Consider a system of n stationary charges q1, q2, q3,….

..., qn in vacuum.
Having position vectors r1 , r2 , r3 ...........rn respect.
Let q0 be a test charge with p.v. r0

F 01 , F02 , F03 ...........F0n Forces acting on q0 due to q1, q2, q3,…. ..., qn
respectively.
Therefore total force on q0 is
F  F 01  F02  F03  ..........  F0n
Since F 01 

q0 q1 r0  r1 , F 02 

q0 q2 r0  r2  ,…………, F 0n 

q0 qn r0  rn 
3 3 3
4 0 r0  r1 4 0 r0  r2 4 0 r0  rn
Therefore F =

q0 q1 r0  r1   q q  r  r   ....................  q q  r  r 
0 2 0 2 0 n 0 n
3 3 3
4 0 r0  r1 4 0 r0  r2 4 0 r0  rn

q0 n qi r0  ri 
F = 
4 0 i  r  r 3
0 i
7 Relative permittivity ( r ) and Dielectric constant (K)

Relative permittivity ( r ) or Dielectric constant (K) of a medium is defined as the
ratio of the Coulomb's force F between two point charges placed in. air or vacuum
to the Coulomb's force Fm between the same charges placed in the medium
separated by the same distance, from each other. i.e.
F
K = r 
Fm
Thus, relative permittivity of a medium is equal to its dielectric constant. K
depends upon the nature of medium.
ELECTRIC FIELD
Definition: The region or space around a charged body up to which its influence
can be experienced is called electric field.
An electric field which has same strength and direction at every point in a region is
called
Uniform electric field and the electric field which has different strengths and
directions at different points in a region is called non-uniform electric field.
Electric Field Intensity (E) The electric field intensity due to a source charge at
any point in the electric field is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive
charge placed at that point.
If F is the force experienced by the test charge qo in the electric field, then
electric field intensity of the test charge at point P is given by,
F
E
q0
 The charge Q, which is producing the electric field, is called a source
charge and the charge q0, which tests the effect of a source charge, is
called a test charge
 Electric field intensity is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude
and direction.
 The direction of electric field intensity is the direction in which a unit
positive charge moves. For a positive charge, the electric field will be directed
radially outwards from the charge. On the other hand, if the source charge is

negative, the electric field vector, at each point, points radially inwards. i.e.
direction of electric field is from +ve to –ve charge
 Units of Electric Field SI units = N/C

 Another SI unit of electric field are V/m
 The dimensional formula for electric field is [MLT-3A-1]
Significance of concept of Electric Field
It is interesting to note that while Coulomb propounded his force law much before
the acceptance of electric field as a concept, the electric field is much more
fundamental in nature. While Coulomb's law always talks of force experienced by a
charge due to other charges, it does not say anything about the electrical
environment of a single charge, or single continuous charge distribution. The
concept of electric field is applicable to a single charge or a single charge
distribution, just like we have the concept of gravitational field for a single body
such as the earth. On many instances, applying Coulomb's law becomes
impractical.
For example, it will be cumbersome to apply Coulomb's law to calculate the force
experienced by a charge kept near a plane charged plate, or a linear charge
distribution. The electric field concept comes handy for such occasions. Coulomb's
law also fails to explain a basic phenomenon. Suppose two charges are kept
separated by a certain distance. By Coulomb's law, they exert some force on each
other. Now, if one charge is moved closer to the other, we find a finite, although
extremely small, time lag before the second charge experiences the change in the
force acting on it due to the first charge. This time delay is explained well by the
field concept, but not by Coulomb's law as per which, the experience in the change
in force should have been instantaneous.
Electric Field Intensity due to a point charge:
Let +q be a point charge at A
q0 = test charge at P where Electric field is to be find
Force due to +q on q0 is
q0 q
F r
4 0 r 2
F q
We know E therefore we have E  r along AP produced.
q0 4 0 r 2

Electric Field Intensity due to a point charge in terms of position vector

let +q be a charge placed at A( r1 )
q0 test charge at P( r2 )
Therefore AP  r2  r1
Force at P due to +q at A
q0 q
F 2
r AP towards AP produced
4 0 AP
q0 q (r2  r1 )
F 3
4 0 r2  r1
F q (r2  r1 )
E = 3
along AP
q0 4 0 r2  r1
Electric field due to a system of charges
Consider a system of n stationary charges q1, q2, q3,…. ..., qn .
Having position vectors r1 , r2 , r3 ...........rn
respectively.
Let q0 be a test charge at P( r0 ) where total
electric field is
to be find. Electric field at P due to q1
E1 

q1 r0  r1  ,,
3
4 0 r0  r1
-lly E 2 

q2 r0  r2  En 

qn r0  rn 
3 3
4 0 r0  r2 4 0 r0  rn
Therefore according to superposition principle E  E1  E2  E3  ..........  En
E

q0 q1 r0  r1   q q  r  r   ....................  q q  r  r 
0 2 0 2 0 n 0 n
3 3 3
4 0 r0  r1 4 0 r0  r2 4 0 r0  rn
1 n 
qi r0  ri 
E
4 0
 3
i r0  ri

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
Electric field lines are the lines straight or curved tangent at any point of which
gives the direction of electric field.
These lines are used to represent the electric field pictorially.
In the fig. given below the electric lines due to positive charge are radially outward
and due to -ve charge these are radially inward. In the first diagram size of each
arrow is proportional to the intensity of electric field. Since the magnitude of
electric field at a point decreases inversely as the square of the distance of that
point from the charge, the vector gets shorter as one goes away from the origin,
always pointing radially outward. An infinite number of lines can be drawn in any
region.
Properties of electric field lines

1) Field lines start from positive charges and end at
negative charges. If there is a single charge, they may
start or end at infinity.
2) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be
taken to be continuous curves without any breaks.
3) Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they
did, the field at the point of intersection will not have a unique direction,
which is absurd.) If two electric lines of force intersect each other then there
are two directions of electric field at the point of intersection which is not
possible. Hence no two electric field lines cut/intersect/cross each other.
4) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the
conservative nature of electric field.
5) Electric field lines are imaginary lines but they are used as a pictorial
representation of the electric field, which is real.
6) Electric field lines do not pass through a conductor. Hence, the interior of the
conductor is free from the influence of the electric field.
7) Electric field lines contract lengthwise to represent attraction between two
unlike charges. Fig. 1
8) Electric field lines exert lateral (sideways) pressure on each other to represent
repulsion between like charges (fig.2)

9) Electric lines of force are normal to the surface from which these starts (+ve
charge) and at which these ends (-ve charge).
10) Electric field lines can pass through a non-conductor or dielectric.
ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the total number of electric field
lines crosses that surface.
Let electric field E crosses the plane of area S, then the electric flux
through the surface of area dS is given by
d  E dS
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite
point charges q and –q separated by a small distance
2a.
 Ideal Dipole: A dipole in which magnitude of the charges goes on increasing
(q →∞) and the distance between the charges goes on decreasing (2a →0 ) such
that p remains constant. Then it is called an ideal dipole.
 Net charge on the dipole is zero but net electric field due to dipole (dipole
field) is not zero and can be calculated by using super position principle.
Electric Dipole Moment
Electric dipole moment of an electric dipole is defined as the product of the
magnitude of either charge and the dipole length.
p  q  2a
In magnitude p  q  2a
 Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity and its direction is from –ve
charge to +ve charge
 SI unit of electric dipole moment are coulomb meter (Cm)
 Another unit of dipole moment is debye. 1debye =
10
 1030 Cm  3.3333 1030 Cm
3
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON THE AXIAL LINE OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
(END-ON POSITION)
The straight line passing through both the point charges of the dipole is known as
its axis.
AB = 2a, OP = r, AP = r+a,
BP = r Let -a
E at P due to - q:
q
E q 
4 0  r  a 
2
E at P due to + q:
q
E q 
4 0  r  a 
2
Hence, net electric field at P can be written as E  E q  E q towards BP

produced

q q
 E 
4 0  r  a  4 0  r  a 
2 2
q  1 1 
 E    Towards BP produced
4 0   r  a 2  r  a 2 
q 4ar 2aq.2r
 E  E
4 0  r 2  a 2  2
4 0  r 2  a 2 
2
p.2r
 E ( 2aq = p is called dipole moment of an electric
4 0  r  a 
2
2 2
dipole)
2 2 2 2
For r  a , we can neglect a in the denominator therefore r  a  r
2 pr 2p
 E   E  ------------------ (1)
4 0 r 4
4 0 r 3
2p
In vector form E  as E and p are in same direction
4 0 r 3
ELECTRIC FIELD OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT A POINT ON THE EQUATORIAL PLANE OF

THE DIPOLE (BROAD SIDE POSITION)
In this case we wish to determine the electric field at a point P which is located on
the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two charges. Let the distance of
P from this line be r.
Magnitude of E at P due to - q:
q
E q  towards side PA of ∆PAB
4 0 (r 2  a 2 )
q
E q  towards side BP produced of
4 0 (r 2  a 2 )
∆PAB
E  q is directed from B to P.
Now as shown in fig. resultant intensity E is
towards PE and is represented by the side BA of
∆PAB
therefore using triangle law in ∆PAB we have
E E q E q
 
BA PA BP

BA
 E  E q .
PA
q BA
 E 
4 0 (r  a ) PA
2 2
Put BA = 2a and PA = r 2  a 2
q  1  2a
Thus E 
4 0  r 2  a 2  r 2  a 2
2aq 1 p
E  = ( p = 2aq)
4 0 r 2  a 2 3 2 4 0  r  a
  
3
2 2 2
2 2 2
For r  a we can neglect a 2 in the denominator i.e. r  a  r thus, we get
p 1
E  ---------------------- (2)  E
4 0 r 3 r3
p
In vector form E 
4 0 r 3
We can think of the limit when the dipole size 2a approaches zero, the charge q
approaches infinity in such a way that the product p = q × 2a is finite. Such a dipole
is referred to as a point dipole. For a point dipole, Eqs. (1) and (2) are exact, true
for any r.
Physical significance of dipoles

In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and of negative charges lie at
the same place. Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. These are called non polar
molecules. CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules.
However, they develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied.

But in some molecules, the centres of negative charges and of positive charges do
not coincide. These are called polar molecules Therefore they have a permanent
electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field. Water
molecules,H2O, is an example of this type. Various materials give rise to interesting
properties and important applications in the presence or absence of electric field.
Thus a non-polar molecule becomes a polar molecule under the influence of
external electric field. The dipole moment of such a molecule is known as induced
dipole moment. This induced dipole moment lasts as long as the non-polar
molecule is in the electric field.
ELECTRIC QUADRUPOLE

Two electric dipoles having dipole moments of equal magnitudes but opposite in
direction forms a system known as electric quadrupole as shown in figure.
Electric field intensity E
at a point P on the axis
of electric quadrupole is
given by
3p'
E 
4 0 r 4
Where p '  2q(2a)2  8qa 2 is the quadrupole moment
DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

Consider an electric dipole of
length 2a in a uniform electric
field E such that the dipole
moment ( p ) makes an angle 
with the electric field ( E ) as
shown in Figure Charges +q and
-q experience equal and opposite
forces given by  qE and qE
respectively due to electric field E
Net force on the dipole is
Fnet = qE – qE = 0
But the two equal and opposite forces constitute the couple.
i.e a net torque acts on the dipole.
Torque acting on the dipole (  ) = moment of couple
= either force x perpendicular
distance between the forces
= qE x AC ------------------------ (1)
AC
 sin 
In ΔABC AB
AC  AB sin   2a sin 
Therefore (1) becomes   qE  2a sin   (2aq) E sin 
  pE sin 
In vector form   p E
This torque will tend to align the dipole with the field E. When p is aligned with E,
the torque is zero.
The direction of  is given by right handed thumb rule. Here it is into the plane of
the paper perpendicular to the plane containing p and E.
S.1. Unit of Torque is newton metre (Nm).
IF THE FIELD IS NOT UNIFORM In this case, the net force will evidently be non-
zero. In addition there will, in general, be a torque on the system as before.
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
Continuous charge distribution is a system of closely spaced charges. Charge itself
is not continuous but its distribution is continuous. In Continuous charge
distribution the no. of charges are very large, so practically it is not required to
calculate the no. of charges. Hence in macroscopic level quantization of charge is
ignored, i.e. we can say charge can take a continuous value at macroscopic level.
LINEAR CHARGE DISTRIBUTION: When the charge is uniformly distributed over a

line the distribution is called linear charge distribution.
Let AB = l length of curved line,
λ = linear charge density.
dq
Therefore d  i.e charge per unit length = d 
dl
Total force due to linear charge distribution is given by
dq  q0
F  r
l
4 0 r 2
 dl  q0
 F  r (  dl = dq)
l
4 0 r 2
q 
 F  0  2 dlr
4 0 l r
Total electric field is given by
F 1 
E 
q0 4 0 l r 2  dlr
SURFACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION: When the charge is uniformly distributed over a

surface the distribution is called surface charge distribution.
Let S = Area, dS = small portion of S
 = surface charge density.
dq
Therefore d  i.e charge per unit area = d
dS
Total force due to surface charge distribution is given
by
dq  q0  dS  q0
F  r r
S
4 0 r 2
S
4 0 r 2
q 
 F  0  2 dSr
4 0 S r
F 1 
E 
q0 4 0 S r 2 dSr
VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION: When the charge is

uniformly distributed over a volume the distribution is called
volume charge distribution.
Let V = Volume, dV = small portion of V
 = surface charge density.
dq
Therefore d  i.e charge per unit volume = d
dV
Total force due to volume charge distribution is given by
dq  q0  dV  q0
F  r r
V
4 0 r 2
V
4 0 r 2

q0 
 F 
4 0 V r 2
dV r

F 1 
E  
q0 4 0 V r 2
dVr
AREA VECTOR: Area is a scalar quantity, but in many cases

area of surface is represented by a vector. The area vector is
represented by the vector along the normal to the surface
area. The length of area vector represents the Magnitude of
area, and direction of vector represents tells about the
orientation
ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the total number of electric field
lines crosses that surface in a direction normal to the
surface.
It is a scalar quantity, and is represented by E .
Let electric field E crosses the plane of area S, then
the electric flux through the surface of area dS is given
by
d  E dS
E   E dS
S
= Surface integral of electric field intencity.
Units of E are Nm2C-1 and Dimensions = [ML3T-2C-1]
GAUSS’S LAW
It state that the total electric flux (  ) through any closed surface (S) enclosing a
1
charge is equal to the times the total electric charge (q) enclosed by the
0
surface.
q
i.e.     E dS
0 S
we may also define Gauss’s thm. As : if a closed surface encloses a charge q, then
1
the total electric flux through the surface is equal to the times the charge
0
enclosed.
PROOF.
Let +q = charge situated at the centre of sphere of radius
r.
E = electric field intensity at any point on the surface of
sphere.
q
E r
4 0 r 2
Where r is the unit vector along OP.

Now consider a small element of area dS.Its area vector dS is
perpendicular to the surface of the area element.
Electric flux through the area element is
q
d  E dS  r dS
4 0 r 2
Since the angle between r and dS is 00 therefore r dS = dS

q
d  dS
4 0 r 2
Now total electric flux over the entire surface is
q q q q
   d   dS   dS  4 0r 2  4 r
2

S S 4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2
S
0
0
q
  ------------------------------------------- (1)
0
The great significance of Gauss’s law Eq. (1), is that it is true in general, and not
only for the simple cases we have considered above. Let us note some important
points regarding this law:
 Gauss’s law is true for any closed surface, no matter what its shape or size.
 The term q on the right side of Gauss’s law, Eq. (1), includes the sum of all
charges enclosed by the surface. The charges may be located anywhere inside
the surface.
 In the situation when the surface is so chosen that there are some charges
inside and some outside, the electric field [whose flux appears on the left side
of Eq. (1)] is due to all the charges, both inside and outside S. The term q on
the right side of Gauss’s law, however, represents only the total charge inside
S.
 The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is zero if
no charge is enclosed by the surface.
 The surface that we choose for the application of Gauss’s law is called the
Gaussian surface. However, take care not to let the Gaussian surface pass
through any discrete charge. This is because electric field due to a system of
discrete charges is not well defined at the location of any charge. (As you go
close to the charge, the field grows without any bound.) However, the
Gaussian surface can pass through a continuous charge distribution.
 Gauss’s law is often useful towards a much easier calculation of the
electrostatic field when the system has some symmetry. This is facilitated by
the choice of a suitable Gaussian surface. In the proof of Gauss’s law we
choose a spherical symmetric Gaussian surface. Because it is very easy to
calculate electric field due to the charge around it.
 Finally, Gauss’s law is based on the inverse square dependence on distance
contained in the Coulomb’s law. Any violation of Gauss’s law will indicate
departure from the inverse square law.
Numerical Problems
1.) Three identical charges, each having a value 1.0 10-8 C, are placed at the
corners of an equilateral triangle of side 20 cm. Find the electric field at
the centre of the triangle.
2.) An oil drop of 12 excess electrons is held stationary under a constant
electric field of in Millikan's oil drop experiment. The

density of the oil is . Estimate the radius of the drop.
3.) An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field.

(i) Show that no translatory force acts on it.
(ii) Derive an expression for torque acting on it.
4.) Two particles A and B having charges of +2.0 10-6 C and 4.0 10-6 C
respectively, are held fixed at a separation of 20.0 cm. Locate the points(s)
on the line AB where the electric field is zero.
5.) Three equal charges, 2.0 10-6 C each, are held fixed at the three corners
of an equilateral triangle of side 5 cm. Find the Coulomb force experienced
by one of the charges due to the rest two.
6.) Two equally charged pith balls are 3 cm apart in the air and repel each
other with a force of 4 10-5 N. Compute the charge on each ball.
Some Important points regarding Gauss’s Theorem:
 Gauss’s Theorem is valid for both stationary as well as rapidly moving charges.
q
 For any medium acc. To Gauss’s Theorem    E d S  .
S
0r
 Gauss’s Theorem is applicable to the forces obey inverse square law. i.e this
theorem is valid for any inverse square field like electric field, gravitational
field and magnetic field.
 By using Gauss’s Theorem no. of electric lines of force directed outward from
q 1
+1C charge can be calculated as    12
 1.13  1011 .
0 8.85  10
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
 Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire
Consider an infinitely long thin straight wire with uniform linear charge density λ.
The wire is symmetric about linear axis.
To calculate the electric field intensity E at a point
P at distance r from the line, consider a
Gaussian surface which is an imaginary cylinder
of radius r and length l.
Acc. To gauss’s thm.
q
   E dS 
S
0
Divide the Gaussian surface in three parts I,II and III.
we have
q
   E dS   E dS   E dS   E dS 
S I II III
0
For surfaces II and III we’ve θ = 900 between E and dS
 E dS  EdS cos90  0
q
    E dS   E dS 
S I
0
q
    EdS cos0   EdS 
I I
0
q
 E  dS 
I
0

q
 E 2 rl 
0
q
E put q/l = λ
2 0  rl
 1
E i.e. E .
2 0 r r
 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

Let σ be the uniform surface charge density of an infinite plane sheet
To calculate the electric field intensity E at a point
P at distance l on each side
Of the sheet, consider a
Gaussian surface which
is an imaginary cylinder
of radius r and length 2l
Acc. To gauss’s thm.
q
   E dS 
S
 0
Divide the Gaussian surface in three parts I,II and III.
For surfaces I we’ve θ = 900 between E and dS
 E dS  EdS cos90  0
For surfaces II and III we’ve θ = 00 between E and dS
2E dS  2EdS cos0  2EdS
Acc. To Gauss thm.
q
  2 EdS 
0
q q
E put  
2dS 0 dS

E
2 0
 Field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell
Let +q = charge q distributed uniformly on the surface of spherical shell.
P = the point where electric field is to be find.
Case 1
When point P leis inside the sphere.
Consider the Gaussian surface of radius r.
q = 0 inside the shell.
By Gauss’s thm we have
q
S E d S  0  0 ( q  0)
 E  0 in side the shell.

Case 2
When point P leis on the sphere
Now consider the Gaussian surface of radius R.
q
S E d S  0

q
  EdS cos0   EdS  (   0between Eand dS )
S S
0
q
 E  dS E 4 R 2 
S
0
q q  q
E E or E  (  )
0 4 R 2
4 0 R 2
0 4 R 2
Case 3
When point P leis on the sphere
Now consider the Gaussian surface of radius r as shown.
q
S E d S  0
q
  EdS cos0   EdS  (   0between Eand dS )
S S
0
q
 E  dS E 4 r 2 
S
0
q
E .
4 0 r 2
Graphically
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

 Superposition principle should not be taken or equated with the law of
addition of vectors. It says two things: force on one charge due to another
charge is unaffected by the presence of other charges, and there are no
additional three-body, four-body, etc., forces which arise only when there are
more than two charges.
 The electric field due to a discrete charge configuration is not defined at the
locations of the discrete charges.
 For continuous volume charge distribution, electric field is defined at any
point in the distribution.
 For a surface charge distribution, electric field is discontinuous across the
surface.
 The electric field due to a charge arrangement when total charge zero is not
zero; but its field decreases faster than 1/r2 for distances large compared to
the size of the arrangement, in comparison with the field due to a single
1
charge. An electric dipole is the simplest example of this fact. In which E 3
r
i.e it decreases faster than 1/r2.
 Charge is invariant under rotation; it is also invariant for frames of
reference in relative motion.
 Gauss’s Law can’t be used to find the electric field near an electric
dipole and a triangle having point charges placed on each vertices.
Because in these cases there is no symmetric distribution of charge and
we can’t draw a Gaussian surface for these surfaces.
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

An important property of electric field
Line integral of electric field intensity does not depend upon the path followed in
moving a test charge in electric field from a point to other, but it depends only on
the initial and final position.
B
 E dx
A
= independent of the path followed
= depends only on the initial and final position.

Let +q = charge placed at O
q0 be the charge moved from
A( rA ) to B( rB ) under the influence
of electric field E due to +q.
Fe  q0 E Force experienced by q0 due to E towards AB
this force tends to move the charge with some acceleration in the direction of
force.
So to move the charge without acceleration apply an equal and opposite external
force q0 E towards BA.
Let the charge be moved through the small distance dx towards B
Work done by the external force q0 E
dW   F ext d x
 dW   q0 E d x
Total work done in moving the charge from A to B
B
WAB   q0 E dx
A
B
WAB
    E dx ---------------------------------------- (1)
q0 A
B B
WAB
    Edx cos00    Edx
q0 A A
q
Put E 
4 0 x 2
r rB
WAB B
q q 1
   dx    x2 dx
q0 rA 4 0 x
2
4 0 rA
rB
WAB q  x 1  q 1 1
       
q0 4 0  1  rA 4 0  rB rA 
WAB q q
    VB  VA -------------------------------- (2)
q0 4 0 rB 4 0 rA

q q
Where VB  = potential at B and VA  = potential at A
4 0 rB 4 0 rA
From (2) we may define electric potential difference between two points A and B
Electric potential difference between two points is defined as the amount of work
done per unit charge in moving the charge from a point to other without
acceleration.
Also from (2)
Electric potential energy difference between two points A and B is defined as the
total amount of work done in moving the charge from a point A to other point B
without acceleration.
q0 q qq
 WAB   0  q0 (VB  VA )
4 0 rB 4 0 rA
Note :
WAB
B
q 1 1
(a) from (1) and (2) we have     E dx   i.e. Line integral of
q0 A
4 0  rB rA 
electric field intensity does not depend upon the path followed in moving a
test charge in electric field from a point to other, but it depends only on the
initial and final position.
(b) From (1) and (2) we may also define the potential difference between
two points is equal to the negative of the line integral of the electric
W
B
q 1 1
field between two points. AB   E dx    V V
q0 A
4 0  rB rA  B A
(c) We may write (2) by replacing WAB by UAB
U AB q q
   VB  VA i.e we may define electric potential
q0 4 0 rB 4 0 rA
difference between two points as electric potential energy difference per unit
charge between the two points.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE
Let +q = charge placed at O
Let P( r ) be the point where electric potential is to be find.
q0 be the charge moved from
∞ to P.
Let at any time the charge q0
Be at A(x).
Let the charge be further moved
Through a small distance dx.
Small amount of work done in moving the charge through dx
dW  F d x = Fdx cos1800  Fdx
qq0
Put F  we get
4 0 x 2
qq0
dW  dx
4 0 x 2
Total amount of work done in moving the charge from ∞ to
P(r)

qq0
r
Wr   dx
 4 0 x
2
W q 1 r
2  2
 r  dx
q0 4 0 x  x
r
W q  x 1  q 1 1 
 r      
q0 4 0  1   4 0  r  
W q
 r 
q0 4 0 r
q
 V
4 0 r
UNITS OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

SI units
SI units of electric potential is volt (V)
W
V  AB
q0
 1volt  1 joule( j)  1 jC 1
1coulomb(C )
i.e potential at a point is one volt if one joule of work is done in moving a charge
of 1C from infinity to that point in the electric field.
CGS Units
CGS units of electric potential is stat volt
W
V  AB
q0
1 erg
1stat volt 
1stat coulomb
1 joule( j ) 107 erg 1
1volt    stat volt
1coulomb(C ) 3 10 esu 300
9
DIMENSIONAL FORMULA
WORK ML2T 2
V   [ ML2T 3 A1 ]
CHARGE AT
NOTE
 Electric potential and electric potential difference is a scalar
quantity
 Electric potential measures the degree of electrification of the body.
 Electric potential at infinity is zero.

 Electromagnetic unit of electric potential is abvolt
1volt = 108 abvolt and 1 stat volt = 3 x 1010 abvolt
POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

consider an electric dipole AB with –q at A and q at B.
let P = point where potential is to be find.
Let AB = 2a, OP = r
AP = r1 & BP = r2
Draw BC  OP and AD  OP
And POB  AOD   .
Potential at P due to –q at A
q
V1  ------------- (1)
4 0 r1
Potential at P due to +q at B
q
V2  ------------------ (2)
4 0 r2
Net potential due to both charges

V = V 1 + V2
q q
V 
4 0 r2 4 0 r1
1 1
q
 V  ---------------------------------- (3)
4 0  r2 r1 
In ΔAOD AND ΔBOC, OD = OC = a cosθ
Now r2 = BP CP = OP – OC = r –a cosθ
And r1 = AP DP = OP + OD = r + acosθ
put the above values in (3)
q  1 1 
 V 
4 0  r – a cos r  acos 

q  2acos 
 V
4 0  r 2 – a 2 cos2 
pcos
 V ( 2aq  p )
4 0 (r – a 2 cos2 )
2
Special cases
1.) when point P lies on the equatorial line then θ = 900 and cos900 = 0
pcos90
 V 0
4 0 (r – a 2 cos2 90)
2
2.) when point P lies on the axial line then θ = 0 and cos0 = 1
pcos0 p
 V 
4 0 (r – a cos 0) 4 0 (r 2 – a 2 )
2 2 2
p
And when r >>> a then V  on the axial line.
4 0 r 2

POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
Consider a system of charges q1, q2,…, qn at distances r1P, r2P,…, rnP from P
The potential V1 at P due to the charge q1 is
q1
V1  where r1P is the distance between q1 and P.
4 0r1P
Similarly due to other charges
q2 q3 qn
V2  , V3  ,--------------, Vn 
4 0r2P 4 0r3P 4 0rnP
Net potential is given by
V  V1  V2  V3        Vn
q1 q2 q3 qn
 V   
4 0r1P 4 0r2P 4 0r3P 4 0rnP
n
qi
 V 
i 1 4 0riP
Note when point P has position vector r and q1, q2,…, qn has p.v.
r1 , r2 , r3    , rn respectively then
n
qi
V 
i 1 4 0 r  r i
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
An equipotential surface is a surface which has a constant value of potential at all
points on the surface.
Now since the electric field lines for a single charge q are starting normally from or
ending normally at the charge, depending on whether q is positive or negative. And
the charge q has a spherical symmetric surface around it therefore, the electric
field at every point is normal to the equipotential surface passing through that
point. This is true in general: for any charge configuration, equipotential surface
through a point is normal to the electric field at that point.
1.) For a uniform electric field

Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field E are the planes at right angles
to the field
lines.Here I, II and III are the
equipotential surfaces. The electric
potentials Vl V2 and V3
have different values but on a given
surface (say I), electric potential VI is
same at all points of the surface. These
planes will be very close for strong
electric fields and are distant apart for
weak electric fields. For a plane
equipotential surface, the source char e is
located at infinity

2.) For an isolated point charge
Potential due to an isolated point charge + q at a distance r is given by,
q
V
4 0 r
If we draw a sphere of radius r around + q charge, then all
the points on this sphere will have the same potential. Thus
, equipotential surfaces for an isolated point charge are
concentric spherical surfaces around the charge.
PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

1.) No work is done in moving a test charge from one point to another on an
equipotential surface.
Let A and B be two points on an equipotential surface. Work done in moving a
charge q0 from A to B is given by
WAB
 VB  VA
q0
WAB
 VB  VA
q0
W
But VB  VA  AB = 0
q0
 WAB  0

2.) The electric field is perpendicular to the element d I of the equipotential
WAB
surface.  VB  VA
q0
W
But VB  VA  AB = 0
q0
W
 AB  E dl  0
q0
 Edl cos  0
E & dl  0  cos  0    900
i.e  E  dl
3.) Two equipotential surfaces can not intersect
if two equipotential surfaces intersect, then at the points of intersection, there
will be two values of the electric potential due to a point charge. This is not
possible. Hence two equipotential surfaces can not intersect.
4.) Equipotential surfaces offer an alternative visual picture in addition to the
picture of electric field lines around a charge configuration.
5.) Equipotential surfaces indicate regions of strong or weak electric fields. If E is
strong at a point dl will be small i.e. the separation of equipotential surfaces
will be smaller. Thus, equipotential surfaces are closer in the region of strong
electric field.
RELATION BETWEEN FIELD AND POTENTIAL
Consider a point charge +q at a point A.
Electric potential due to this charge at a point P at distance r from A is
q
V
4 0 r
Differentiating both sides
dV q d 1
   
dr 4 0 dx  r 
dV q
   E
dr 4 0 r 2
dV
 E  
dr
Conclusion
1.) Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases steepest.
2.) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per unit
displacement normal to the equipotential surface at the point.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
Electric potential at a point due to a single charge is defined as the total
amount of work done in moving the charge from infinity to that point without
acceleration.
Electric potential at a point due to a system of charges is defined as the total
amount of work done in bringing all the charges from infinity to their respective
positions without acceleration.
Consider a system of charges q1, q2,…, qn at infinity.
Let q1 be brought from infinity to A, q2 at B, q3 at C and so on respectively.
Let initially there is no charge present at point A therefore net potential at A = 0
So work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to A = 0

 W1 = 0 -------------------------------------- (1)
Now we bring q2 at B under the influence of q1(at A).
Let r12 = distance between q1 and q2.
q1
Potential at B due to q1 = V1 
40r12
Work done in bringing q2 at B
W2 = V1 q2
qq
W2  V1q 2  1 2 --------------------------- (2)
40r12
Now we bring q3 at C under the influence of q1(at A) and q2 (at B).
q1 q2
Potential at C due to q1 and q2 = V2  
40r13 40r23
Work done in bringing q3 at C
q1q3 q 2 q3
W3  q3 V2  
40r13 40r23
-lly Work done in bringing q4 at D under the influence of q1(at A) and q2 (at B) & q3
(at C)
qq q q qq
W4  q 4 V3  1 4  2 4  3 4
40r14 40r24 40r34
Net work done in bringing all four charges
W  W1  W2  W3  W4
qq qq q q qq q q qq
 W 0 1 2  1 3  2 3  1 4  2 4  3 4
40r12 40r13 40r23 40r14 40r24 40r34
1 4 4 qi q j
 W 
2 i 1
 4 r
j1 0 ij
i j
1 4 4 qi q j
U 
2 i 1
 4 r
j1 0 ij
i j
For a system of n charges we have

1 n n qi q j
 U  
2 i 1 j1 40rij
i j
Note:
1 n n qj 1 n
W  qi 
2 i 1 j1 40rij
= W  qi Vi
2 i 1
i j i j
POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD

Potential energy of a single charge
Consider an external electric field E in space.
Let q = charge at P where electric pot. is to be find
Let r = position vector of P w.r.t. origin O.
Therefore U = q.V( r )
Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field
Let q1 be brought from infinity to A, q2 at B respectively.
So work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to A ( r1 ) under the influence of
external electric field E
W1 = q1V( r1 ).
work done in bringing the charge q2 from infinity
to B ( r2 ) under the influence of external electric
field E and q1 at A( r1 ).
q1q 2
W2 = q2V( r2 ) +
40r12
Net work done
W = W1 + W2
q1q 2
W = q1V( r1 ) + q2V( r2 ) + .
40r12
q1q 2
U = q1V( r1 ) + q2V( r2 ) + .
40r12
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD
Consider an electric dipole of length 2a in a uniform electric field E such that the
dipole moment ( p ) makes an angle  with the electric field ( E ) as shown in
Figure Charges +q and -q experience equal and opposite forces given by  qE and
qE respectively due to electric field E
The torque acts on the dipole is given by
  pE sin 
Work done in rotating the dipole through some angle d
is given by
dW  d  pEsin d
Total work done in rotating the dipole from 1 to 2
2 2
W   pEsin d  W  pE  sin d

1 1
 W  pE cos   pE(cos 2  cos 1 )

2
1
This work is stored as the potential energy of the system


If 1  & 2   then
2
U(  ) = pEcos  = p E
Special cases: (1) when   0 the U = -pE = minimum.
i.e. dipole is in stable equilibrium. Also dipole is like parallel to Electric field.
(2) when   1800 U = pE = maximum.
i.e. dipole is in unstable equilibrium. dipole is anti parallel to Electric field

ELECTROSTATIC CAPACITANCE
BEHAVIOUR OF CONDUCTORS INSIDE AN ELRCTIRC FIELD
a) Inside a conductor, Net electric field is zero A conductor
contains large number of free electrons. When it is placed in the
electrostatic field ( E 0 ), each electron experiences a force ( F   e E0 ) in
a direction opposite to the direction of applied field E 0 . Therefore, free
electrons in the conductor move in a direction opposite to the direction of
the electric field E 0 .Now the redistribution of charges will take place and
create its own additional field E p called induced electric field. The induced
electric field acts in a direction opposite to the direction of external field.
its magnitude is equal to the magnitude of the
external electric field. Hence, net electric
field, E net in the interior of the conductor
placed in the electric field is zero.
b) Electric field just outside the conductor is
normal to the conductor: If E
were not normal to the surface, it would have
some non-zero component along the surface.
Free charges on the surface of the conductor
would then experience force and move. But in
this static situation there is no component of
electric field along the surface therefore
whole of electric field must be normal to the surface.
c) Net charge in the interior of the conductor is zero:
Since net electric field inside the conductor is zero. Therefore by using
q
Gauss thm.  E ds  0  0
 q0
d) Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the
conductor and has the same value (as inside) on its surface
dV
E  
dr
 E0  V  cons tan t

e) Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor E 
0
f) Charge resides on the surface of a conductor.

ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING
It is the phenomenon
to protect certain
region of space from
the external electric
field.
Sensitive instruments
and appliances are
affected seriously

with strong external electric fields. This can be done by keeping the sensitive
appliances in the hollow conductor. Because in the hollow conductor the net
electric field is zero. Therefore total charge inside the cond. is also zero.
It is for this reason that it is safer to be in a car or a bus during lightning rather
than under a tree or in the open ground.
Similar is the case of a cavity. In a conductor with a cavity, with no charges inside
the cavity. Electric field inside the cavity is zero, whatever is the size and shape of
the cavity and whatever is the charge on the conductor and the external fields in
which it might be placed.
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
CAPACITANCE: The measure of the ability of a conductor to store the charge is
known as electrical capacitance or capacity of a conductor.
Let q = charge given to conductor, V = potential of cond.
q  V or q = CV
Where C is the electrical capacitance or capacity of a conductor and is given as
q
C 
V
If V = 1 then C = q
Electrical capacitance or capacity of a conductor is also defined as the charge
required to raise the potential by 1 volt.
UNITS OF CAPACITANCE:
SI units are farad(F).
1C
1F 
1V
Electrical capacitance or capacity of a conductor is said to be one farad if 1
coulomb of charge is required to raise its potential by one volt.
farad is the bigger unit of capacitance.
Other smaller or practical units are
1 micro farad (μF) = 10-6 F
1 pico farad (pF or μ μF) = 10-12F
DIMENSIONAL FORMULA: [M-1L-2T4A2]
ELECTTROSTATIC UNIT i.e., e.s.u. OF CAPACITANCE IS statfarad
1stat coulomb
1statfarad 
1statvolt
1farad  9x10 statfarad
9
ELECTTROMAGNETIC UNIT i.e., e.m.u. OF

CAPACITANCE IS abfarad
1ab coulomb
1abfarad 
1abtvolt
1
1farad  abfarad
109
CAPACITOR AND ITS PRINCIPLE:

The arrangement to store the charge is called a capacitor.
Symbols for capacitor:
Principle of capacitor: The capacity of a capacitor can be increased considerably

by bringing

an uncharged parallel conductor near it.

As shown in above figure an uncharged parallel conductor is brought near to the
+vely charged conductor (in 2nd part). Now in 3rd part it is shown that -ve charge is
induced on the outer surface and equal amount of +ve charge is induced on the
outer surface. And when we earth this conductor the induced +ve charge will flow
in the earth and the capacity of the conductor can be increased considerably.
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
Let A = area of each plate
d = separation between the plates
q = charge on plates

E Electric field between the plates
0
V  Ed

 V  d
0
qd
 V 
A0
q 0 A
Now C  
V d
0 A
C 
d
EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC ON CAPACITANCE

Relative permittivity ( r ) or Dielectric constant (K) of a medium is defined as the
ratio of the absolute permittivity of the medium to the absolute permittivity of the
free space.

r 
0
Now in case of capacitors we may define the Relative permittivity ( r ) or Dielectric
constant (K) of a medium is defined as the ratio of the capacity when dielectric
medium is introduced in the plates of a capacitor to the capacity of capacitor when
there is no medium.
C
K  r   C  KC0
C0
i.e. capacity of a capacitor is increases K times.
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors can be grouped in two ways i.e. either in series or in parallel.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
Consider three capacitors
C1 ,C2 ,C3 connected in series
as shown in fig.
Let V = potential difference
across A & B
So that V1 ,V2 ,V3 be the
potential differences across
each of them resp.
V  V1  V2  V3 ------------------------------ (1)
q = magnitude of charge on each plate of capacitor.
(In series magnitude of charge is same for all plates)
q q q
But V1  , V2  , V3 
C1 C2 C3
q q q
Put in (1) V   --------------------- (2)
C1 C2 C3
q q
Let Cp be the net capacitance. Therefore Cs  or V 
V Cs
q q q q
Therefore we’ve   
Cs C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1
   
Cs C1 C2 C3
If n capacitors are connected in series then
1 1 1 1 1
    ------------------------+ =
Cs C1 C2 C3 Cn
n
1

i 1 C n
Result: Cs <<< C1 , C2 , C3
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
Consider three capacitors C1 ,C2 ,C3 connected
in parallel as shown in fig.
Let V = potential difference across A & B
So that all capacitors have equal pot. difference V across them.
q1 ,q 2 ,q3 be the charges across each of them resp.
q  q1  q2  q3 ------------------------------ (1)
But q1  C1V, q 2  C2 V, q3  C3V
Put in (1)
q  C1V  C2 V  C3V
Let Cp be the net capacitance. Therefore
q  Cp V
 Cp V  C1V  C2 V  C3V
 Cp  C1  C2  C3
If n capacitors are connected in parallel then
n
 Cp  C1  C2  C3              Cn   Ci
i 1
Result
Cp >>>> C1 ,C2 ,C3 -----.
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
Let C = capacity of a capacitor,
q = charge on capacitor at any time t
q
V = = potential difference across capacitor
C
Let further dq charge be given to the capacitor, then small amount of work done
dW = Vdq
Total work in giving the charge from 0 to Q
Q Q
q
W   Vdq 
0
 C dq
0
Q
1  q2 
Q
1 Q2
C 0
W  qdq    
C  2  0 2C
This work done is stored in terms of electric potential energy in the capacitor.
This is also called electrostatic energy in the capacitor.
Q2
U  ------------------------------------ (1)
2C
Also we know Q = CV put in (1) we get
1
U  CV 2 ---------------------------------- (2)
2
Q
And if we put C  in (1) we get
V
1
U  QV --------------------------------- (3)
2
From (1), (2) and (3) we have
Q2 1 1
U   QV  CV 2
2C 2 2
This is also called electrostatic energy in the capacitor.
ENERGY STORED IN COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS:
(A) series combination
Let C1 ,C2 ,C3      ,Cn be n capacitors connected in series.
1 1 1 1 1 1
    
Cs C1 C2 C3 C4 Cn
We know total energy stored in combination of capacitors is
Q2
U 
2Cs
1
Put the value of
Cs
Q2  1 1 1 1 1 
U       
2  C1 C2 C3 C4 Cn 

2 2 2 2
Q Q Q Q Q2
 U     
2C1 2C2 2C3 2C4 2Cn
 U  U1  U2  U3  U4         Un
i.e. total energy stored is the sum of the energy stored in the individual capacitors.
(B) parallel combination
Let C1 ,C2 ,C3      ,Cn be n capacitors connected in parallel.
Cp  C1  C2  C3          Cn
We know total energy stored in combination of capacitors is
1
U  Cp V 2
2
Put the value of Cp

1
U  C1  C2  C3          Cn  V2
2
1 1 1 1
 U  C1V2  C2 V2  C3V 2          Cn V 2
2 2 2 2
 U  U1  U2  U3  U4         Un
i.e. total energy stored is the sum of the energy stored in the individual capacitors.
THE ELECTRIC ENERGY DENSITY (ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME)
Consider a parallel plate capacitor
Let A = area of each plate
q = charge on plates
we know electrostatic energy in the capacitor is
1
U  CV 2
2
Now electric energy density =
1
CV 2
energy 2
u  
volume Ad
0 A
Put C  and V = Ed, in the above relation
d
 A(Ed)2
u  0
2Ad 2
1
 u  0 E 2
2
Note: the above result is derived for a parallel plate capacitor, but this result is
also true for electrostatic fields.
DIELECTRICS AND POLARISATION
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. They have no (or negligible number of)
charge carriers.
We can say that dielectrics are those substances which can transfer the charge
without conducting. In general insulating substances like air, mica, paraffin wax,
transformer oil etc. are called dielectrics.
In most molecules, the centres of positive charges and of negative charges lie at
the same place. Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. These are called non polar

molecules. CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules.
However, they develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied. But in
some molecules, the centres of negative charges and of positive charges do not
coincide. These are called polar molecules Therefore they have a permanent
electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field. Water
molecules,H2O, is an example of this type. Various materials give rise to interesting
properties and important applications in the presence or absence of electric field.
Thus a non-polar molecule becomes a polar molecule under the influence of
external electric field. The dipole moment of such a molecule is known as induced
dipole moment. This induced dipole moment lasts as long as the non-polar molecule
is in the electric field.
The stretching of a dielectric molecule under the effect of external electric field
i.e. a non-polar molecule becomes a polar molecule under the influence of external
electric field is called electric polarization.
Polarizability
When a non polar molecule is kept in the electric field then the induced dipole
moment ( p ) is directly proportional to the applied electric field ( E ) i.e.
p  E  p  0 E
Where  is a constant and is called atomic or molecular polarizability.
p
  
0 E
unit of p Cm
SI unit of  is =     2 1 2  m3
unit of 0  unit of E C N m  NC1
NOTE: the order of  for most of atoms is 10-29 m3 to 10-30 m3
Polarization vector
It is defined as dipole moment per unit volume of the polarized dielectric.
Polarization vector measures the degree of polarization of dielectrics.
P  np
Where n is no. of atoms per unit volume and p is induced dipole moment of each
atom.
SI unit of polarization vector is Cm-3
Electric Susceptibility
The polarization vector is directly proportional to the net electric field E in the
dielectric then
PE
 P  e  0 E
Where  e is a constant and is called Electric Susceptibility which is the natural
measure of polarizability of dielectric.

P
e 
0 E
Units of  e :  e has no units, and is dimension less.
Relation between Electric Susceptibility & Dielectric Constant
Consider a dielectric slab be placed in the
electric field E 0 between two parallel plates as
shown in fig.
Let +q, -q = charge induced on the opposite
faces of the dielectric slab.
p = dipole moment per unit volume
A = area of dielectric slab
d = thickness of slab
Therefore Polarization vector
qd q
P  np     p ------------ (1)
Ad A
Now due to the presence of this electric field,
some dipole moment will induce for each atom.
And +ve charge centre will move towards the –
ve plate and –ve charge centre will move towards +ve plate. As a result of which
net charge in the dotted boundary will be zero. However due to the presence of
some +ve and –ve charge out side the boundary an electric field ( E p ) will induce
inside the dielectric in opposite direction.
Therefore net electric field inside the dielectric
E  E0  E p ------------ (2)
E0 Ep
  1
E E
Ep E0
 k  1 ------------------ (3) (  k dielectric cons tan t)
E E
p P
Ep   ---------------------- (4) [using (1)]
0 0
From (3) and (4)
P
 k  1 -------------------- (5)
o E
Also P  e 0 E
P
Therefore  e put in (5) we get k  1  e
0 E
DIELECTRIC STRENGTH:
When a dielectric is placed in the electric field it gets polarized. The max. value of
electric field intensity that can be applied to the dielectric without its electric
breakdown is called as dielectric strength of dielectric.
The max. electric field applied is only 10% of the dielectric strength of the
dielectric.
CAPACITY OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WHEN DIELECTRIC SLAB IS
INTRODUCED BETWEEN THE PLATES
Let A = area of each plate of parallel plate capacitor.

q = charge between the plates
A
C0  0 = capacity of the capacitor having
d
vacuum between the plates.
Due to polarization E p = the electric field induced
between the plates
E  E0  E p net electric field between the
plates.
Out of which E 0 exists in the thick ness d-t
between the plates, and E in thickness t.
Therefore net potential difference between the
plates
V  E0 (d  t)  Et
E0 E0
k or E
E k
E  t
 V  E 0 (d  t)  0 t  E 0 (d  t)   ----------------------(1)
k  k
 q
Also we know E 0  
0 0 A
 (1) becomes
q  t
 V   (d  t)   ----------------------------(2)
0 A  k
q
From (2) we have C 
V
0 A
 C  or
 t
(d  t)  k 
0 A C0
 C   C >>> C0
 t t   t t 
d (1  )   (1  d )  dk 
 d dk 
CAPACITY OF A SPHERICAL CONDUCTOR
Consider a spherical conductor.
Let q = charge on conductor;
q
V = potential due to charge q on conductor. ----------- (1)
4 0 r
q
We know C 
V
Therefore from (1)
C  40 r
Capacity of earth
For earth r = 6.4 x 106m
6.4 x 106
C  9
= 0.711 x 10-3F = 711μF
9x10

CAPACITY OF A SPHERICAL CAPACITOR

Consider a spherical capacitor of which outer surface is earthed.
a = radius of inner surface
b = radius of outer surface
q = charge given to the inner surface
as a result of induction –q charge is induced on the
inner
surface.
Potential on the outer surface Vb = 0
q q
Va  
40 a 40 b
q 1 1 
 Va  
40  a b 
q(b  a)
 Va 
40 ab
Therefore net potential
V = Va - Vb
q(b  a)
 V  Va  Vb 
40 ab
q
Since C 
V
40 ab
Therefore C 
(b  a)
CAPACITY OF A SPHERICAL CAPACITOR WHEN INNER SURFACE IS EARTHED

Consider a spherical capacitor of which inner surface is
earthed.
a = radius of inner surface , b = radius of outer surface
+q = charge given to the outer surface
as a result of induction –q charge is induced on the inner
sphere.
The system will act as a combination of two capacitors
In between the spherical shells of radius a and b
40 ab
C1 
(b  a)
Between the outer shell and earth
C2  40 b
40 ab 40 b2
Therefore C = C1 + C2  C   40 b 
(b  a) (b  a)
40 b2
 C 
(b  a)

VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR
Van de Graaff generator is a machine that can build up high voltages of the order of
a few million volts ( app. 6 to 8 million volts). The resulting large electric fields are
used to accelerate charged particles (electrons, protons, ions) to high energies.
PRINCIPLE
(1) For a pointed end (sharp points) or negligible radius surface charge density
q
 is very large. The particles of the medium coming in contact with the
4r 2
sharp points gets similarly charged. In this way an electric wind is set up which
takes away the charge from sharp points and is used to set up the discharging
action.
(2) When the charge is given to the hollow conductor is transferred to the outer
surface and is distributed uniformly over it.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
It consists of a large conducting spherical shell of radius equal to a few meters
mounted over the two insulated pillars p1 and p2. A long belt of insulating material
like silk or rayon is wound around the two pulleys P1 and P2. The belt is moving
continuously with the help of a motor. B1 and B2 are two sharply pointed combs. B1
is called spray comb and B2 is called collecting comb.
The +ve ions to be accelerated are produced in a discharge tube D. Ion source is at
the head of the tube and target is near the other end.
WORKING
The spray comb is given a +ve
potential with the help of high
tension power supply. Now due to the
action of sharp points +ve charge is
spread over the conducting belt. The
belt takes this charge near to the
collecting comb. Now due to
induction –ve charge is induced on
the collecting comb, which is
connected with the inner part of
conducting sphere. As a result of
which equal amount of +ve charge is
induced over the outer surface of
sphere. This raises its potential. And
due to this large potential difference
an electric field is set up in which
the charge particle which is to be
accelerated is kept. The charge
particle experiences a large force
and gets accelerated.
When V is increased beyond a
certain limit, leakage of charge in
the surroundings starts. To avoid this
generator is placed in a steel
chamber filled with nitrogen or
methane at high pressure.


ELECTROSTATICS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELECTROSTATICS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELECTROSTATICS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VINEET SETIA’S PHYSICS & MATHS NOTES

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

3.3 Quantization of charge: According to the quantization, charge on a body is

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 2

COULOMBS LAW IN VECTOR FORM:

Note: if q1q2 < 0 then

Coulomb's Law in terms of position vectors

-lly we have force on ql due to q2 is F 12 

6 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES or SUPER POSITION PRINCIPAL

Consider a system of n stationary charges q1, q2, q3,….

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 3

7 Relative permittivity ( r ) and Dielectric constant (K)

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 4

 Units of Electric Field SI units = N/C

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 5

Electric Field Intensity due to a point charge in terms of position vector

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 6

Properties of electric field lines

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 7

Hence, net electric field at P can be written as E  E q  E q towards BP

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 8

ELECTRIC FIELD OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE AT A POINT ON THE EQUATORIAL PLANE OF

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 9

Physical significance of dipoles

However, they develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied.

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 10

DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

LINEAR CHARGE DISTRIBUTION: When the charge is uniformly distributed over a

SURFACE CHARGE DISTRIBUTION: When the charge is uniformly distributed over a

VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION: When the charge is

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 12

Total electric field is given by

AREA VECTOR: Area is a scalar quantity, but in many cases

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 13

Since the angle between r and dS is 00 therefore r dS = dS

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 14

density of the oil is . Estimate the radius of the drop.

3.) An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field.

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 15

 Field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet

 E  0 in side the shell.

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 16

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

= depends only on the initial and final position.

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 18

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 19

UNITS OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 20

POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Net potential due to both charges

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 21

1.) For a uniform electric field

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 22

PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 23

VINEET SETIA, M.Sc.(Physics,Maths) 24

For a system of n charges we have

POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD

W   pEsin d  W  pE  sin d