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Electric Charges and Fields:

Electrostatics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of electric charges at rest. It deals
with the study of forces, fields and potentials arising from static charges. This is known as static
electricity

Electric Charge:

The property of the objects by virtue of which they exert electric force on each other is called
electric charge. Benjamin Franklin named the charges as positive and negative.

Electric charge is a physical quantity and its SI unit is coulomb (C).It is a scalar quantity and its
dimensional formula is [AT].Basic charge e = 1.6 x 10-19 C

There are two kinds of charges namely positive and negative.

Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. Some experiments confirm
the presence of two types of charges.

1) A glass rod rubbed with silk, the rod acquires positive charge and silk cloth gets negative
charge.
2) An ebonite rod or a plastic rod rubbed with fur gains electrons from fur so it is negatively
charged and fur positively charged.

The process of charging a body is called electrification. Here Electric charge is acquired on
rubbing

Gold Leaf Electroscope:

A device used to detect the presence of electric charges on a body and its polarity(+ve or –ve).

Conductors and Insulators:

Some substances readily allow passage of electricity through them. They are called
conductors .They have electric charges that are comparatively free to move inside the
material.eg: metals, human and animal bodies and earth. When some charge is transferred
to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over the entire surface of the conductor.
Some substances does not allow electricity to pass through them .They are called
insulators. They offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through them.
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Eg: glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood. If some charge is put on an insulator, it stays at
the same place.
Charging by Induction:
When a charged body is placed near an uncharged insulated conductor, charges of
opposite polarity are produced on the nearer surface of the conductor and equal amount
of charges of same polarity are produced on the farther surface of the conductor. This
process is called induction. During this process, a body can be charged without touching
it. The charged body used for induction does not lose any charge.

Charging a metal sphere positively byinduction:

Basic Properties of Electric Charges:

(1) Additivity of electric charges: The total charge on an extended body is the algebraic
sum of charges in different regions of the body. Positive and negative charges are
added like real numbers
(2) Conservation of electric charge:The net electric charge of the isolated system
remains constant.
(3) Quantization of charge: All free charges are integral multiple of a basic unit of charge
‘e’. So charge q = n e, where n is any integer, positive or negative .This is known as
quantizationof charge. The basic unit of charge e is the charge that an electron or
protoncarries.Thecharge on the electron is – e and that on proton is +e.The value of e
is 1.6 x 10 -19 C.
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Coulomb’s law (Inverse square law)

The fundamental law of electric force between two charges states that “like charges repel each
other while unlike charges attract each other. The magnitude of the electrical force between two
stationary charged particles is given by Coulomb’s law.

Statement:

The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary point charges is directly
proportional to the product of magnitude of the two charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. The force acts along the straight line joining the two
charges.

Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 at rest .Let r be the separation between them.
The magnitude of the force ‘F’ between the charges is such that

F α q1 q 2

F α 1/r2

| q1q2 |
Therefore F  K where K=9x109N m2c-2.Here putting the values of K =9x109, q1=
r2

q2=1C, r = 1 m, we get F=9x109N.

That is 1C is defined as the charge that when placed at a distance of 1m from another
charge of the same magnitude in vacuum experiences an electrical force of repulsion of
magnitude 9x109 N.

1
The constant K = where ε0 is the absolute permittivity of free space.
4 0

1
ε0=8.854x10 -12C2N-1m-2(or Fm-1) and ≈ 9x109N m2c-2.
4 0

1 q1q2
F
Therefore 4 o r 2
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Coulomb’s law in vector form:

The force on q2 due to q1 is

1 q1q2
F21  rˆ21
4 0 r212
Here q1 and q2are the two
charges.

. The vector leading from q1 to q2 is denoted by r21.

Similarly the force on q1due to q2 is

1 q1q2
F12  rˆ12   F21
4 0 r122

Here q1 and q2are the two charges.

. The vector leading from q2 to q1is denoted by r21.

Coulomb’s law agrees with Newton’s third law of motion .it is found that

F12 = – F21 for attractive and repulsive forces.

Forces between Multiple charges :( Principle of Superposition)

The mutual force between two charges is given by coulomb’s law. The forces on a charge due to
several stationary charges are calculated by superposition principle.

 According to principle of superposition, the force on any charge due to a number of other
charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken
one at a time. The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other charges.

The total force F 1 due to the two charges q2

and q3 is given as
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1 q1q2 1 q1q2
F1 = F12 +F13 rˆ12  rˆ13
=
4 0 r122 4 0 r132

For qn charges

F1 = F12 +F13 +…+ F1n

1 q1q2 1 q1q2 1 q1qn

rˆ12  rˆ13  ...  rˆ1n
=
4 0 r122 4 0 r132 4 0 r1n 2

r
q1 qi
 rˆ
4 0 i  2 1i
2 1i

The vector sum is obtained by parallelogram law of vector addition.

Electric field:

The region or space around a charged body with in which its influence can be felt by other
charge is called electric field. The electric field at any point due to a charge is defined as the
force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.

The SI unit of electric field is Newton per coulomb (NC-1).

Electric force of attraction or repulsion is due to interaction of electric fields of two charges.

The force F exerted by a charge Q on a positive charge q placed at distance r from Q is

1 Qq F 1 Q
F rˆ Here the electric field E   rˆ
4 0 r 2 q 4 0 r 2

1 Q
The magnitude of electric field E 
4 0 r 2 and its direction is the direction along
which a positive charge experiences force at that point. Here the charge which produces electric
field is called source charge and charge q which tests the effect of source charge is called a test
charge.
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Electric Field due to a system of charges:

Electric field at any point due to a system of point charges is

equal to the vector sum of the fields due to individual charges
at the same point

The resultant electric field at the point P due to the system of

charges is

ER = E1 +E2+…+En

1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
rˆ1  rˆ2  ...  rˆn
4 0 r12 4 0 r22 4 0 rn 2

r
1 qi
 rˆ
4 0 i 1 i
2 i

Physical significance of Electric Field:

The electric field at a point in space around a system of charges is the force experienced by a unit
positive charge placed at that point, without disturbing the system. Electric field is independent
of the test charge placed at that point to detect the field. Force experienced by any charge q kept
in electric field E is given by F=qE.
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Electric Field lines:

An electric field line is a path in an electric field, straight or curved, such that the tangent to it at
any point gives the direction of electric field at that point.

It is also the path along which a positive charge moves in the electric field, if it is free to move .It
is also called electric lines of force.

Properties of Electric field:

1) Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a single
charge, they may start or end at infinity.

2) In a charge free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any
breaks.

3) Two field lines can never cross each other because there is unique direction for electric field at
that point.

4) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops.

5) Tangent drawn to it at any point gives the direction of electric field at that point.

6) Electric field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor, either while starting from
or ending on the conductor.
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Electric Flux:

E
The electric flux ΔΦ through an area element Δ S in an electric field is defined as

ΔΦ = E.ΔS.=E ΔS.cos θ,where θ is the angle between E and ΔS.The electric flux Δ Φ through
an area element ΔS is proportional to the number of electric field lines crossing that area
element.Its unit is Nm2C-1.

Electric dipole:

An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by small distance.
Consider an electric dipole +q and –q separated by a distance 2a.

The line joining the two charges is the dipole axis and the direction from –q to +q is the direction
of the dipole axis. The total charge of the dipole is zero. The midpoint of locations of –q and +q
is called the centre of the dipole.

Molecules of water, ammonia, HCl and CO are some examples of electric dipoles. In these
molecules, the centers of positive and negative charge distributions are separated by some
distance.

Electric dipole moment:

Dipole moment of an electric dipole is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to the product
of the magnitude of either charge or the distance between them. Its direction is from negative to
positive charge, along the line joining the charges. Dipole moment p =q x 2a.The SI unit of
dipole moment is coulomb meter (Cm)

(i) For points on the axis

Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the

dipole on the side of the charge q, as shown in Fig

Then

where p is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from –q to q). Also
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The total field at P is

q  (r  a) 2  (r  a) 2 
  pˆ
0  (r  a)(r  a ) 
= 4  2

 

(ii) For points on the equatorial plane

The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two

charges +q and –q at P are given by

Here P is the point on the equatorial line of the dipole axis

at a distance r from centre O of the dipole axis. The direction E+q is away from the charge +q
and the direction of E-q is towards the charge –q.E+qandE-qcan be resolved into components
parallel to the dipole axis and perpendicular to the dpole axis. The perpendicular components
cancel each other and parallel components add up to get resultant electric field.
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E  E q cos   E q cos 

 
 E q  E q cos    pˆ 
a
From fig cos   1

r 2
a 
2 2

Therefore total electric field is

At large distances (r >>a), this reduces to

2qa
  pˆ 
4 0  r 
3

Generally

Here Dipole moment p =q x 2a.

The dipole field at large distancesfalls off not as 1/r2 but as1/r3. Further, the magnitude and the
directionof the dipole field depend not only on the distance r but also on theangle between the
position vector r and the dipole moment p

Physical significance of dipoles:

Molecules in which the centers of positive charges and of negative chargeslie at the same place
are called non-polar molecules. Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. CO2 andCH4 are of this
type of molecules. They develop a dipole momentwhen an electric field is applied.
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Molecules in which thecenters ofnegative charges and of positive charges do not coincide.

are called polar molecules. Theyhave a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence
of an electricfield.Water molecules, HCl, ammonia, CO are examples.

Dipole in a uniform external field:

Consider a permanent dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform external field E. Then the
magnitude of torque = q E × 2 a sinθ

= 2 q a E sinθ =p E sinθ = p x E

The magnitude of torque on the dipole is p x E is pEsinθ .This torque will tend to align the dipole
with the direction of the electric field E.

Continuous charge distribution:

Surface charge density σ at a point on a surface is the charge per unit area around that point.

Q
σ= .Its unit is coulomb per square meter.
S

Q
Similarly linear charge density λ = where ΔQ is the charge contained in a small line
l
element Δl of the wire.

The unit of λ is coulomb per metre.

Q
The volume charge density ρ is defined asρ= where ΔQ is the charge included in a small
V
volume element ΔV.

The unit of ρ is coulomb per cubic metre.

Gauss’s Law:

Gauss’s theorem states that the total flux through a closed surface is 1/ Є0times the net
charge enclosed by the closed surface. Electric flux through a closed surface S,

Φ= q/ Є0 where q = total charge enclosed by the surface S.

Proof of Gauss’s Law:

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Let us consider a spherical element of radius r with +q charged at the centre and an area vector
ΔS. The magnitude of electric field is same in all the points of the surface.

ΔΦ = E.ΔS. =E ΔS Cos θ,

Here area element and electric filed directions are same.

Here angle between them is zero and the two are radially
outwards.

ΔΦ = E.ΔS. =E ΔS Cos 0º,

ΔΦ = E.ΔS. Here

1 q
E 
4 0 r 2
q
ΔΦ = .ΔS
4πr2

The total flux through the sphere is obtained by adding up flux through all the different area

elements.

Electric flux through a closed surface S,

Φ= q/ Є0 where q = total charge enclosed by the surface S.

That is the total electric flux through a a closed surface is zero if no charge is enclosed by the

surface.
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Applications of Gauss’s law:

Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged wire:

Consider an infinitely long straight wire with uniform linear charge density λ.

Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface .The magnitude of electric field E at every point on the
curved surface of the cylinder is same because all the points are at the same distance r from the
line charge. The surface area of the curved part is 2πrl, where l is the length of the cylinder.Total
charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q = λ l.

According to Gauss’s law, the total electric flux through the

q
Gaussian surface is Φ =
Є0

Therefore the total electric flux through the Gaussian

surface is the sum of the flux through faces S1, S2 and S3
q
i.e Φs1+ Φs2+ Φs3 = .
Є0

Here Φs1is the flux through the upper face S1,

Φs2 is the flux through the upper face S2 and Φs3 is the flux
through the upper face S3.

q
 E.s1   E.s2   E.s3 
0
q
 E s1 cos 900   E s2 cos 00   E s3 cos 900 
0
q
0   E s2  0  ,
0
q l
E  s2  
0 0
l
E x 2 rl 
0

Therefore flux through the Gaussian surface = Flux through the curved cylindrical part of the
surface = E x 2πrl.The electric flux through the end surfaces of the cylinder is zero because the
electric field is radial everywhere.
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Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is

Φ = E x 2πrl = λ l / Є0

.Therefore

is the radial unit vector in

the plane normal to the wire passing through the point. Electric field is directed outward if it is a
positive charge and field is inward if it is a negative charge.

Electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet:

Consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge .Let σ be the surface charge density on the sheet i.e
charge per unit area.

Here Electric field at every point is parallel to the x direction. Consider a rectangular
parallelepiped Gaussian surface of cross sectional area A. The electric field lines are normal to
the end faces and parallel to the other faces. Therefore, the electric flux through each end face is
E .ΔS = EA while the electric flux across
the other faces is Zero.

Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian

surface is q = σ A.

Total electric flux across the Gaussian

surface is Φ = EA +EA+ 0 = 2EA.

According to Gauss’s law, the total

electric flux through the Gaussian
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σA
surfaceis Φ = q/ Є0 = .Therefore
Є0

It. if
σ is negative.

Consider a spherical shell of radius R with centre O.Let a charge +q be distributed uniformly
over the surface of the shell. The surface charge density on the surface of the spherical shell is
q
σ ,σ= .Here R is the radius of the shell and electric field at any point is radial .
4π R2

Electric field outside the shell:

Consider a point P outside the shell at a distance r from the centre

O.Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r with centre O
and passing through P.The electric field at every point on this
spherical Gaussian surface has the same magnitude and is along the
radius vector at every point.

The electric flux through the spherical Gaussian surface is given by

Φ = Σ EΔS cos θ = E Σ ΔS since θ = 0º and E has same

magnitude.

Φ = E x 4πr2.since total area Σ ΔS =4πr2

The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface = q = σ x 4πR2

q
According to Gauss’s law, the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is Φ = .
Є0
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σ
E x 4πr2 = 4πR2.
Є0

σ R2
E= . Or
Є0r2

q
E x 4πr2 = .
Є0

1 q
E= . .
4πЄ0 r 2

This is exactly the electric field produced by a charge q placed at the centre O.Thus, for points
outside the shell, the electric field due to a uniformly charged shell is same as if the entire charge
of that shell is concentrated at the centre.

Here is the unit vector along the direction of radius vector OP = r.

If the charge on the spherical shell is positive (q > 0), the electric field E is directed radially
outward. If the charge on the spherical shell is negative (q< 0), the electric field E is directed
radially inward.

Electric Field on the surface of the shell:

If the point P is on the surface of the shell r = R.

σ R2 σ
Then E =
Є0R 2 . Or E=
Є0
or
q
E=
4π Є0R2

Electric Field inside the shell:

Consider the point P inside the shell at a distance r from the centre O.
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r with centre O and
passing through P.The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is
Φ = E x 4πr2
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q
According to Gauss’s law, the total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is Φ = .
Є0

Here q = 0 , E x 4πr2 = 0 or E = 0 for r < R.

Thus, the electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell is zero at all points inside the
shell .From the above derivations we can conclude that

1) Inside the charged spherical shell Electric field = 0

2) Electric field is maximum on the surface of the charged spherical shell
3) As we move from the spherical shell the electric field decreases such that E α 1/r 2
like point charge field.

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Electric charges and fields

1. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2 × 10 –7C and 3 × 10–7C
placed 30 cm apart in air?

2. The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 μC due to another small sphere of
charge –0.8 μC in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance between the two spheres?(b)What is
the force between the same two spheres when they are brought in to contact and then
replaced in their initial positions?

3. Two point charges qA = 3 μC and qB = –3 μC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum. (a) What
is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges? (b) If a
negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10–9 C is placed at this point, what is the force
experienced by the test charge? (March 2017)

4. A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C located at points

A: (0, 0, –15 cm) and B: (0, 0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric
dipole moment of the system?

5. An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10–9 C m is aligned at 30° with the direction of
a uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1. Calculate the magnitude of the torque
acting on the dipole.

6. A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm

from the centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C and points radially inward, what is the net
charge on the sphere?

7. Charges of 10 μC, 20 μC and -20 μC are placed in air at the corners of an equilateral
triangle having each of side equal to 0.02m.Determine the force on charge +10 μC.

8. Two small metal spheres are charged so that they repel each other with a force of

2 x 10-5N.The charge on one sphere is twice that on the other .When they are moved
0.1mfurther apart, the force reduces to 5 x 10-5N.What are the charges and what is the
initial separation between them.

9. Three charges each equal to 4nC are placed at the 3 corners of a square of side 2cm.Find
the electric field at the fourth corner. (March 2018)

10. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 0.1m.Point charges of 3nCand -3nC are placed at
corners A and B respectively.Calculate the resultant electric field at C.

11. Two point charges qA = 5 μC and qB = –5 μC are located at A and B separated by 0.2m
in vacuum. (a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line joining the charges?
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(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 2n C is placed at O, what is the force

experienced by the test charge? (March 2020)