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Procedia CIRP 105 (2022) 440–445
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29th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering Conference

Environmental and technical evaluation of additive manufacturing: Enabling

process chain perspective by energy value stream mapping
Mathias Wiesea,b,∗, Christopher Rogallb , Nadja Henningsenb , Christoph Herrmannb,c , Sebastian
Thieded
a Polymer Additive Manufacturing Center, AUDI AG, Auto-Union-Straße 1, Ingolstadt, 85045, Germany
b Chairof Sustainable Manufacturing and Life Cycle Engineering, Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Technische Universität Braunschweig,
Langer Kamp 19b, Braunschweig, 38106, Germany
c Fraunhofer Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films (IST), Bienroder Weg 54 E, Braunschweig, 38108, Germany
d Manufacturing Systems, Faculty of Engineering Technology, Department of Design, Production & Management, University of Twente, De Horst 2, Building 20,

Enschede, 7522 LW, The Netherlands

Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) currently evolves from a prototyping process to an alternative manufacturing process for end-use parts, advancing
into fabrication of low to medium product volumes. Moreover, increasing awareness of environmental impacts of manufacturing lead to the neces-
sity of holistic evaluation among traditional evaluation criteria in the technical and economic domains. However, existing evaluation approaches
seldom consider a complete AM process chain and are lacking a production-oriented notation which enables comparability across technologies
and support in identification of improvement potentials on technical and environmental level. To address this gap, this paper highlights the way
from structured data acquisition to setup of an energy value stream map (EVSM) for AM process chains in end-use part production, augmenting
methods of lean manufacturing by the energy dimension. Consequently, it contributes to a holistic and transparent process chain perspective to
assess AM as a manufacturing alternative. The proposed methodology is applied to a case study covering two different process chains, a first
based on powder bed fusion via Multi-jet Fusion (MJF) and a second utilizing vat-photopolymerization via Continuous Liquid Interphase Printing
(CLIP). While the MJF process chain’s energetical hot spot is situated in the printing process itself, the hot spot for CLIP is found in thermal
post-processing, exceeding the comparably efficient printing process by magnitudes and ultimately resulting in higher energy intensity per part
compared to the MJF process chain. These results highlight the necessity of a holistic evaluation method for complete AM-based process chains
and their influence on the product properties. Insights may help engineers, designers and decision makers in pre-selection of suitable manufactur-
ing strategies with a more complete view on AM process chains.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 29th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering Conference.
Keywords: Additive manufacturing; rapid manufacturing; process chains; value stream mapping; sustainable manufacturing; decision support

mental funding programs, projects to fully integrate AM pro-

1. Introduction cesses into series production lines are conducted as joint efforts
In the recent years, additive manufacturing (AM) tech- of automakers and system providers [2, 3]. Continuing this de-
nologies and materials advanced from use in prototyping velopment, AM’s relevance for the production of end-use parts
into the domains of end-use part production, e.g. with vat- is expected to increase further within the next years [4].
photopolymerization (VP) and powder-bed fusion (PBF) in the Among others, two technologies amid VP and PBF, namely
automotive industry [1]. Backed by institutional and govern- Continuous Liquid Interphase Printing (CLIP) and Multi-jet
Fusion (MJF), recently proved to be meeting requirements of
series parts in different applications [1]. As a consequence, the
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 841 89987209 production systems where these series-ready technologies are
E-mail address: [email protected] (Mathias Wiese). embedded in become more complex and competitive, including
further post-processing and finishing measures to match part

2212-8271 © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 29th CIRP Life Cycle Engineering Conference.
10.1016/j.procir.2022.02.073

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 Mathias Wiese et al. / Procedia CIRP 105 (2022) 440–445 441

requirements. These process chains and resulting value streams head, which is followed by heating of the powder bed through
need to be understood and optimized in order for AM to be a an infrared (IR) heater (see step 1). This way, thermal energy
viable alternative in end-use part manufacturing considering the is transferred to the highly absorbent fusing agent, melting and
technical, economic and environmental dimensions of the pro- fusing a new part layer. This first step is followed by a recoat-
duction system. ing sequence, where a powder roller spreads a thin layer of new
This paper contributes to this understanding by applying the en- material across the powder bed (step 2). After recoating, the
ergy value stream mapping (EVSM) methodology to AM value next fusing sequence is carried out [9, 10]. In contrast to multi-
chains. As shown by a case study covering process chains of the ple other PBF technologies, MJF is able to fuse complete cross
mentioned processes CLIP and MJF, the approach aids assess- sections of a layer in a single overpass of the integrated IR and
ment and comparison of different AM process chains with fo- inkjet array and thus achieves comparably high process speeds
cus on technical performance and energetic hot-spots, fostering [11]. Together with a bigger build envelope, MJF reaches con-
holistic process chain oriented decision making in production siderable productivity. However, the PBF technology demands
with AM and its ongoing industrialization. some mandatory post-processing steps. These comprise con-
2. Background for the considered AM technologies trolled cooling of the build envelope to prevent part warpage,
unpacking of parts from the cold powder bed, reconditioning of
In the following, the working principle and main characteris- excess material for recycling and removal of adherent powder
tics of the two AM technologies covered in this paper are briefly through, e.g., glass bead blasting [12, 13]. Additional finishing
introduced referring to Figure 1. Both introduced technologies steps like vibratory grinding can follow for the improvement of
have been utilized in realization of automotive series applica- surface properties due to the mediocre surface quality achiev-
tions and thus can be treated as formally qualified for series able in PBF processes.
production in demanding environments, e.g. with high mechan-
ical and thermal requirements (see [1] for a structured review 2.2. Continuous Liquid Interphase Printing (CLIP)
of applications and requirements). Relying on photosensitive resin-based materials, the CLIP
technology is a member of the VP technology family [7] and
is strongly related to digital light processing (DLP), utilizing a
light mask projector as the central machine element [14]. Start-
ing a build, the print platform is submerged in the resin reser-
voir. Through an optically transparent and oxygen-permeable
window from beneath, the digital light processor irradiates the
respective cross-section layer of the part to be produced into
the liquid and triggers the solidification of the exposed resin.
During the build process, the print platform constantly moves
upwards to maintain a thin gradient of polymerization between
the previously solidified resin and a dead zone, where resin
solidification is inhibited by oxygen. Through this continuous
process, the part and support structures (e.g. for overhangs) are
formed [6, 15]. Like other VP technologies, CLIP requires fur-
ther post-processing steps to provide a ready-to-use part. These
comprise washing of the build platform and parts to remove ad-
herent uncured resin after the print. This is followed by removal
of support structures, dependent on the part geometry and ori-
entation. Also, thermal curing of the green parts is required to
improve the part properties [12, 15]. In direct comparison to
PBF processes, the CLIP technology can realize considerably
higher surface detail (apart from support structure attachment
Fig. 1. Illustrations of the printing process mechanisms for MJF (top) and CLIP marks) and smaller part features, also benefiting from more
(bottom) with respective main inputs and outputs (adapted from [5] and [6])
gentle post-processing. However, smaller build envelopes and
process speed result in far lower productivity.
2.1. Multi-jet Fusion (MJF)
3. Methodology
As a member of the PBF technology family, multi-jet fu-
sion (MJF) is characterized by its basic mechanism of fusing 3.1. Value stream mapping in AM
areas in a powder bed by heat energy [7]. The process most Among other methods for holistic process representation,
commonly utilizes thermoplastic polymers like Polyamide 11 value stream mapping stands out regarding its user value for
(PA 11) and Polyamide 12 (PA 12) with a well-controllable assessing process performance in a simple and understandable
melt behavior and the opportunity to partially recycle excess manner [16]. Through assessment of all processes in the value
material for subsequent prints [8, 9]. MJF’s is defined by ap- stream and their related material and information flows, all
plication of fusing and detailing agents through an inkjet print- non-value adding activities are identified and consequently re-
2

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 442 Mathias Wiese et al. / Procedia CIRP 105 (2022) 440–445

duced or eliminated [17, 18]. Since introduction of the origi- adding and non-value adding states is possible. The VDMA
nal method and its sole focus on technical and informational 34179 standard for measurements to determine the energy and
aspects of value chains, multiple approaches were presented to resource demand of machine tools for mass production [28] can
enhance VSM’s capabilities to also cover process chain sustain- be used as a measurement reference, meeting the requirements
ability aspects. for a value stream analysis [26]. As usual manufacturing steps
Erlach and Westkämper extended material and information are conducted in a time domain of minutes, continuous mea-
flows by energy flows in energy value stream mapping surements over at least one processing cycle (including ma-
(EVSM) [19], which allows to identify energetical hot-spots chine states for powering up and down, standby and further)
and wastages. Beyond this, some researchers developed ap- for a designated product should be conducted with a sampling
proaches to include even more dimensions towards sustain- rate in the second domain. Depending on the underlying pro-
able manufacturing [20]. Also, simulation-based VSM ap- cess, the data might be noisy and requires further processing
proaches are presented to overcome the static character of the such as smoothing (e.g. LOESS, PAA smoothing) for interpre-
original method and enable analysis of dynamics within the tation. Exemplary, the following Figure 2 shows the generated
value streams, partially even able to reflect multi-product value load profile, derived machine states and value adding phases of
streams [21]. As presented by Romero and Arce [22], VSM ex- an HP 4210 MJF printer in production.
periences a great uptake in industry and research across many
manufacturing sectors. However, only few researchers made
use of these methodologies in evaluation of AM-based man-
ufacturing systems. Kurdve et al. [23] compared a traditional
manufacturing approach with a powder-based AM value stream
for manufacturing of metal parts and improved the AM scenario
through change in material and finishing operations. Pushparaj
et al. [24] used the VSM approach to assess and improve eco-
nomics of a value stream based on Fused Deposition Modeling
(FDM) through grouping and simultaneous printing of parts.
Wiese et al. [25] developed a simulation based process chain
model for MJF in AM-based end-use part manufacturing for
automotive components and applied the EVSM methodology
for summary and aggregation of the calculated performance in- Fig. 2. Obtained load profile for a full print on an HP 4210 MJF printer with
dicators. different machine states and value adding phase (red)
Building on these first applications of VSM in AM, this paper
further highlights the process from data acquisition to setup of At first, the machine passes an initialization for about 28 min
an EVSM for AM process chains. Using measurement guide- at an average power demand of 0.36 kW and then powers up for
lines, we bridge this gap to holistically assess AM process 32 min at Pavg of 6.71 kW. During the working state, the ma-
chains regarding their technical and energetical performance chine adds value to the product (indicated in red) for about 647
in series manufacturing and provide essential data for subse- min at Pavg of 8.54 kW. Finishing the print, the machine pow-
quent steps like simulation and scaling of the production sys- ers down (t= 39 min, Pavg = 2.37 kW) and subsequently enters
tem. While technically all mentioned VSM approaches are ap- the idle (t= 64 min, Pavg = 0.34 kW), respectively standby state
plicable, this paper builds on extension of the EVSM approach (Pavg = 0.14 kW).
[26] to distinguish between different energy demands of ma- This procedure needs to be applied equally for all in-
chine states. This greatly blends in with the derivation of ma- volved equipment types to determine machine states and state-
chine states via the VDMA 34179 standard as presented in the dependent power demands, which is shown later in Figure 4.
following section. For this paper, tracking of process times, in- 4. Case study: EVSM for DLP and MJF process chains in
ventories and product flow as presented in the original VSM end-use part manufacturing
approach [17] is enhanced with tracking of energy demand
of the different process stages in alignment with Erlach’s ap- 4.1. Assumptions and limitations for the case study
proach. Furthermore, the methodology distinguishes between For this case study, certain assumptions apply to the respec-
value adding activities and non-value adding activities and thus tive processes. Firstly, the process chains are constituted of sin-
contributes to identify and reduce the latter. This distinction is gle machines for each process, meaning that there is no equip-
a central aspect in establishment of energy and resource effi- ment operated in parallel. This way, the products sequentially
ciency in manufacturing value chains [27]. flow through the respective process chain and dynamics orig-
inating from parallel operation of multiple resources per pro-
3.2. Data acquisition and processing
cess are neglected in favor of reduced complexity and focus of
In order to obtain the data for creation of energy value stream the paper on the applied EVSM methodology. Consequently,
maps, involved equipment in the process chain needs to be an- insights reflect the properties of a ’base configuration’, a min-
alyzed regarding its different machine states and the associated imum functional process sequence. Both process chains reflect
energy consumption. After this, distinguishing between value the necessary processes from base material to delivery of a raw
3

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 Mathias Wiese et al. / Procedia CIRP 105 (2022) 440–445 443

de-supporting. The green parts then need to undergo a final ther-

MJF

Build unit Unpack & re- Glass bead Vibratory

Print
cooling conditioning blasting grinding mal curing cycle in an oven for the material to reach its end-use
properties.
4.3. EVSM generation and analysis for MJF and CLIP
CLIP

Wash part & Remove Thermal

Print
build platform support curing
In a first step towards EVSM, the used equipment along the
Fig. 3. Process chain sequence for MJF and CLIP
process chain is analyzed regarding its different machine states
and the resulting energy consumption while distinguishing be-
tween value adding and non-value adding states. To obtain this
part with comparable properties, which is ready for further fin- data, energy measurements in alignment with the VDMA 34179
ishing like painting. standard [28] were conducted along the process chain. The ac-
quired data results in seven power profiles for the four machines
4.2. Production task and resulting process chains for MJF and
used in the MJF process chain (printer, unpacking station, auto-
CLIP
mated glass bead blasting chamber, vibratory grinder) and three
As a production task for this case study, an automotive ex- machines in the CLIP process chain (printer, part washer, curing
terior trim part is selected to be produced via MJF and CLIP. oven). These profiles underwent load profile analysis in order to
All presented data bases on measurements and observations of derive the different machine states and product-related energy
the two associated process chains. Prior to build execution, the consumption as shown, e.g., by Teiwes et al. [29]. A high level
print jobs are prepared as summarized in Table 1. For MJF, a HP overview of the resulting power profiles and the value adding
4210 printer is used which realizes a batch size of 144 parts in phases during operation (highlighted in red) is provided in Fig-
PA 12 material within an operation duration of 755 min in fast ure 4 together with the respective EVSM elements. For noise
print mode. Being significantly smaller, the Carbon M2 printer reduction, the graphs have been smoothed using the LOESS
selected for the CLIP process produces 6 parts in EPX 82 mate- method.
rial within an operation duration of 310 min. In contrast to the
self-supporting powder bed in the MJF process, support struc- 4.3.1. Technical and energetic performance
tures need to be added in production via CLIP. Looking at the EVSM of the process chains, the involved
processes behave very differently. For MJF with an overall lead
time of 1733 min and a calculated takt time of 12 min, the lead
time is mainly determined by the printing and cooling process
with their equal duration of 755 min. Following processes like
unpacking and reconditioning of the build unit, glass bead blast-
ing and grinding are comparably short, ranging from 11 to 133
min of in-process time. A similar pattern exists for the energy
use in the MJF process chain. With an energy intensity of 675
Process MJF CLIP Wh per part (EI VA + EI NVA), the printing process demands
Printer HP 4210 Carbon M2 for the highest energy share along the process chain. Subse-
Batch size 144 6 quent processes with energy requirements range between 5.6
Material PA 12 EPX 82 Wh (vibratory grinding), 7 Wh (unpacking & reconditioning)
Duration 755 min 310 min
and up to 72 Wh (glass bead blasting, including energy for com-
Table 1. Print job specifications for the production task pressed air). In general, the value adding share of energy (EI
VA) is high. One exception is the unpacking and reconditioning
The different nature of the technologies imply different pro- process, where the build unit is refilled after extraction of the
cess chains, as illustrated in Figure 3. parts from the powder bed, resulting in a higher share of non-
For MJF, the print is followed by an unsupervised cooling value adding energy. A different pattern is visible in the CLIP
phase, which equals the print duration, before the build unit is process chain. While the total lead time of 1153 min is lower
transferred to an unpacking station for removal of the parts from than the one in the MJF process chain, the main contribution to
the build unit and its reconditioning for subsequent prints. Un- lead time is found at the end of the process chain, namely in the
packed parts still are covered in adherent powder, which leads thermal curing process with a duration of 814 min. Similarly,
to the following step of glass-bead blasting in an automated the energy intensity during thermal curing is high and results in
blasting chamber. This process removes adherent powder and a comparably higher energy intensity per part than found in the
prepares the part for the finishing step of vibratory grinding for MJF process chain (2136 Wh per part). However, the capacity
surface smoothing. utilization in the final curing step is comparably low and likely
Printing with the CLIP process leaves the parts on the build can be significantly improved by curing multiple print jobs at
platform of the printer covered in unsolidified resin. Conse- once. In a sequential process however, this would increase the
quently, the build platform and adherent parts need to undergo lead time due to the execution of multiple prints before cur-
a washing cycle in a specific part washer. After this washing ing parts from multiple prints in a single batch. The calculated
cycle, parts are ready for removal from the build platform and takt time of 192 mins in the CLIP process chain is significantly
4

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 444 Mathias Wiese et al. / Procedia CIRP 105 (2022) 440–445

Fig. 4. Generated EVSMs for the MJF and CLIP process chains with load profiles for the involved equipment

higher than the takt time of the MJF process chain. From techni- ates and is generally situated in the low figures, a CLIP process
cal perspective, processes with the highest cycle times represent chain can represent a better option for production. Its roughly
the bottleneck in the process chain [18], which is the case for 10 hour shorter lead time can respond to part orders in a faster
cooling (MJF) and thermal curing (CLIP). way. When scaling of production is necessary to meet the pro-
4.3.2. Implications for industrial practice and upscaling duction task, it implies different measures as, e.g., specified by
Thiede et al. [30]. As more efficient nesting is a limited option
While both presented process chains achieve comparable due to the already densely packed build jobs, a next upscaling
product properties for use in automotive applications [1], the strategy can be the change to bigger machines (e.g. the Carbon
process chains behave differently. The applied EVSM method- L1 for the CLIP technology) or adding further machines in par-
ology enhances transparency and comparability to find the right allel for higher productivity of the process chain. However, this
process chain for a given production scenario with respect to not only demands higher financial resources but also moving
environmental and technical performance indicators. It also un- from a sequential process chain to multiple machines operated
derlines, that AM needs to be carefully evaluated dependent on in parallel. This causes dynamic effects in the process chain,
the underlying production scenario, the resulting process chains which need to be considered as they can have a great influence
and their influence on the product properties. From an industrial on its overall performance [25].
point of view, both processes would be applicable for different
production scenarios. When opting for high throughput respec- 5. Discussion and outlook
tively short takt times, the MJF process chain can be considered In this work, we applied the ESVM methodology to two
the process of choice. Furthermore, when related to part output, AM process chains and consequently derived their performance
it is utilizing less staff per produced part, which also is a rel- concerning technical and energetic KPIs. While the MJF pro-
evant figure industrial production scenarios. Its high through- cess chain’s energetical hotspot is situated in the printing pro-
put comes at the cost of high batch sizes as long as no mixed cess itself, the hotspot for CLIP is found in thermal post-
part production approach is taken. When part demand fluctu- processing, exceeding the comparably efficient printing process
5

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 Mathias Wiese et al. / Procedia CIRP 105 (2022) 440–445 445

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