رياضة-1

‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪By Ali Khalil Al-shaikhly‬‬
‫‪shaikhly‬‬ ‫‪Mathematics 1‬‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌــــــــﺔ اﻟﻧﺟـــــــــم اﻟﺳـــــــــــﺎطﻊ – اﻟﺑرﯾﻘـــــــــﺔ‬

‫ﻛﻠﯾـــــــﺔ اﻟﻌﻠوم اﻟﮭﻧدﺳﯾـــــــــﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺳـــــــم اﻟﻌـــــــﺎم‬
‫ﻣﻘـــــرر رﯾﺎﺿﯾــــــﺎت ‪GS113‬‬
‫اﻋداد ‪ /‬أ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﺧﻠﯾل اﺳﻣﺎﻋﯾل اﻟﺷﯾﺧﻠﻲ‬

1 By Ali Khalil Al-shaikhly Mathematics 1
 Elementary Set Theory

A set can be any collection of objects. A set of objects can be represented using
the notation
ܵ ൌ ሼ ‫ݔ ݐݑ݋ܾܽ ݐ݊݁݉݁ݐܽݐݏ | ݔ‬ሽ
and is read,“S is the set of objects x which make the statement about x true”.
Alternatively, a finite number of objects within S can be denoted by listing the
objects and writing
ܵ ൌ ሼܵ1, ܵ2, . . . , ܵ݊ሽ
For example, the notation
ܵ ൌ ሼ ‫ ݔ | ݔ‬െ 4 ൐ 0ሽ
can be used to denote the set of points x which are greater than 4 and the notation
ܶ ൌ ሼ‫ܣ‬, ‫ܤ‬, ‫ܥ‬, ‫ܦ‬, ‫ܧ‬ሽ
can be used to represent a set containing the first 5 letters of the alphabet.
 Empty Set
A set with no elements is denoted by the symbol ∅ and is known as the empty
set.
 Universal Set U
The elements within a set are usually selected from some universal set U
associated with the elements x belonging to the set. When dealing with real
numbers the universal set U is understood to be the set of all real numbers. The
universal set is usually defined beforehand or is implied within the context of how
the set is being used.
For example, the universal set associated with the set T above could be the set of
all symbols if that is appropriate and within the context of how the set T is being
used.
 Belongs To
The symbol is read “belongs to” or “is a member of” and the symbol ∉ is read
“not in” or “is not a member of”. The statement ‫ ܵ ∈ ݔ‬is read “x is a member of S ”
or “x belongs to S ”. The statement ‫ ܵ ∉ ݕ‬is read “y does not belong to S” or “y is
not a member of S”.
Some examples of well known sets are the following:
The set of natural numbers ܰ ൌ ሼ1, 2, 3, . . . ሽ
The set of integers ܼ ൌ ሼ. . . , െ3, െ2, െ1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . ሽ
The set of rational numbers ܳ ൌ ሼ‫݌‬/‫ݎ݁݃݁ݐ݊݅ ݊ܽ ݏ݅ ݌ | ݍ‬, ‫ݎ݁݃݁ݐ݊݅ ݊ܽ ݏ݅ ݍ‬, ‫ ് ݍ‬0ሽ
The set of prime numbers ܲ ൌ ሼ2, 3, 5, 7, 11, . . . ሽ
The set of complex numbers‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሼ ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݅ ‫ ݅ | ݕ‬ଶ ൌ െ1, ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݏݎܾ݁݉ݑ݊ ݈ܽ݁ݎ ݁ݎܽ ݕ‬ሽ
The set of real numbers ܴ ൌ ሼ‫ݏݎܾ݁݉ݑ݊ ݈ܽ݉݅ܿ݁݀ ݈݈ܣ‬ሽ
The set of 2-tuples ܴଶ ൌ ሼ ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ | ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݏݎܾ݁݉ݑ݊ ݈ܽ݁ݎ ݁ݎܽ ݕ‬ሽ
The set of 3-tuples ܴଷ ൌ ሼ ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ | ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ ݏݎܾ݁݉ݑ݊ ݈ܽ݁ݎ ݁ݎܽ ݖ‬ሽ
The set of n-tuples ܴ௡ ൌ ሼ ሺߝଵ , ߝଶ , … , ߝ௡ ሻ | ߝଵ , ߝଶ , … , ߝ௡ ܽ‫ ݏݎܾ݁݉ݑ݊ ݈ܽ݁ݎ ݁ݎ‬ሽ
 Subsets
If for every element ‫ ܣ ∈ ݔ‬one can show that ‫ ݔ‬is also an element of a set ‫ܤ‬, then
the set ‫ ܣ‬is called a subset of ‫ ܤ‬or one can say the set ‫ ܣ‬is contained in the set ‫ܤ‬.
This is expressed using the mathematical statement ‫ܤ ⊂ ܣ‬, which is read “‫ ܣ‬is a
subset of ‫”ܤ‬. This can also be expressed by saying that ‫ ܤ‬contains ‫ܣ‬, which is
written as ‫ܣ ⊃ ܤ‬. If one can find one element of ‫ ܣ‬which is not in the set ‫ܤ‬, then ‫ܣ‬
is not a subset of ‫ܤ‬. This is expressed using either of the notations ‫ ܤ ⊄ ܣ‬or
‫ܣ ⊅ ܤ‬. Note that the above definition implies that every set is a subset of itself,
since the elements of a set ‫ ܣ‬belong to the set ‫ܣ‬. Whenever ‫ ܤ ⊂ ܣ‬and ‫ܤ ് ܣ‬,
then ‫ ܣ‬is called a proper subset of ‫ܤ‬.
 Power Set
A Power Set of a set ܵ is a set of all the subsets of a the set ܵ, denoted by ܲሺܵሻ.
Example All the subsets of a set ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ

 The empty set ሼ ሽ is a subset of ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ.
 And these are subsets: ሼܽሽ, ሼܾሽ and ሼܿሽ.
 And these are also subsets: ሼܽ, ܾሽ, ሼܽ, ܿሽ and ሼܾ, ܿሽ.
 And ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ is a subset of ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ
And together we get the power set of ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ
ܲሺܵሻ ൌ ሼ ሼ ሽ , ሼܽሽ , ሼܾሽ , ሼܿሽ , ሼܽ, ܾሽ , ሼܽ, ܿሽ , ሼܾ, ܿሽ , ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ ሽ
How Many Subsets
If the original set has ݊ members, then the Power Set will have 2௡ sets.
Example ሼ‫܉‬, ‫܊‬, ‫܋‬ሽ has three members ( ࢇ, ࢈ and ࢉ ).
So, the Power Set should have 2ଶ ൌ 8 set.

Notation The number of members of a set is often written as |‫|܁‬, so when ‫ ܁‬has
‫ ܖ‬members we can write:
|ܲሺܵሻ| ൌ 2௡
Example for the set ܵ ൌ ሼ1,2,3,4,5ሽ how many members will the power set
have? ܵ have 5 members, so
|ܲሺܵሻ| ൌ 2௡ ൌ 2ହ ൌ 32
Example If ܵ ൌ ሼ1,2,3,4ሽ then the power set of the set ܵ is
The power set should have |ܲሺܵሻ|2ସ ൌ 16 set.
So, ܲሺܵሻ ൌ ሼ ሼ ሽ , ሼ1ሽ , ሼ2ሽ , ሼ3ሽ , ሼ4ሽ , ሼ1,2ሽ , ሼ1,3ሽ , ሼ1,4ሽ , ሼ2,3ሽ , ሼ2,4ሽ , ሼ3,4ሽ ,
ሼ1,2,3ሽ , ሼ1,2,4ሽ , ሼ1,3,4ሽ , ሼ2,3,4ሽ , ሼ1,2,3,4ሽ ሽ
 Set Operations
Given two sets ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ܤ‬, the Union of these sets is written ‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ‬and defined
‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ ‫ܤ ∈ ݔ ݎ݋ ܣ ∈ ݔ | ݔ‬, ‫ܤ ݀݊ܽ ܣ ݄ݐ݋ܾ ∈ ݔ ݎ݋‬ሽ
Union properties
1- ‫ ܣ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ 2- ‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ ∪ ܤ‬
3- ‫ ∅ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ 4- ‫ ܷ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ܷ
5- ‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ ⊆ ܣ‬, ‫ܤ ∪ ܣ ⊆ ܤ‬ 6- ‫ ∪ ܣ‬ሺ‫ܥ ∪ ܤ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ሻ ∪ ‫ܥ‬
The Intersection of two sets ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬is written ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬and defined

‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ ‫ ܤ ݀݊ܽ ܣ ݄ݐ݋ܾ ∈ ݔ | ݔ‬ሽ
If ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬is the empty set one writes ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ∅ and then the sets ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬are
said to be disjoint.
Intersection properties
1- ‫ ܣ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ 2- ‫ ܷ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬
3- ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ ∩ ܤ‬ 4- ‫ ܣ ⊆ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬, ‫ܤ ⊆ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬
5- ‫ ∅ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ∅ 6- ‫ ∩ ܣ‬ሺ‫ܥ ∩ ܤ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ሻ ∩ ‫ܥ‬
The Difference between two sets ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬is written ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬and defined
‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ሼ ‫ ܤ ∉ ݔ ݀݊ܽ ܣ ∈ ݔ | ݔ‬ሽ
Difference properties
1- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ∅ 2- ‫ ܣ‬െ ∅ ൌ ‫ܣ‬
3- ‫ ܣ‬െ ܷ ൌ ∅ 4- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ ് ܤ‬െ ‫ܣ‬
5- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ ⟺ ܣ‬ൌ ∅ 6- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ∅ ⟺ ‫ܤ ⊆ ܣ‬
The Equality of two sets is written ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ ܤ‬and defined

‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ ⊂ ܤ ݀݊ܽ ܤ ⊂ ܣ ݂݅ ݕ݈݊݋ ݀݊ܽ ݂݅ ܤ‬
That is, if ‫ ܤ ⊂ ܣ‬and ‫ܣ ⊂ ܤ‬, then the sets ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬must have the same
elements which implies equality. Conversely, if two sets are equal ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܤ‬, then
‫ ܤ ⊂ ܣ‬and ‫ ܣ ⊂ ܤ‬since every set is a subset of itself.
The Complement of set ‫ ܣ‬with respect to the universal set ܷ is written ‫ܣ‬௖ and
defined
‫ܣ‬௖ ൌ ሼ ‫ ܣ ∉ ݔ ݐݑܾ ܷ ∈ ݔ | ݔ‬ሽ
Observe that the complement of a set A satisfies the complement laws
1- ‫ܣ ∪ ܣ‬௖ ൌ ܷ 2- ‫ܣ ∩ ܣ‬௖ ൌ ∅
3- ∅௖ ൌ ܷ 4- ܷ ௖ ൌ ∅
5- ሺ‫ܣ‬௖ ሻ௖ ൌ ‫ܣ‬
The operations of union ⋃ and intersection ∩ satisfy the distributive laws

1- ‫ ∪ ܣ‬ሺ‫ܥ ∩ ܤ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ሻ ∩ ሺ‫ܥ ∪ ܣ‬ሻ
2- ‫ ∩ ܣ‬ሺ‫ܥ ∪ ܤ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ሻ ∪ ሺ‫ܥ ∩ ܣ‬ሻ
and the identity laws
1- ‫ ∅ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ 2- ‫ ܷ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ܷ
3- ‫ ܷ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ 4- ‫ ∅ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ∅
Example
If ܷ ൌ ሼ1,2,3, … ,10ሽ, ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ1,2,4,7ሽ, ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ሼ2,3,4,5ሽ, ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሼ8,9ሽ then
1- ‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ1,2,3,4,5,7ሽ 5- ‫ ܤ‬െ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ3,5ሽ

2- ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ2,4ሽ 6- ‫ ܤ‬െ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሼ2,3,4,5ሽ
3- ‫ ܥ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ∅ 7- ‫ܣ‬௖ ൌ ሼ3,5,6,8,9,10ሽ
4- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ሼ1,7ሽ 8- ‫ܣ‬௖ ∩ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሼ8,9ሽ
9- ሺ‫ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ሻ௖ ൌ ሼ6,8,9,10ሽ 10- ሺ‫ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ሻ௖ െ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሼ6,10ሽ
 Intervals
When dealing with real numbers a, b, x it is customary to use the following
notations to represent various intervals of real numbers.
Set Notation Set Definition Name
ሾܽ, ܾሿ ሼ‫ ܽ | ݔ‬൑ ‫ ݔ‬൑ ܾሽ closed interval
ሺܽ, ܾሻ ሼ‫ ܽ | ݔ‬൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ܾሽ open interval
ሾܽ, ܾሻ ሼ‫ ܽ | ݔ‬൑ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ܾሽ left-closed, right-open
ሺܽ, ܾሿ ሼ‫ ܽ | ݔ‬൏ ‫ ݔ‬൑ ܾሽ left-open, right-closed
ሺܽ, ∞ሻ ሼ‫ ݔ | ݔ‬൐ ܽሽ left-open, unbounded
ሾܽ, ∞ሻ ሼ‫ ݔ | ݔ‬൒ ܽሽ left-closed,unbounded
ሺെ∞, ܽሻ ሼ‫ ݔ | ݔ‬൏ ܽሽ unbounded, right-open
ሺെ∞, ܽሿ ሼ‫ ݔ | ݔ‬൑ ܽሽ unbounded, right-closed
ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ ܴ ൌ ሼ‫ | ݔ‬െ ∞ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ∞ሽ Set of real numbers
Example
If ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሺെ4,5ሿ , ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ሾെ1,10ሿ , ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሾെ5,3ሻ then
1- ‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ሺെ4,10ሿ
2- ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬ൌ ሾെ1,5ሿ
3- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሾ3,5ሿ
4- ‫ ܥ‬െ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሾെ5, െ4ሿ
5- ‫ܤ‬௖ ൌ ሺെ∞, െ1ሻ ∪ ሺ10, ∞ሻ
6- ሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܥ‬ሻ௖ ൌ ሺെ∞, 3ሻ ∪ ሺ5, ∞ሻ

 Inequalities
A mathematical expression contains one of ൑ , ൒ , ൏ , ൐ is called an Inequality
There are three types of inequalities :
1- Inequality of first degree ( linear inequality ).
2- Nonlinear inequality.
3- Inequality contains an absolute value.
Rules for Inequalities
If a, b, and c are real numbers, then:
1- ܽ ൏ ܾ ⟹ ܽ ൅ ܿ ൏ ܾ ൅ ܿ
2- ܽ ൏ ܾ ⟹ ܽ െ ܿ ൏ ܾ െ ܿ
3- ܽ ൏ ܾ ܽ݊݀ ܿ ൐ 0 ⟹ ܽܿ ൏ ܾܿ
4- ܽ ൏ ܾ ܽ݊݀ ܿ ൏ 0 ⟹ ܾܿ ൏ ܽܿ
Special case: ܽ ൏ ܾ ⟹ െܾ ൏ െܽ
ଵ
5- ܽ ൐ 0 ⟹ ൐0
௔
ଵ ଵ
6- If ܽ and ܾ are both positive or both negative, then ܽ ൏ ܾ ⟹ ൏
௕ ௔
Notice the rules for multiplying an inequality by a number. Multiplying by a

positive number preserves the inequality; multiplying by a negative number
reverses the inequality. Also, reciprocation reverses the inequality for numbers of
the same sign. For example 2 ൏ 5 but െ2 ൐ െ5 and 1ൗ2 ൐ 1ൗ5 .
 Solving Inequalities
The process of finding the interval or intervals of numbers that satisfy an
inequality in x is called solving the inequality.
Example Solve the following inequalities

௫
(a) 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 (b) – ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 1
ଷ
ଶ௫ିସ
(c) െ9 ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ൑ 7 (d) െ2 ൏ ൏2
ହ
(e) െ5 ൑ 3 െ 2‫ ݔ‬൏ 11 (f) 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൏ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2

Solution
(a) 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3
2‫ ݔ‬൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 add 1 to both sides
‫ݔ‬൏4 subtract x from both sides
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞, 4ሻ
௫
(b) െ ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 1
ଷ
െ‫ ݔ‬൏ 6‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 Multiply both sides by 3
0 ൏ 7‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 add x to both sides
െ3 ൏ 7‫ݔ‬ subtract 3 from both sides

ଷ
െ ൏‫ݔ‬ Divide by 7
଻
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ 3ൗ7 , ∞ሻ
(c) െ9 ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ൑ 7
െ12 ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬൑ 4 subtract 3 from both sides
െ6 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 2 Divide by 2
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ6 , 2ሿ
ଶ௫ିସ
(d) െ2 ൏ ൏2
ହ
െ10 ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 4 ൏ 10 Multiply both sides by 5

െ6 ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬൏ 14 add 4 to the both sides
െ3 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ 7 Divide by 2
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ3 , 7ሻ
(e) െ5 ൑ 3 െ 2‫ ݔ‬൏ 11
െ8 ൑ െ2‫ ݔ‬൏ 8 subtract 3 from both sides
4 ൒ ‫ ݔ‬൐ െ4 Divide by -2
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ4 , 4ሿ
(f) 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൏ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2

2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 and ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൏ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2
2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬൏ 4 ൅ 3 ‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬൏ െ2 െ 4
‫ݔ‬൏7 െ2‫ ݔ‬൏ െ6
‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞, 7ሻ ‫ݔ‬൐3
‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺ3, ∞ሻ
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞ , 7ሻ ∩ ሺ3, ∞ሻ ൌ ሺ3,7ሻ
The steps to solve any nonlinear inequalities are:

1- Rewrite the inequality so that there is a zero on the right side .
2- Let the inequality equal to Zero.
3- Find the values of ‫ݔ‬.
4- Draw the real number line and find when the inequality is true on the line.
5- Write the solution sets.
Example solve the nonlinear inequalities

(a) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 12 ൏ 0 (b) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 7‫ ݔ‬൅ 10 ൒ 0
(c) ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 25‫ ݔ‬൒ 0 (d) 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
(e) ‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 1 ൏ 0 (f) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬൒ 10
Solution
(a) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 12 ൏ 0
ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 3ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ ൌ 0
The we have ‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 3
and ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ4
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ4 , 3ሻ

(b) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 7‫ ݔ‬൅ 10 ൒ 0

ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 5ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻ ൌ 0
then we have ‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ݔ‬ൌ5
and ‫ݔ‬െ2ൌ0 ⟹ ‫ݔ‬ൌ2
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞ ,2ሿ ∪ ሾ5, ∞ሻ

(c) ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 25‫ ݔ‬൒ 0
‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 25ሻ ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 5ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 5ሻ ൌ 0
then we have ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0
and ‫ݔ‬െ5ൌ0 ⟹ ‫ݔ‬ൌ5
and ‫ݔ‬൅5ൌ0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ5
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞, 0ሻ ∪ ሺ4,5ሻ

(d) 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
2‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൑ 0
2‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൌ 0 ⟹ ሺ2‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻ ൌ 0
ଵ
Now we have 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൌ 0 ⟹ 2‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
ଶ
and ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ1
ଵ
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሾെ1, ሿ
ଶ
(e) ‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 1 ൏ 0
ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻ ൏ 0
ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻ ൌ 0
Now we have ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1
and ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ1
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ1,1ሻ

(f) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬൒ 10
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 10 ൒ 0
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 10 ൌ 0 ⟹ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 5ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻ ൌ 0
Now we have ‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 5
‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞, െ2ሿ ∪ ሾ5, ∞ሻ

 Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number x, denoted by |‫ |ݔ‬is defined by the formula
‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬൒ 0
|‫ |ݔ‬ൌ ቄ
െ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݔ‬൑0
Example
Finding Absolute Values
|3| ൌ 3, |0| ൌ 0, |െ5| ൌ െሺെ5ሻ ൌ 5, |െa| ൌ a
Geometrically, the absolute value of x is the distance from x to 0 on the real
number line. Since distances are always positive or 0, we see that |‫ |ݔ‬൒ 0 for every
real number x, |‫ |ݔ‬ൌ 0 and if and only if ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 Also,
Absolute Value Properties

1- |െܽ| ൌ |ܽ| A number and its additive inverse or negative have the
same absolute value
2- |ab| ൌ |a||b| The absolute value of a product is the product of the

absolute values
௔ |௔| The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient of the

3- absolute values
௕ |௕ |
4- |ܽ ൅ ܾ| ൑ |ܽ| ൅ |ܾ| The triangle inequality. The absolute value of the sum of
two numbers is less than or equal to the sum of their
absolute values
5- |ܽ െ ܾ| ൒ ห|ܽ| െ |ܾ|ห
Example Illustrating the Triangle Inequality

|െ3 ൅ 5| ൌ |2| ൌ 2 ൏ |െ3| ൅ |5| ൌ 8
The inequality |‫ |ݔ‬൏ ܽ says that the distance from x to 0 is less than the positive
number a. This means that x must lie between െܽ and a.
The following statements are all consequences of the definition of absolute value
and are often helpful when solving equations or inequalities involving absolute
values.
Absolute Values and Intervals

If a is any positive number, then
5- |‫ | ݔ‬ൌ ܽ ݂݅ ܽ݊݀ ‫݂݅ ݕ݈݊݋‬ ‫ ݔ‬ൌേܽ
6- |‫ | ݔ‬൏ ܽ ݂݅ ܽ݊݀ ‫ ݂݅ ݕ݈݊݋‬െ ܽ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ܽ
7- |‫ | ݔ‬൐ ܽ ݂݅ ܽ݊݀ ‫ ݔ ݂݅ ݕ݈݊݋‬൐ ܽ ܽ݊݀ ‫ ݔ‬൏ െܽ
8- |‫ | ݔ‬൑ ܽ ݂݅ ܽ݊݀ ‫ ݂݅ ݕ݈݊݋‬െ ܽ ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൑ ܽ
9- |‫ | ݔ‬൒ ܽ ݂݅ ܽ݊݀ ‫ ݔ ݂݅ ݕ݈݊݋‬൒ ܽ ܽ݊݀ ‫ ݔ‬൑ െܽ
Example Solving an Equation with Absolute Values

ଶ
(a) |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൌ 7 ሺbሻ ቚ5 െ ቚ ൏ 1
௫
(c) |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൒ 1 (d) |3‫ ݔ‬െ 1| ൑ 5

(e) ห|‫ |ݔ‬െ 1ห ൌ 3 (f) |1 െ 5‫ |ݔ‬൑ 3
Solution
(a) |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൌ 7
By Property 5, 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൌ േ7 , so there are two possibilities
2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൌ 7 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൌ െ7 Equivalent equation without
2‫ ݔ‬ൌ 10 2‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ4 absolute values solve as usual.
‫ݔ‬ൌ5 ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2
The solutions of |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൌ 7 are ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 5 and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2.
ଶ
(b) ቚ5 െ ቚ ൏ 1
୶
ଶ ଶ
We have ቚ5 െ ቚ ൏ 1 ⟺ െ1 ൏ 5 െ ൏ 1 Property 6
௫ ௫
ଶ
⇔ െ6 ൏ െ ൏ െ4 ܵ‫ ݐܿܽݎݐܾݑ‬5
௫
ଵ ଵ
⇔ 3൐ ൐2 Mutiply by െ
௫ ଶ
ଵ ଵ
⇔ ൏‫ݔ‬൏ Take reciprocals.
ଷ ଶ
Notice how the various rules for inequalities were used here. Multiplying by a
negative number reverses the inequality. So does taking reciprocals in an inequality
in which both sides are positive. The original inequality holds if and only if
ሺ1ൗ3ሻ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ሺ1ൗ2ሻ
The solution set is the open interval ሺ1ൗ3 , 1ൗ2ሻ.

(c) |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൒ 1

2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൒ 1 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൑ െ1 Property 9
‫ݔ‬െ ൒
ଷ ଵ 3 1
ଶ ଶ ‫ݔ‬െ ൑െ Divide by 2
2 2
‫ݔ‬൒2 ଷ
‫ݔ‬൑1 Add
ଶ
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞ , 1ሿ ⋃ ሾ2 , ∞ ሻ.
(d) |3‫ ݔ‬െ 1| ൑ 5

We have |3‫ ݔ‬െ 1| ൑ 5 ⟺ െ5 ൑ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1 ൑ 5 Property 8
⇔ െ4 ൑ 3‫ ݔ‬൑ 6 ܽ݀݀ 1
ସ
⇔ െ ൑‫ݔ‬൑2 divide by 3
ଷ
ସ
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሾെ , 2ሿ
ଷ
(e) ห|‫ |ݔ‬െ 1ห ൌ 3

By Property 5, |‫ |ݔ‬െ 1 ൌ േ3 , so there are two possibilities
|‫ |ݔ‬െ 1 ൌ 3 |‫ |ݔ‬െ 1 ൌ െ3
|‫ |ݔ‬ൌ 4 |‫ |ݔ‬ൌ െ2
‫ ݔ‬ൌ 4 ‫ ݔ ݎ݋‬ൌ െ4
‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሼെ4,4ሽ ‫∈ݔ‬ሼ ሽ
Now ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሼെ4,4ሽ ∪ ሼ ሽ
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሼെ4,4ሽ
(f) |1 െ 5‫ |ݔ‬൑ 3
We have |1 െ 5‫ |ݔ‬൑ 3 ⟺ െ3 ൑ 1 െ 5‫ ݔ‬൑ 3 Property 8
⟺ െ4 ൑ െ5‫ ݔ‬൑ 2 subtract 1
ସ ଶ
⟺ ൒‫ݔ‬൒െ divide by െ 5
ହ ହ
ଶ ସ
The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሾെ , ሿ
ହ ହ
 Functions and Their Graphs

A symbolic way to say “y is a function of x” is by writing
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
The symbol ƒ represents the function. The letter x, called the independent
variable, represents the input value of ƒ, and y, the dependent variable, represents
the corresponding output value of ƒ at x.
A function from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∈ ܻ to each element ‫ܦ ∈ ݔ‬.
The Domain is the set of all possible x-values which will make the function
"work", and will output real y-values.
When finding the domain, remember:
 The denominator (bottom) of a fraction cannot be zero
 The number under a square root sign must be positive in this section
Example
Here is the graph of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 4
The domain of this function
is ‫ ݔ‬൒ െ4, since x can’t be less
than െ4.
To see why, try out some numbers
less than െ4 ( like െ5 ‫ ݎ݋‬െ 10 )
and some more than െ4 ( like
െ2 ‫ ݎ݋‬8) in your calculator. The
only ones that "work" and give us an
answer are the ones greater than or
equal to െ4.
This will make the number under the
square root positive
How to find the domain

In general, we determine the domain of each function by looking for those values
of the independent variable (usually x) which we are allowed to use. (Usually we
have to avoid 0 on the bottom of a fraction, or negative values under the square root
sign).
Range
The Range is the resulting y-values we get after substituting all the possible x-
values.
How to find the range
 The range of a function is the spread of possible y-values (minimum y-
value to maximum y-value)
 Substitute different x-values into the expression for y to see what is
happening.
 Make sure you look for minimum and maximum values of y.
Example
Let's return to the example above, ‫ ݕ‬ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 4
We notice the curve is either on or

above the horizontal axis. No matter
what value of x we try, we will always
get a zero or positive value of y . We
say the range in this case is ‫ ݕ‬൒ 0 .
Example
√௫ାଶ
Find the domain and range of the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ .
௫ మ ିଽ
Solution
In the numerator (top) of this fraction, we have a square root. To make sure the
values under the square root are non-negative, we can only choose x-values grater
than or equal to െ2.
The denominator (bottom) has ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9, which we recognise we can write as
ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 3ሻ. So our values for x can’t include െ3 (from the first bracket) or
3 (from the second).
We don't need to worry about the െ3 anyway, because we decided in the first
step that ‫ ݔ‬൒ െ2.
So the domain for this case is ‫ ݔ‬൒ െ2,‫ ് ݔ‬3, which we can write as
ሾെ2,3ሻ ∪ ሺ3, ∞ሻ
To work out the range, we consider top and bottom of the fraction separately.
Numerator: If ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2, the top has value √െ2 ൅ 2 ൌ √0 ൌ 0. As x increases
value from െ2, the top will also increase (out to infinity in both cases).
Denominator: We break this up into four portions:
଴
1- When ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2,the bottom is ሺെ2ሻଶ െ 9 ൌ 4 െ 9 ൌ െ5. We ݂ሺെ2ሻ ൌ ൌ 0.
ିହ
2- Between ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2 and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 3, ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9ሻ gets closer to 0, so ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ will go to

െ∞ as it gets near ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 3.
3- For ‫ ݔ‬൐ 3, when x is just bigger than 3, the value of the bottom is just over 0,
so ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ will be a very large positive number.
4- For very large x, the top is large, but the bottom will be much larger, so
overall, the function value will be very small.
So we can conclude the range is ሺെ∞, 0ሿ ∪ ሺ0, ∞ሻ.
We can see in the following graph

that indeed, the domain is
ሾെ2,3ሻ ∪ ሺ3, ∞ሻ
(which includes െ2, but not 3).
and the range is "all values of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
except ‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 0.
Example
Find the domain and range of the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √3 െ ‫ݔ‬
Solution
The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √3 െ ‫ݔ‬
is not defined for real numbers greater
than 3, which would result in imaginary
values for ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ.
Hence, the domain for ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is "all real
numbers, ‫ ݔ‬൑ 3.
Also, by definition,݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √3 െ ‫ ݔ‬൒ 0
Hence, the range of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is "all real
numbers ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൒ 0.
We can see in the graph that x takes no
values greater than 3, and that the range is
greater than or equal to 0.
Example Find the Domain and the Range for the following
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4 (b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 ൅ √‫ ݔ‬െ 3
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ25 െ √‫ݔ‬ (d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √25 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ

ଵ
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ36 െ |‫|ݔ‬ (f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫మ
ଵ ହ
(g) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ (h) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ మ ାହ √௫ మ ାଵ଺
(i) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ௫
Solution
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ ൌ Թ
ܴ ൌ ሾ4, ∞ሻ
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 ൅ √‫ ݔ‬െ 3

‫ݔ‬െ3൒0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬൒3
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ሾ3, ∞ሻ
ܴ ൌ ሾ4, ∞ሻ
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ25 െ √‫ݔ‬

25 െ √‫ ݔ‬൒ 0 ⟹ െ√‫ ݔ‬൒ െ25 ⟹ √‫ ݔ‬൑ 25 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 625
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ሾ0,625ሿ
ܴ ൌ ሾ0,5ሿ
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √25 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ

25 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൒ 0
ሺ5 െ ‫ݔ‬ሻሺ5 ൅ ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 0
We get ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 5
and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ5
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ሾെ5,5ሿ
ܴ ൌ ሾ0,5ሿ
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ36 െ |‫|ݔ‬

36 െ |‫ |ݔ‬൒ 0 ⟹ െ|‫ |ݔ‬൒ െ36 ⟹ |‫ |ݔ‬൑ 36
then െ36 ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 36
‫ ܦ‬ൌ ሾെ36,36ሿ
ܴ ൌ ሾ0,6ሿ
ଵ
(f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫మ
‫ݔ‬ଶ ് 0 ⟹ ‫്ݔ‬0
‫ ܦ‬ൌ Թ െ ሼ0ሽ
ଵ
to find the range let ‫ ݕ‬ൌ
௫మ
ଵ ଵ
‫ ݔ‬ଶ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 1 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൌ ⟹ ‫ݔ‬ൌ
௬ √௬
then ‫ ݕ‬൐ 0 we get

ܴ ൌ ሺ0, ∞ሻ
ଵ
(g) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ మ ାହ
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5 ് 0
ଵ
ܴ ൌ ሺ0, ሿ
ହ
ହ
(h) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
√௫ మ ାଵ଺
‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 16 ൐ 0
ହ
ܴ ൌ ሺ0, ሿ
ସ
(i) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ௫
ܴ ൌ ሺ0, ∞ሻ
 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients

Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided
(except where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If ݂ and ݃ are
functions, then for every ‫ ݔ‬that belongs to the domains of both ݂and ݃ (that is, for
‫ܦ ∈ ݔ‬ሺ݂ሻ ∩ ‫ܦ‬ሺ݃ሻ ), we define functions ݂ ൅ ݃ , ݂ െ ݃ and ݂݃ by the formulas
ሺ݂ ൅ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ሺ݂ െ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ െ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ሺ݂݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
Notice that the + sign on the left-hand side of the first equation represents the
operation of addition of functions, whereas the + on the right-hand side of the
equation means addition of the real numbers ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ and ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ.
At any point of ‫ܦ‬ሺ݂ሻ ∩ ‫ܦ‬ሺ݃ሻ at which ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് 0 we can also define the function
݂ൗ
݃ by the formula
݂ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
൬ ൰ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫݃ ݁ݎ݄݁ݓ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് 0
݃ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
Functions can also be multiplied by constants: If ܿ is a real number, then the
function ݂ܿ is defined for all ‫ ݔ‬in the domain of ݂ by
ሺ݂ܿሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ܿሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
Example
The functions defined by the formulas
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ݔ‬ ܽ݊݀ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √1 െ ‫ݔ‬
have domains ‫ܦ‬ሺ݂ሻ ൌ ሾ0, ∞ሻ and ‫ܦ‬ሺ݃ሻ ൌ ሺെ∞, 1ሿ The points common to these
domains are the points
ሾ0, ∞ሻ ∩ ሺെ∞, 1ሿ ൌ ሾ0,1ሿ
The following table summarizes the formulas and domains for the various
algebraic combinations of the two functions. We also write ݂ ∙ ݃ for the product
function ݂݃.
Function Formula Domain

݂൅݃ ሺ݂ ൅ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ √1 െ ‫ݔ‬ ሾ0,1ሿ ൌ ‫ܦ‬ሺ݂ሻ ∩ ‫ܦ‬ሺ݃ሻ
݂െ݃ ሺ݂ െ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬െ √1 െ ‫ݔ‬ ሾ0,1ሿ
݃െ݂ ሺ݃ െ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √1 െ ‫ ݔ‬െ √‫ݔ‬ ሾ0,1ሿ
݂∙݃ ሺ݂ ∙ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ‫ݔ‬ሺ1 െ ‫ݔ‬ሻ ሾ0,1ሿ
௙ ௙ሺ௫ሻ ௫
݂ ⁄݃ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൌට ሾ0,1ሻ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 ݁‫݀݁݀ݑ݈ܿݔ‬ሻ
௚ ௚ሺ௫ሻ ଵି௫
௚ ௚ሺ௫ሻ ଵି௫
݃ ⁄݂ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൌට ሺ0,1ሿ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 ݁‫݀݁݀ݑ݈ܿݔ‬ሻ
௙ ௙ሺ௫ሻ ௫
 Even and Odd functions

A function ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is an
even function of ‫ ݔ‬if ݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ,
odd function of ‫ ݔ‬if ݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ,
for every ‫ ݔ‬in the function’s domain.
Notes
1- sinሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ sin ‫ݔ‬ ܱ݀݀ ݂‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ‬
2- cosሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ݔ‬ ‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ݂ ݊݁݊ܧ‬
3- tanሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ tan ‫ݔ‬ ܱ݀݀ ݂‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ‬
4- cscሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ csc ‫ݔ‬ ܱ݀݀ ݂‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ‬
5- secሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ sec ‫ݔ‬ ‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ݂ ݊݁ݒܧ‬
6- cotሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ cot ‫ݔ‬ ܱ݀݀ ݂‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݊ݑ‬
Example Recognizing Even and Odd functions

(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2 (b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 െ ‫଺ ݔ‬
௫ మ ିସ
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ଼ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 2 (d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |௫|
௫
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ଻ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬ (f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ ర ିହ
(g) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ ݔ‬൅ 4| (h) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ 5‫ ݔ‬ସ

(i) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ହ ൅ sin ‫ݔ‬ (j) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ tanଶ ‫ݔ‬
(k) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ௫ ൅ ݁ ି௫ (l) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ sin ‫ݔ‬
Solution
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻଶ ൅ 2 ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2 ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is an Even function.
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 െ ‫଺ ݔ‬
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 െ ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ଺ ൌ 4 െ ‫ ଺ ݔ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ଼ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 2

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ଼ െ 3ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻସ ൅ 2 ൌ ‫ ଼ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 2 ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
௫ మ ିସ
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |௫|
ሺି௫ሻమ ିସ ௫ మ ିସ
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |ି௫|
ൌ |௫|
ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ଻ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ଻ ൅ 3ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻଷ െ 4ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ‫ ଻ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 4‫݂ ് ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not an Even function,
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ଻ ൅ 3ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻଷ െ 4ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ‫ ଻ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬
ൌ െሺ‫ ଻ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is an Odd function.
௫
(f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ ర ିହ
ሺି௫ሻ ି௫ ௫
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺି௫ሻర ൌ ൌെ ൌ െ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ିହ ௫ ర ିହ ௫ ర ିହ
(g) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ ݔ‬൅ 4|

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ 4| ൌ |െ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4| ് ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ 4| ൌ |െ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4| ൌ |െሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ| ൌ |‫ ݔ‬െ 4| ് െ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not Even nor Odd function.
(h) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ 5‫ ݔ‬ସ

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cosሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ 5ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻସ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ 5‫ ݔ‬ସ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
(i) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ହ ൅ sin ‫ݔ‬

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻହ ൅ sinሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ3‫ ݔ‬ହ െ sin ‫݂ ് ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻହ ൅ sinሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ3‫ ݔ‬ହ െ sin ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െሺ3‫ ݔ‬ହ ൅ sin ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
(j) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ tanଶ ‫ݔ‬

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺtanሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻሻଶ ൌ ሺെ tan ‫ݔ‬ሻଶ ൌ tanଶ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
(k) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ௫ ൅ ݁ ି௫
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ሺି௫ሻ ൅ ݁ ିሺି௫ሻ ൌ ݁ ି௫ ൅ ݁ ௫ ൌ ݁ ௫ ൅ ݁ ି௫ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
(l) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ sin ‫ݔ‬

݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cosሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫݂ ് ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cosሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ sinሺെ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫ݔ‬
ൌ െሺെ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ sin ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് െ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not Even nor Odd function.
 Composite Functions
Composition is another method for combining functions.\
If ƒ and g are functions, the composite function ݂ ∘ ݃ (“ƒ composed with g”) is
defined by
݂ ∘ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯.
The domain of ݂ ∘ ݃ consists of the numbers x in the domain of ݃ for which
݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ lies in the domain of ݂.
Example Finding Formulas for Composites

If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬and ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 , find
(a) ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ (b) ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ (c) ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ (d) ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
Solution
Composite Domain
(a) ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ሾെ1, ∞ሻ
(b) ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃൫√‫ݔ‬൯ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ሾ0, ∞ሻ
ଵൗ
(c) ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂൫√‫ݔ‬൯ ൌ ඥ√‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ସ ሾ0, ∞ሻ
(d) ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻ ൅ 1 ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ

Example Find the Composites ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻ, ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻ, ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻ and ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻof the

following
ଶ
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬െ 4 , ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 , ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2

(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬ , ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 , ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ݔ‬
Solution
(a) Composite Domain
ଶ ଶ ଶିସ௫
ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ቀ ቁ ൌ െ 4 ൌ Թ െ ሼ0ሽ
௫ ௫ ௫
ଶ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ ൌ Թ െ ሼ4ሽ
௫ିସ
ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ െ 4 ൌ ‫ ݔ‬െ 8 ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ

ଶ ଶ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃ ቀ ቁ ൌ ଶ ൌ ‫ݔ‬
௫ ൗ ௫ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
(b) Composite Domain

ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2ሻ ൌ ඥሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2ሻ ൅ 2 ൌ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃൫√‫ ݔ‬൅ 2൯ ൌ ሺ√‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻଶ െ 2 ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂൫√‫ ݔ‬൅ 2൯ ൌ ට൫√‫ ݔ‬൅ 2൯ ൅ 2 ሾെ2, ∞ሻ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2ሻଶ െ 2

ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 4‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
(c) Composite Domain

ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻସ ൅ 4ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ ‫ ଼ ݔ‬൅ 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃ሺ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬ሻଶ
ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
ൌ ‫ ଼ ݔ‬൅ 8‫ ݔ‬ହ ൅ 16‫ ݔ‬ଶ
ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬ሻସ ൅ 4ሺ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 4‫ݔ‬ሻ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻଶ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ସ ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ
(e) Composite Domain
ሺ݂ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂൫√‫ݔ‬൯ ൌ ඥ√‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ሾ0, ∞ሻ
ሺ݃ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃൫√‫ ݔ‬൅ 3൯ ൌ ඥ√‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ሾെ3, ∞ሻ

ሾെ3, ∞ሻ
ሺ݂ ∘ ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂൫√‫ ݔ‬൅ 3൯ ൌ ට൫√‫ ݔ‬൅ 3൯ ൅ 3
ሺ݃ ∘ ݃ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݃൫݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݃൫√‫ݔ‬൯ ൌ ඥ√‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬

ଵൗ
ସ ሾ0, ∞ሻ
 One to one, Onto Functions

DEFINITION One to one function ( Injective function )
A function ݂: ܺ → ܻ is one-to-one on a domain ‫ ܦ‬if ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ whenever
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ in ‫ܦ‬.
Example to show the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 is one to one function

݂ଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ଶ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ 3 ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
we started with ݂ଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ଶ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ then we get ‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ , the function is one to one.
DEFINITION Onto function ( surjective function )
A function ݂: ܺ → ܻ is onto if,
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ, ∀ ‫ܻ ∈ ݕ‬, ∃ ‫ܺ ∈ ݔ‬.
Steps to explain the onto function

1- First we put ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ.
2- We find ‫ ݔ‬in terms of ‫ݕ‬.
3- Go back to the original function and substitute every ‫ ݔ‬from step 2 into ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ.
4- If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬, then the function is an onto function.
Example to show the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ is onto function
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଷ
‫ ݔ‬ൌ యඥ‫ݕ‬
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ యඥ‫ݕ‬ሻଷ ൌ ‫ݕ‬
we get ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݕ‬then the function is an onto function
DEFINITION Bijective function

A function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is a Bijective function if ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one, onto function.
DEFINITION Inverse function

Suppose that ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is a one-to-one function on a domain ‫ ܦ‬with range ܴ. The
inverse function ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is defined by
݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ݂݅ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬.
The domain of ݂ ିଵ is ܴ and the range of ݂ ିଵ is D. ( ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ must be one to one,
onto function).
Steps to explain the onto function
1- First replace ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ by ‫ݕ‬.
2- We find ‫ ݔ‬in terms of ‫ݕ‬.
3- Switch between ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݕ‬.
4- Replace ‫ ݕ‬by ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ, so it is the inverse function.
Example to show the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ has an inverse function

First the function must be 1-1, onto function to find the inverse function
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଷ
‫ ݔ‬ൌ యඥ‫ݕ‬
య
‫ ݕ‬ൌ √‫ݔ‬
య
Then ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ݔ‬
Example show if the following functions are one to one, onto functions,
and find the inverse function if possible.
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5 (b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √5 െ 4‫ݔ‬
௫ାଶ
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ (d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 2
௫
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3 (f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lnሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻ

Solution
For all the examples we first show that the functions are one to one, onto function
then we find the inverse of the function.
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5
‫ݔ‬ଵଷ ൅ 5 ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶଷ ൅ 5 ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ ݕ‬െ 5 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ඥ‫ ݕ‬െ 5
య
‫ݔ‬ଵଷ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶଷ య
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺඥ‫ ݕ‬െ 5ሻଷ ൅ 5 ൌ ‫ݕ‬
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is onto
Since ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one, onto function we can find the inverse function.
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5
య
‫ݔ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ ݕ‬െ 5 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ඥ‫ ݕ‬െ 5
Now we switch between ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݕ‬
య
‫ ݕ‬ൌ √‫ ݔ‬െ 5
య
We get the inverse function ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬െ 5
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √5 െ 4‫ݔ‬

݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ √5 െ 4‫ݔ‬
ඥ5 െ 4‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ඥ5 െ 4‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ 5 െ 4‫ݔ‬
5 െ 4‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ 5 െ 4‫ݔ‬ଶ ଶ
5 െ ‫ݕ‬ଶ
4‫ ݔ‬ൌ 5 െ ‫ݕ‬ ⟹‫ݔ‬ൌ
െ4‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ െ4‫ݔ‬ଶ 4
5 െ ‫ݕ‬ଶ
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඨ5 െ 4 ቆ ቇ ൌ ඥ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ݕ‬
4
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one
‫ ݕ‬ൌ √5 െ 4‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ 5 െ 4‫ݔ‬
ଶ
5 െ ‫ݕ‬ଶ
4‫ ݔ‬ൌ 5 െ ‫ݕ‬ ⟹‫ݔ‬ൌ
4

5 െ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
‫ݕ‬ൌ
4
ହି௫ మ
We get the inverse function ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
ସ
௫ାଶ
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ‫ݔ‬൅2

‫ݕ‬ൌ
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ 2 ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2 ‫ݔ‬
ൌ ‫ ݕݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ⟹ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2
‫ݔ‬ଵ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
‫ݔ‬ଵ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ݔ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ 2‫ݔ‬ଵ 2
‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݕ‬െ 1ሻ ൌ 2 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
‫ݕ‬െ1
2‫ݔ‬ଶ ൌ 2‫ݔ‬ଵ
2 2 ൅ 2‫ ݕ‬െ 2
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅2
‫ݕ‬െ1 ‫ݕ‬െ1
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൌ ൌ‫ݕ‬
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one 2 2
‫ݕ‬െ1 ‫ݕ‬െ1
‫ݔ‬൅2
‫ݕ‬ൌ
‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ⟹ ‫ ݕݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2
2
‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݕ‬െ 1ሻ ൌ 2 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
‫ݕ‬െ1

2
‫ݕ‬ൌ
‫ݔ‬െ1
ଶ
௫ିଵ
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 2

݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 2
4‫ݔ‬ଵ െ 2 ൌ 4‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2 ‫ݕ‬൅2
4‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݕ‬൅ 2 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
4‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ 4‫ݔ‬ଶ 4
‫ݕ‬൅2
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 ൬ ൰െ2ൌ‫ݕ‬
4
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬
‫ ݕ‬ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 2
‫ݕ‬൅2
4‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݕ‬൅ 2 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
4
‫ݔ‬൅2
‫ݕ‬ൌ
4
௫ାଶ
ସ
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3

݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3
‫ݔ‬ଵଶ ൅ 3 ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଵଶ ൅ 3 ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ ݕ‬െ 3 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ඥ‫ ݕ‬െ 3
‫ݔ‬ଵଶ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଵଶ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺඥ‫ ݕ‬െ 3ሻଶ ൅ 3 ൌ ‫ݕ‬
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ േ‫ݔ‬ଶ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not one to one
Since ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not one to one function then we can’t find the inverse function.
(f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lnሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻ

݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ lnሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻ
lnሺ‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ 3ሻ ൌ lnሺ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3ሻ ݁௬ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݁௬ െ 3
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൅ 3 ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3 ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lnሺሺ݁ ௬ െ 3ሻ ൅ 3 ൌ ‫ݕ‬
‫ݔ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݕ‬
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is one to one ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is onto
‫ ݕ‬ൌ lnሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻ
݁௬ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݁௬ െ 3

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݁௫ െ 3
We get the inverse function ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ௫ െ 3
Example show in the previous example that ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is an inverse function of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
Solution
To show that ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is an inverse function of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ, we have to prove that
݂ ∘ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݂ ିଵ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
య
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5 , ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬െ 5
య య
݂ ∘ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂൫√‫ ݔ‬െ 5൯ ൌ ሺ√‫ ݔ‬െ 5ሻଷ ൅ 5 ൌ ‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൅ 5 ൌ ‫ݔ‬
య య
݂ ିଵ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5ሻ ൌ ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 5 െ 5 ൌ ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൌ ‫ݔ‬
Since ݂ ∘ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݂ ିଵ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ , then ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is an inverse function of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ହି௫ మ
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √5 െ 4‫ݔ‬ , ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
ସ
5 െ ‫ݔ‬ଶ 5 െ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
݂∘݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ൌ ݂൫݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
൯ ൌ ݂ቆ ቇ ൌ ඨ5 െ 4ሺ ሻ ൌ ඥ5 െ 5 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ݔ‬
4 4
ଶ
ିଵ ିଵ ିଵ
5 െ ൫√5 െ 4‫ݔ‬൯ 5 െ 5 ൅ 4‫ݔ‬
݂ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ ൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ൫√5 െ 4‫ݔ‬൯ ൌ ൌ ൌ‫ݔ‬
4 4
௫ାଶ ଶ
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ , ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ ௫ିଵ
2 2 ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2
2 ൅2
݂ ∘ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ൬ ൰ൌ ‫ݔ‬െ1 ൌ ‫ݔ‬െ1 ൌ‫ݔ‬
‫ݔ‬െ1 2 2
‫ݔ‬െ1 ‫ݔ‬െ1
‫ݔ‬൅2 2 2
݂ ିଵ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ൬ ൰ൌ ൌ ൌ‫ݔ‬
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬൅2 ‫ݔ‬൅2െ‫ݔ‬
െ1
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
௫ାଶ
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 2 , ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
ସ
‫ݔ‬൅2 ‫ݔ‬൅2
݂ ∘ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ൬ ൰ൌ4 െ2ൌ‫ݔ‬
4 4
4‫ ݔ‬െ 2 ൅ 2
݂ ିଵ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ሺ4‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻ ൌ ൌ‫ݔ‬
4
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 3

There is no inverse for ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ because it isn’t a one to one function.
(f) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lnሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻ , ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݁ ௫ െ 3

݂ ∘ ݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂൫݂ ିଵ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ሺ݁ ௫ െ 3ሻ ൌ lnሺ݁ ௫ െ 3 ൅ 3ሻ ൌ ln ሺ݁ ௫ ሻ ൌ ‫ݔ‬
݂ ିଵ ∘ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ൫݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ൌ ݂ ିଵ ሺlnሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻሻ ൌ ݁ ୪୬ሺ௫ାଷሻ െ 3 ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 െ 3 ൌ ‫ݔ‬
 Graphs of Functions
Another way to visualize a function is its graph. If ƒ is a function with domain D,
its graph consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the
input-output pairs for ƒ. In set notation, the graph is
൛ ൫‫ݔ‬, ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ൯ ห ‫ ܦ ∈ ݔ‬ሽ
The graph of the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 is the set of points with coordinates
ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ for which ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2. Its graph is sketched in (Figure 1.7).
The graph of a function ݂ is a useful picture of its behavior. If ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ is a point on
the graph, then ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is the height of the graph above the point x. The height
may be positive or negative, depending on the sign of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ (Figure 1.8).
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.7
If ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ lies on the graph of
The graph of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2
݂, then the value ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is the height of the
is the set of points ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ for
graph above the point x (or below x if ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is
which y has the value ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2
negative).
Example
Graph the function ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ over the interval ሾെ2,2ሿ
Solution
‫ݔ‬ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ

1- Make a table of xy-pairs that 2 4
satisfy the function rule, in this 1 1
case the equation ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ . 0 0
-1 1
-2 4
2- Plot the points ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ whose 3- Draw a smooth curve through the
coordinates appear in the table. plotted points. Label the curve with
Use fractions when they are its equation.
convenient computationally
Example
Sometimes a function is described by using different formulas on different parts
of its domain.
One example is the absolute value function
‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬൒ 0
|‫ |ݔ‬ൌ ቄ
െ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݔ‬൏0
‫ݔ‬ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ |‫|ݔ‬
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
-1 1
-2 2
-3 3
Example The function

െ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݔ‬൏0
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൝ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , 0 ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
1, ‫ݔ‬൐1
is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas
depending on the position of x. The values of ݂ are given by: ‫ ݕ‬ൌ െ‫ ݔ‬when ‫ ݔ‬൏ 0,
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ when 0 ൑ x ൑ 1 and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 when ‫ ݔ‬൐ 1 The function, however, is just one
function whose domain is the entire set of real numbers
To graph the function

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ shown here,
we apply different formulas to
different parts of its domain
Example Graph the following functions

(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ (b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 3
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ ݔ‬െ 5| (d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3
Solution
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ
‫ݔ‬ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
3 27
2 8
1 1
0 0
-1 1
-2 -8
-3 -27
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬െ 3
3 9
2 5
1 1
0 -3
-1 -7
-2 -11
-3 -15
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ ݔ‬െ 5|

-1 6
0 5
1 4
2 3
3 2
4 1
5 0
6 1
7 2
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3
3 6
2 1
1 -2
0 -3
-1 -2
-2 1
-3 6
 Identifying Functions
There are a number of important types of functions frequently encountered in
calculus. We identify and briefly summarize them here.
- Linear Functions
A function of the form ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬൅ ܾ for constants m and b, is called a linear
function. Figure 1.9 shows an array of lines ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݉‫ ݔ‬where ܾ ൌ 0, so these
lines pass through the origin. Constant functions result when the slope ݉ ൌ 0
(Figure 1.10).
Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10

- Power Functions
A function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬௔ , where a is a constant, is called a power function. There
are several important cases to consider.
(a) ܽ ൌ ݊, a positive integer.
The graphs of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬௡ for ݊ ൌ 2, 3, 4, 5, are displayed in Figure 1.11. These
functions are defined for all real values of x. Notice that as the power n gets larger,
the curves tend to flatten toward the x-axis on the interval and also rise more steeply
for |‫ |ݔ‬൐ 1. Each curve passes through the point (1, 1) and through the origin.
Figure 1.11
௡
Graphs of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬, ݊ ൌ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 defined for െ∞ ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ ∞
(b) ܽ ൌ െ1 ‫ ܽ ݎ݋‬ൌ െ2
The graphs of the functions ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ି ݔ‬ଵ ൌ 1ൗ‫ ݔ‬and ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ି ݔ‬ଶ ൌ 1ൗ ଶ are
‫ݔ‬
shown in Figure 1.12. Both functions are defined for all ‫ ് ݔ‬0 (you can never
divide by zero). The graph of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 1ൗ‫ ݔ‬is the hyperbola ‫ ݕݔ‬ൌ 1 which approaches
the coordinate axes far from the origin. The graph of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 1ൗ ଶ also approaches the
‫ݔ‬
coordinate axes.
Figure 1.12
Graphs of the power
functions for part
ሺܽሻ ܽ ൌ െ1 and for part
ሺܾሻ ܽ ൌ െ2.
ଵൗ ଵൗ య
The functions ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ଶ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬and ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ଷ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬are the square root and
cube root functions, respectively. The domain of the square root function is ሾ0, ∞ሻ,
but the cube root function is defined for all real ‫ݔ‬. Their graphs are displayed in
ଷൗ ଶൗ ଷൗ
Figure 1.13 along with the graphs of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ଶ and ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ ଷ . (Recall that ‫ݔ‬ ଶ ൌ
ଵൗ ଷ ଶൗ ଵൗ ଶ
ሺ‫ݔ‬ ଶሻ and ‫ݔ‬ ଷ ൌ ሺ‫ݔ‬ ଷሻ .)
Figure 1.13
ଵ ଵ ଷ ଶ
Graphs of the power functions ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬௔ for ܽ ൌ ଶ , , and
ଷ ଶ ଷ
- Polynomials
A function ‫ ݌‬is a polynomial if
‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ௡ ‫ ݔ‬௡ ൅ ܽ௡ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ ൅ ⋯ ൅ ܽଵ ‫ ݔ‬൅ ܽ଴
where ݊ is a nonnegative integer and the numbers ܽ଴ , ܽଵ , ܽଶ , … , ܽ௡ are real
constants (called the coefficients of the polynomial). All polynomials have domain
ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ. If the leading coefficient ܽ௡ ് 0 and ݊ ൐ 0, then ݊ is called the degree of
the polynomial. Linear functions with ݉ ് 0 are polynomials of degree 1.
Polynomials of degree 2, usually written as ‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ܾ‫ ݔ‬൅ ܿ, are called
quadratic functions. Likewise, cubic functions are polynomials
‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ܾ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ܿ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݀ of degree 3. Figure 1.14 shows the graphs of three
polynomials.
Figure 1.13
Graphs of three polynomial functions
- Rational Functions
A rational function is a quotient or ratio of two polynomials:
‫݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
‫ݍ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
where ‫ ݌‬and ‫ ݍ‬are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all
real ‫ ݔ‬for which ‫ݍ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് 0 For example, the function
2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3
7‫ ݔ‬൅ 4
is a rational function with domain ሼ‫ݔ‬: ‫ ് ݔ‬െ4ൗ7ሽ. Its graph is shown in Figure
1.14a with the graphs of two other rational functions in Figures 1.14b and 1.14c
Figure 1.14
Graphs of three rational functions.
- Algebraic Functions
An algebraic function is a function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots).
Rational functions are special cases of algebraic functions. Figure 1.15 displays the
graphs of three algebraic functions.
- Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in Figure 1.16.
- Exponential Functions
Functions of the form ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ ௫ where the base ܽ ൐ 0 is a positive constant and
ܽ ് 0 are called exponential functions. All exponential functions have domain
ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ and range ሺ0, ∞ሻ. So an exponential function never assumes the value 0.
The graphs of some exponential functions are shown in Figure 1.17.
- Logarithmic Functions
These are the functions ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݈‫݃݋‬௔ ‫ ݔ‬where the base ܽ ് 0 is a positive
constant. They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, Figure 1.18
shows the graphs of four logarithmic functions with various bases. In each case the
domain is ሺ0, ∞ሻ and the range is ሺെ∞, ∞ሻ.
Figure 1.15
Graphs of three algebraic functions
Figure 1.16
Graphs of the sine and cosine functions
Figure 1.17
Graphs of exponential functions
Figure 1.18
Graphs of four logarithmic functions.
Example
Identify each function given here as one of the types of functions we have
discussed. Keep in mind that some functions can fall into more than one category.
For example ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , is both a power function and a polynomial of second
degree.
ଵ
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 1 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ହ
ଶ
(b) ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 7௫
(c) ݄ሺ‫ݖ‬ሻ ൌ ‫଻ ݖ‬
గ
(d) ‫ݕ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ ൌ sinሺ‫ ݐ‬െ ሻ
ସ
Solution
(a) Is a polynomial of degree 5.
(b) Is an exponential function with base 7. Notice that the variable x is the
exponent.
(c) Is a power function. (The variable z is the base.)
(d) Is a trigonometric function
 The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions

You are probably familiar with defining the trigonometric functions of an acute
angle in terms of the sides of a right triangle (Figure 1.21). We extend this
definition to obtuse and negative angles by first placing the angle in standard
position in a circle of radius r. We then define the trigonometric functions in terms
of the coordinates of the point ܲሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ where the angle’s terminal ray intersects the
circle (Figure 1.22).
Figure 1.21
Figure 1.20 The trigonometric functions of a general angle
Trigonometric ߠ are defined in terms of ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, and ‫ݎ‬.
ratios of an acute angle
௬ ௥
sine: sin ߠ ൌ cosecant: csc ߠ ൌ
௥ ௬
௫ ௥
cosine: cos ߠ ൌ secant: sec ߠ ൌ
௥ ௫
௬ ௫
tangent: tan ߠ ൌ cotangent: cot ߠ ൌ
௫ ௬
These extended definitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the
angle is
acute (Figure 1.22).
Figure 1.22
The new and old definitions agree for acute
angles
Notice also the following definitions, whenever the quotients are defined.
sin ߠ 1
tan ߠ ൌ cot ߠ ൌ
cos ߠ tan ߠ
1 1
sec ߠ ൌ csc ߠ ൌ
cos ߠ sin ߠ
and 0 ൏ ߠ ൏ ߨൗ2, find the five other trigonometric

ଷ
Example If tan ߠ ൌ
ଶ
functions of ߠ.
Solution
ଷ
From tan ߠ ൌ , we construct the right triangle of height 3 (opposite) and base 2
ଶ
(adjacent) in Figure 1.23. The Pythagorean theorem gives the length of the
hypotenuse, √4 ൅ 9 ൌ √13. From the triangle we write the values of the other five
trigonometric functions:
2 3
cos ߠ ൌ sin ߠ ൌ
√13 √13
√13 √13
sec ߠ ൌ csc ߠ ൌ
2 3
2
cot ߠ ൌ
3
Figure 1.23
 Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

When an angle of measure ߠ and an angle of measure ߠ ൅ 2ߨ are in standard
position, their terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same
trigonometric function values:
cosሺߠ ൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ cos ߠ sinሺߠ ൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ sin ߠ tanሺߠ ൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ tan ߠ
secሺߠ ൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ sec ߠ cscሺߠ ൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ csc ߠ cotሺߠ ൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ cot ߠ
Similarly, cosሺߠ െ 2ߨሻ ൌ cos ߠ , sinሺߠ െ 2ߨሻ ൌ sin ߠ and so on. We describe
this repeating behavior by saying that the six basic trigonometric functions are
periodic.
DEFINITION Periodic Function
A function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is periodic if there is a positive number ‫ ݌‬such that ࢌሺ࢞ ൅ ࢖ሻ ൌ ࢌሺ࢞ሻ
for every value of ‫ݔ‬. The smallest such value of ‫ ݌‬is the period of ݂.
When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually
denote the independent variable by ‫ ݔ‬instead of ߠ. See Figure 1.24.
Figure 1.24
Graphs of the (a) cosine, (b) sine, (c) tangent, (d) secant, (e) cosecant, and (f) cotangent functions
using radian measure. The shading for each trigonometric function indicates its periodicity
As we can see in Figure 1.24, the tangent and cotangent functions have period
‫ ݌‬ൌ ߨ. The other four functions have period Periodic 2ߨ functions are important
because many behaviors studied in science are approximately periodic. A theorem
from advanced calculus says that every periodic function we want to use in
mathematical modeling can be written as an algebraic combination of sines and
cosines.
Periods of Trigonometric Functions
Period ߨ: tanሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ߨሻ ൌ tan ‫ݔ‬
cotሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ߨሻ ൌ cot ‫ݔ‬
Period 2ߨ: sinሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ sin ‫ݔ‬
cosሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ cos ‫ݔ‬
secሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ sec ‫ݔ‬
cscሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ߨሻ ൌ csc ‫ݔ‬
 Identities
The coordinates of any point ܲሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ in the plane can be expressed in terms of the
point’s distance from the origin and the angle that ray ܱܲ makes with the positive
x-axis (Figure 1.22). Since ‫ ݔ‬⁄‫ ݎ‬ൌ cos ߠ and ‫ݕ‬⁄‫ ݎ‬ൌ sin ߠ we have
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݎ‬cos ߠ , ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݎ‬sin ߠ
When ‫ ݎ‬ൌ 1 we can apply the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle
in Figure 1.25 and obtain the equation
cos ଶ ߠ ൅ sinଶ ߠ ൌ 1 (1)
Figure 1.25
The reference triangle for a general angle
This equation, true for all values of ߠ is the most frequently used identity in
trigonometry. Dividing this identity in turn by cos ଶ ߠ and sinଶ ߠ gives
1 ൅ tanଶ ߠ ൌ sec ଶ ߠ
1 ൅ cot ଶ ߠ ൌ csc ଶ ߠ
The following formulas hold for all angles A and B

Addition Formulas
cosሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ ൌ cos ‫ ܣ‬cos ‫ ܤ‬െ sin ‫ ܣ‬sin ‫ܤ‬
(2)
sinሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ ൌ sin ‫ ܣ‬cos ‫ ܤ‬൅ cos ‫ ܣ‬sin ‫ܤ‬
There are similar formulas for cosሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬ሻ and sinሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܤ‬ሻ. All the trigonometric
identities needed here derive from Equations (1) and (2). For example, substituting
ߠ for both ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬in the addition formulas gives
Double-Angle Formulas
cos 2ߠ ൌ cos ଶ ߠ െ sinଶ ߠ (3)
sin 2ߠ ൌ 2 sin ߠ cos ߠ
Additional formulas come from combining the equations

cos ଶ ߠ ൅ sinଶ ߠ ൌ 1, cos ଶ ߠ െ sinଶ ߠ ൌ cos 2ߠ
We add the two equations to get 2 cos ଶ ߠ ൌ 1 ൅ cos 2ߠ and subtract the second
from the first to get ‫ ݏ‬sinଶ ߠ ൌ 1 െ cos 2ߠ. This results in the following identities,
which are useful in integral calculus
Half-Angle Formula
1 ൅ cos 2ߠ
cos ଶ ߠ ൌ (4)
2
1 െ cos 2ߠ
sinଶ ߠ ൌ (5)
2
2 LIMITS
Notes
௔ ଴ ஶ ௔
(1) ൌ∞ , ൌ0 , ൌ∞ , ൌ0 ‫ ܽ ݁ݎ݄݁ݓ‬൐ 0
଴ ௔ ௔ ஶ
(2) All these values are not a solution in limits:

0 ∞
, , 0. ∞ , ∞ െ ∞ , 0଴ , ∞଴ , 1ஶ , 0ஶ , ∞ஶ
0 ∞
 Limits of Function Values
Let ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ be defined on an open interval about ‫ݔ‬଴ except possibly at ‫ݔ‬଴ itself. If
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ gets arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) for all x sufficiently close
to ‫ݔ‬଴ we say that ݂ approaches the limit L as x approaches ‫ݔ‬଴ and we write
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ܮ‬
௫→௫బ
which is read “the limit of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ as x approaches is L”. Essentially, the definition
says that the values of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ are cl ose to the number L whenever x is close to ‫ݔ‬଴
(on either side of ‫ݔ‬଴ ).
Example Behavior of a Function Near a Point

How does the function
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ 1
‫ݔ‬െ1
behave near ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 ?
Solution
The given formula defines ƒ for all real numbers x except ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 (we cannot
divide by zero). For any ‫ ് ݔ‬1 we can simplify the formula by factoring the
numerator and canceling common factors:
ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൌ‫ݔ‬൅1 ݂‫ݎ݋‬ ‫്ݔ‬1
ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ
The graph of ƒ is thus the line ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 with the point (1, 2) removed. This
removed point is shown as a “hole” in Figure 2.1. Even though ƒ(1) is not defined,
it is clear that we can make the value of ƒ(x) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x
close enough to 1 (Table 2.2).
Figure 2.1
The graph of ƒ is identical with the line ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 except at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1
where ƒ is not defined (Example 5).
TABLE 2.2
The closer x gets to 1, the closer ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 1ሻ⁄ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ seems to get to 2
ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻ

Values of ‫ ݔ‬below and above 1 ݂ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൌ‫ݔ‬൅1 , ‫് ݔ‬1
ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ
0.9 1.9
1.1 2.1
0.99 1.99
1.01 2.01
0.999 1.999
1.001 2.001
0.999999 1.999999
1.000001 2.000001
We say that ƒ(x) approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1, and write

ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 1ሻ
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2 ‫ݎ݋‬ lim ൌ2
௫→ଵ ௫→ଵ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ
Example Finding Limits by Calculating ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬଴ ሻ
(a) limሺ4ሻ ൌ 4
௫→ଶ
(b) lim ሺ4ሻ ൌ 4

௫→ିଵଷ
(c) lim ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 3

௫→ଷ
(d) limሺ5‫ ݔ‬െ 3ሻ ൌ 10 െ 3 ൌ 7

௫→ଶ
ଷ௫ାସ ି଺ାସ ଶ
(e) lim ൌ ൌെ
௫→ିଶ ௫ାହ ିଶାହ ଷ
Example The Identity and Constant Functions Have Limits at Every Point
(a) If ƒ is the identity function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݔ‬, then for any value of ‫ݔ‬଴ (Figure 2.2a),
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬଴
௫→௫బ ௫→௫బ
(b) If ݂ is the constant function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݇ (function with the constant value k),
then for any value of ‫ݔ‬଴ (Figure 2.2b),
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lim ݇ ൌ ݇
௫→௫బ ௫→௫బ
Figure 2.1
The functions in Example 22
For instance,
lim ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 3 ܽ݊݀ lim ሺ4ሻ ൌ 4
௫→ଷ ௫→ି଻
 The Limit Laws

The next theorem tells how to calculate limits of functions that are arithmetic
combinations of functions whose limits we already know.
THEOREM 1 Limit Laws
If L, M, c and k are real numbers and
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ܮ‬ ܽ݊݀ lim ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ܯ‬ ‫݄݊݁ݐ‬
௫→௖ ௫→௖
1. Sum Rule: limሺ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻሻ ൌ ‫ ܮ‬൅ ‫ܯ‬

௫→௖
The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits.
2. Difference Rule: limሺ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ െ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻሻ ൌ ‫ ܮ‬െ ‫ܯ‬

௫→௖
The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits.
3. Product Rule: limሺ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∙ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻሻ ൌ ‫ܯ ∙ ܮ‬

௫→௖
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits.
4. Constant Multiple Rule: limሺ݇ ∙ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻሻ ൌ ݇ ∙ ‫ܮ‬

௫→௖
The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
௙ሺ௫ሻ ௅
5. Quotient Rule: lim ൌ , ‫്ܯ‬0
௫→௖ ௚ሺ௫ሻ ெ
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided
the limit of the denominator is not zero.
6. Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factor and ‫ ് ݏ‬0 then
௥⁄ ௥⁄
limሺ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻሻ ௦ ൌ‫ܮ‬ ௦
௫→௖
௥⁄
provided that ‫ܮ‬ ௦ is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that ‫ ܮ‬൐ 0 )
The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the
function, provided the latter is a real number.
Example Using the limit laws

Use the observations lim ݇ ൌ ݇ and lim ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ܿ and the properties of limits to
௫→௖ ௫→௖
find the following limits.

௫ ర ା௫ మ ିଵ
(a) limሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3ሻ (b) lim (c) lim √4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3
௫→௖ ௫→௖ ௫ మ ାହ ௫→ିଶ
Solution
(a) limሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3ሻ ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ lim 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ lim 3

௫→௖ ௫→௖ ௫→௖ ௫→௖
ൌ ܿ ଷ ൅ 4ܿ ଶ െ 3
௫ ర ା௫ మ ିଵ ୪୧୫ ሺ௫ ర ା௫ మ ିଵሻ ୪୧୫ ௫ ర ା୪୧୫ ௫ మ ି୪୧୫ ଵ ௖ ర ା௖ మ ିଵ
(b) lim ൌ ೣ→೎
ൌ ೣ→೎ ೣ→೎ ೣ→೎
ൌ
௫→௖ ௫ మ ାହ ୪୧୫ ሺ௫ మ ାହሻ మ
୪୧୫ ௫ ା୪୧୫ ହ ௖ మ ାହ
ೣ→೎ ೣ→೎ ೣ→೎
(c) lim √4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3 ൌ ට lim ሺ4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3ሻ ൌ ට lim 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ lim 3
௫→ିଶ ௫→ିଶ ௫→ିଶ ௫→ିଶ
ൌ ඥ4ሺെ2ሻଶ െ 3 ൌ √16 െ 3 ൌ √13

THEOREM 2 Limits of Polynomials Can Be Found by Substitution
If ܲሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܽ௡ ‫ ݔ‬௡ ൅ ܽ௡ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ ൅ ⋯ ൅ ܽ଴ , then
lim ܲሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܲሺܿሻ ൌ ܽ௡ ܿ ௡ ൅ ܽ௡ିଵ ܿ ௡ିଵ ൅ ⋯ ൅ ܽ଴
௫→௖
THEOREM 3 Limits of Rational Functions Can Be Found by Substitution

If the Limit of the Denominator Is Not Zero
If ܲሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ and ܳሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ are polynomials and ܳሺܿሻ ് 0, then
ܲሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ܲሺܿሻ
lim ൌ
௫→௖ ܳሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ܳሺܿሻ
Example Limit of a Rational Function

‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3 ሺെ1ሻଷ ൅ 4ሺെ1ሻଶ െ 3 0
lim ൌ ൌ ൌ0
௫→ିଵ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5 ሺെ1ሻଶ ൅ 5 6
This result is similar to the second limit in Example 23 with ܿ ൌ െ1, now done
in one step.
Eliminating Zero Denominators Algebraically

Theorem 3 applies only if the denominator of the rational function is not zero at
the limit point ܿ. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the
numerator and denominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is
no longer zero at ܿ. If this happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the
simplified fraction.
Example Canceling a Common Factor

Evaluate
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 2
lim
௫→ଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ݔ‬
Solution
We cannot substitute ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 because it makes the denominator zero. We test the
numerator to see if it, too, is zero at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1 It is, so it has a factor of ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ in
common with the denominator. Canceling the ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ gives a simpler fraction with
the same values as the original for ‫ ് ݔ‬1:
‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 2 ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2
ൌ ൌ , ݂݅ ‫ ് ݔ‬1
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ ‫ݔ‬
Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as ‫ → ݔ‬1 by
substitution:
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 2 ‫ݔ‬൅2 1൅2
lim ൌ lim ൌ ൌ3
௫→ଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ݔ‬ ௫→ଵ ‫ݔ‬ 1
Example Creating and Canceling a Common Factor

Evaluate
√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 െ 10
lim
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
Solution
We cannot substitute and the numerator and denominator have no obvious
common factors. We can create a common factor by multiplying both numerator
and denominator by the expression √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10 (obtained by changing the sign
after the square root). The preliminary algebra rationalizes the numerator:
√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 െ 10 √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 െ 10 √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10
ൌ ∙
‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݔ‬ଶ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10
‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 െ 100
ൌ
‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሺ√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10
‫ݔ‬ଶ 1
ൌ ൌ
‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሺ√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10 ሺ√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10
Therefore,
√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 െ 10 1
lim ൌ lim
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ௫→଴ ሺ√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10
1 1
ൌ ൌ
√0ଶ ൅ 100 ൅ 10 20
Example
௫ మ ିଽ ௫ మ ି଻௫ାଵ଴
(a) lim (b) lim
௫→ଷ ௫ିଷ ௫→ଶ ௫ିଶ
௫ య ି଼ ௫ିଵ
(c) lim (d) lim
௫→ଶ ௫ିଶ ௫→ଵ √௫ିଵ
√ଶା௫ି√ଶ ௫ య ି଼
(e) lim (f) lim
௫→଴ ௫ ௫→ଶ ௫ ర ିଵ଺
ଷ௫ ௫ మ ିସ
(g) lim (h) lim
௫→ହ ௫ିହ ௫→ଶ ௫ మ ିହ௫ା଺
ହ௫ య ା଼௫ మ ௫ିସ
(i) lim (j) lim
௫→଴ ଷ௫ ర ିଵ଺௫ మ ௫→ସ ହି√௫ మ ାଽ
Solution
௫ మ ିଽ ଴
(a) lim ൌ
௫→ଷ ௫ିଷ ଴
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ 9 ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 3ሻ

lim ൌ lim ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ൌ 3 ൅ 3 ൌ 6
௫→ଷ ‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ௫→ଷ ‫ݔ‬െ3 ௫→ଷ
௫ మ ି଻௫ାଵ଴ ଴
(b) lim ൌ
௫→ଶ ௫ିଶ ଴
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 7‫ ݔ‬൅ 10 ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 5ሻ

lim ൌ lim ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൌ 2 െ 5 ൌ െ3
௫→ଶ ‫ݔ‬െ2 ௫→ଶ ‫ݔ‬െ2 ௫→ଶ
௫ య ି଼ ଴
(c) lim ൌ
௫→ଶ ௫ିଶ ଴
‫ݔ‬ଷ െ 8 ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ

lim ൌ lim ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൌ 12
௫→ଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ 2 ௫→ଶ ‫ݔ‬െ2 ௫→ଶ
௫ିଵ ଴
(d) lim ൌ
௫→ଵ √௫ିଵ ଴
‫ݔ‬െ1 ‫ݔ‬െ1 √‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ‫ݔ‬െ1

lim ൌ lim ∙ ൌ lim ∙ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 1
௫→ଵ √‫ݔ‬ െ1 ௫→ଵ √‫ ݔ‬െ 1 √‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ௫→ଵ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
ൌ lim √‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ൌ 1 ൅ 1 ൌ 2
௫→ଵ
√ଶା௫ି√ଶ ଴
(e) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ௫ ଴
√2 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ √2 √2 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √2 2൅‫ݔ‬െ2

lim ∙ ൌ lim
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ √2 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √2 ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬൫√2 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √2൯
1 1
ൌ lim ൌ
௫→଴ √2 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √2 2√2
௫ య ି଼ ଴
(f) lim ൌ
௫→ଶ ௫ ర ିଵ଺ ଴
‫ݔ‬ଷ െ 8 ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ

lim ൌ lim ൌ lim
௫→ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 16 ௫→ଶ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4ሻ ௫→ଶ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4ሻ
ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ 12 3
ൌ lim ൌ ൌ
௫→ଶ ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4ሻ 32 8
ଷ௫ ଵହ
(g) lim ൌ ൌ∞
௫→ହ ௫ିହ ଴
The limit is dose not exist (D.N.E)

௫ మ ିସ ଴
(h) lim ൌ
௫→ଶ ௫ మ ିହ௫ା଺ ଴
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ 4 ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻ ‫ݔ‬൅2 4

lim ଶ ൌ lim ൌ lim ൌ ൌ െ4
௫→ଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ 5‫ ݔ‬൅ 6 ௫→ଶ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 3ሻ ௫→ଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ 3 െ1
ହ௫ య ା଼௫ మ ଴
(i) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ଷ௫ ర ିଵ଺௫ మ ଴
5‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 8‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሺ5‫ ݔ‬൅ 8ሻ ሺ5‫ ݔ‬൅ 8ሻ 8 1

lim ସ ൌ lim ൌ lim ൌ ൌ െ
௫→଴ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 16‫ ݔ‬ଶ ௫→଴ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሺ3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 16ሻ ௫→଴ ሺ3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 16ሻ െ16 2
௫ିସ ଴
(j) lim ൌ
௫→ସ ହି√௫ మ ାଽ ଴
‫ݔ‬െ4 ‫ݔ‬െ4 5 ൅ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 9 ‫ݔ‬െ4

lim ൌ lim ∙ ൌ lim
௫→ସ 5 െ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 9 െ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 9 5 ൅ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 9
௫→ସ 5 ௫→ସ 25 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9
‫ݔ‬െ4 ‫ݔ‬െ4
ൌ lim ൌ lim
௫→ସ 16 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ௫→ସ െሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 16ሻ
‫ݔ‬െ4 1
ൌ lim ൌെ
௫→ସ െሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ 4
Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

To determine the limit of a rational function as ‫ → ݔ‬േ∞ we can divide the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of ‫ ݔ‬in the denominator. What
happens then depends on the degrees of the polynomials involved.
Notes
 If the degree of the Numerator is greater than the degree of the Denominator then
the result will be equal to ∞.
 If the degree of the Numerator is less than the degree of the Denominator then the
result will be equal to 0.
 If the degree of the Numerator is equal to the degree of the Denominator then the
result will be equal to
݄ܶ݁ ܿ‫ݎ݋ݐܽݎ݁݉ݑ݊ ݄݁ݐ ݊݅ ݐ݊݁݊݋݌ݔ݁ ݐݏ݁݃ݎ݈ܽ ݄݁ݐ ݂݋ ݐ݂݂݊݁݅ܿ݅݁݋‬
݄ܶ݁ ܿ‫ݎ݋ݐܽ݊݅݉݋݊݁݀ ݄݁ݐ ݊݅ ݐ݊݁݊݋݌ݔ݁ ݐݏ݁݃ݎ݈ܽ ݄݁ݐ ݂݋ ݐ݂݂݊݁݅ܿ݅݁݋‬
Example Numerator and Denominator of Same Degree

5‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 8‫ ݔ‬െ 3 5 ൅ ሺ8⁄‫ ݔ‬ሻ െ ሺ3⁄‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ
lim ൌ lim
௫→ஶ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2 ௫→ஶ 3 ൅ ሺ2⁄‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ
5൅0െ0 5
ൌ ൌ
3൅0 3
Example Degree of Numerator Less Than Degree of Denominator
11‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ሺ11⁄‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൅ ሺ2⁄‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሻ
lim ൌ lim
௫→ஶ 2‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 1 ௫→ஶ 2 െ ሺ1⁄‫ ݔ‬ଷ ሻ
0൅0
ൌ ൌ0
2െ0
Example
଻௫ ఱ ାଷ௫ య ାଵ ଷ௫ାଶ௫ మ ାସ
(a) lim (b) lim
௫→ஶ ସ௫ ర ାଶ௫ మ ାଷ ௫→ஶ ହ௫ ఱ ାଷ௫ య ାଵ
ଷ௫ ర ାଷ௫ య ା଻ √ସ௫ మ ାଷ
(c) lim (d) lim
௫→ஶ ଶ௫ ర ା௫ మ ାହ ௫→ஶ √ଶହ௫ మ ାସ
√ସ௫ మ ାଷ
(e) lim √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5 (f) lim
௫→ஶ ௫→ஶ ଷ௫ାସ
Solution
଻௫ ఱ ାଷ௫ య ାଵ ஶ
(a) lim ൌ , we will divide by ‫ ݔ‬ହ
௫→ஶ ସ௫ ర ାଶ௫ మ ାଷ ஶ
7‫ ݔ‬ହ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ 1 3 1
ହ
7‫ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ଷ
ହ ൅ ହ ൅ ହ 7൅ ଶ൅ ହ
lim ସ ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ lim ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
ଶ
௫→ஶ 4‫ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ௫→ஶ 4‫ݔ‬ 2‫ݔ‬ 3 ௫→ஶ 4 2 3
൅ ହ ൅ ହ ൅ ଷ൅ ହ
‫ݔ‬ ହ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
3 1
7൅ ൅
ൌ ∞ ∞ ൌ 7൅0൅0ൌ 7ൌ∞
4 2 3 0൅0൅0 0
൅ ൅
∞ ∞ ∞
The limit does not exist ( D.N.E ).
ଷ௫ାଶ௫ మ ାସ ஶ
(b) lim ൌ , we will divide by ‫ ݔ‬ହ
௫→ஶ ହ௫ ఱ ାଷ௫ య ାଵ ஶ
3‫ ݔ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଶ 4 3 2 4
3‫ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ଶ ൅ ହ ൅ ହ ସ ൅ ଷ൅ ହ
ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ହ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ lim ‫ݔ‬
ହ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
lim ହ ଷ
௫→ஶ 5‫ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ௫→ஶ 5‫ݔ‬ 3‫ݔ‬ 1 ௫→ஶ 3 1
൅ ହ ൅ ହ 5൅ ଶ൅ ହ
‫ݔ‬ ହ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
3 2 4
൅ ൅
ൌ ∞ ∞ ∞ൌ 0൅0൅0ൌ 0ൌ0
3 1 5൅0൅0 5
5൅ ൅
∞ ∞
ଷ௫ ర ାଷ௫ య ା଻ ஶ
(c) lim ൌ , we will divide by ‫ ݔ‬ସ
௫→ஶ ଶ௫ ర ା௫ మ ାହ ஶ
3‫ ݔ‬ସ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ 7 3 7
ସ
3‫ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݔ‬൅ 7 ଷ ൅ ସ ൅ ସ 3൅ ൅ ସ
ସ ‫ݔ ݔ‬
lim ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ସ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ lim
ସ ଶ
௫→ஶ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 5 ௫→ஶ 2‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ 5 ௫→ஶ 1 5
൅ ସ൅ ସ 2൅ ଶ൅ ସ
‫ݔ‬ ସ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
3 7
3൅ ൅
ൌ ∞ ∞ ൌ3൅0൅0ൌ3
1 5 2൅0൅0 2
2൅ ൅
∞ ∞
√ସ௫ మ ାଷ ஶ
(d) lim ൌ , we will divide by ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
௫→ஶ √ଶହ௫ మ ାସ ஶ
4‫ ݔ‬ଶ 3 3
√4‫ ݔ‬ଶ
൅3 ට ൅ ଶ ට4 ൅ ଶ ට4 ൅ 3
‫ݔ‬ ଶ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ∞
lim ൌ lim ൌ lim ൌ
௫→ஶ √25‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4 ௫→ஶ 25‫ ݔ‬ଶ ௫→ஶ 4
ට ଶ ൅ 4ଶ ට25 ൅ ଶ ට25 ൅ 4
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ∞
√4 ൅ 0 √4 2
ൌ ൌ ൌ
√25 ൅ 0 √25 5
(e) lim √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5 ൌ ∞ െ ∞
௫→ஶ
√‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5

lim ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅‫ݔ‬െ ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅5ൌ lim ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅‫ݔ‬െ ඥ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅5∙
௫→ஶ ௫→ஶ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬ଶ െ 5 ‫ݔ‬െ5 ∞
lim ൌ lim ൌ
௫→ஶ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5 ௫→ஶ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬൅ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5 ∞
So now we will divide by ‫ݔ‬, note that ‫ ݔ‬will be ‫ ݔ‬ଶ under the root, so ‫ ݔ‬ൌ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ
‫ ݔ‬5 5 5
െ 1െ 1 െ
lim ‫ݔ ݔ‬ ൌ lim ‫ݔ‬ ൌ ∞
௫→ஶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ଶ ௫→ஶ
ට ଶ ൅ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ට‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 5ଶ ට1 ൅ 1 ൅ ට1 ൅ 5ଶ ට1 ൅ 1 ൅ ට1 ൅ 5ଶ
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ∞ ‫ݔ‬
1െ0 1 1
ൌ ൌ ൌ
√1 ൅ 0 ൅ √1 ൅ 0 1൅1 2
√ସ௫ మ ାଷ ஶ
(f) lim ൌ
௫→ஶ ଷ௫ାସ ஶ
we will divide by ‫ݔ‬, note that ‫ ݔ‬will be ‫ ݔ‬ଶ under the root, so ‫ ݔ‬ൌ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ
ට 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ 3 3 3
ଶ
√4‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 ൅ ට 4 ൅ ට 4 ൅
‫ݔ‬ ଶ ‫ݔ‬ ଶ ‫ݔ‬ ଶ ∞
lim ൌ lim ൌ lim ൌ
௫→ஶ 3‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ௫→ஶ 3‫ݔ‬ 4 ௫→ஶ 4 4
൅ 3൅‫ݔ‬ 3൅∞
‫ݔ ݔ‬
√4 ൅ 0 2
ൌ ൌ
3൅0 3
 Limits involving Trigonometric Functions
If ܽ is any number in the natural domain of the corresponding trigonometric
function, then
1. lim sin ‫ ݔ‬ൌ sin ܽ
௫→௔
2. lim cos ‫ ݔ‬ൌ cos ܽ

௫→௔
3. lim tan ‫ ݔ‬ൌ tan ܽ

௫→௔
4. lim csc ‫ ݔ‬ൌ csc ܽ

௫→௔
5. lim sec ‫ ݔ‬ൌ sec ܽ

௫→௔
6. lim cot ‫ ݔ‬ൌ cot ܽ

௫→௔
Theorem
sin ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
lim ൌ1 , lim ൌ1
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ sin ‫ݔ‬
tan ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
lim ൌ1 , lim ൌ1
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ tan ‫ݔ‬
1 െ cos ‫ݔ‬
lim ൌ0
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬
Important Note: When calculating the limits involving trigonometric functions,

ୱ୧୬ ௫ ௫
always look for an expression like or because in that case both of these
௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫
have limit equal to 1.

Example Find the limits of the following
ୱ୧୬ ଶ௫ ୱ୧୬ ଷ௫ାୱ୧୬ ଻௫
(a) lim (b) lim
௫→଴ ଷ௫ ௫→଴ ହ௫
୲ୟ୬ ௫ା௫ ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫
(c) lim (d) lim
௫→଴ ୱ୧୬ ௫ ௫→଴ ௫
௫ మ ିଵ଺ ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫
(e) lim (f) lim
௫→ସ ୱ୧୬ሺ௫ିସሻ ௫→଴ ௫మ
୲ୟ୬ ସ௫ ୱ୧୬ ଷ௫
(g) lim (h) lim
௫→଴ ୱ୧୬ ହ௫ ௫→଴ ହ௫ య ିସ௫
Solution
ୱ୧୬ ଶ௫ ଴
(a) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ଷ௫ ଴
sin 2‫ ݔ‬1 2sin 2‫ ݔ‬2 2 sin 2‫ݔ‬

lim ൌ lim ൌ ሺ1ሻ ൌ ሺ ‫ ݁ܿ݊݅ݏ‬lim ൌ 1ሻ
௫→଴ 3‫ݔ‬ 3 ௫→଴ 2‫ݔ‬ 3 3 ௫→଴ 2‫ݔ‬
ୱ୧୬ ଷ௫ାୱ୧୬ ଻௫ ଴
(b) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ହ௫ ଴
sin 3‫ ݔ‬൅ sin 7‫ݔ‬ sin 3‫ݔ‬ sin 7‫ ݔ‬1 sin 3‫ ݔ‬1 sin 7‫ݔ‬
lim ൌ lim ൅ lim ൌ lim ൅ lim
௫→଴ 5‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 5‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 5‫ݔ‬ 5 ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ 5 ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬
1 3sin 3‫ ݔ‬1 7sin 7‫ ݔ‬3 sin 3‫ ݔ‬7 sin 7‫ ݔ‬3 7
ൌ lim ൅ lim ൌ lim ൅ lim ൌ ሺ1ሻ ൅ ሺ1ሻ
5 ௫→଴ 3‫ݔ‬ 5 ௫→଴ 7‫ݔ‬ 5 ௫→଴ 3‫ݔ‬ 5 ௫→଴ 7‫ݔ‬ 5 5
10
ൌ ൌ2
5
୲ୟ୬ ௫ା௫ ଴
(c) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ୱ୧୬ ௫ ଴
sin ‫ݔ‬
tan ‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ݔ‬ tan ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ 1
lim ൌ lim ൅ lim ൌ lim cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺ1ሻ ൌ lim ൅1
௫→଴ sin ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ sin ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ sin ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ sin ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ cos ‫ݔ‬
1
ൌ ൅1ൌ2
1
ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫ ଴
(d) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ௫ ଴
௫
Use 1 െ cos ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2 sinଶ
ଶ
‫ݔ‬ 2 ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬

1 െ cos ‫ݔ‬ 2 sinଶ sin ∙ sin ‫ݔ‬ sin
lim ൌ lim 2 ൌ lim 2 2 2 ൌ lim sin . lim 2
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 2 ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬
2 2
‫ݔ‬
ൌ lim sin . ሺ1ሻ ൌ sin 0 ൌ 0
௫→଴ 2
ೣ
ୱ୧୬
Since we have lim ೣ
మ
ൌ1
௫→଴ మ
௫ మ ିଵ଺ ଴
(e) lim ൌ
௫→ସ ୱ୧୬ሺ௫ିସሻ ଴
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 16 ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4 ሻ

lim ൌ lim ൌ lim . limሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ ൌ ሺ1ሻ limሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ
௫→ସ sinሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ ௫→ସ sinሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ ௫→ସ sinሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ ௫→ସ ௫→ସ
ൌ4൅4ൌ 8
ሺ௫ିସሻ
Since we have lim ൌ 1.
௫→ସ ୱ୧୬ሺ௫ିସሻ
ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫ ଴
(f) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ௫మ ଴
Use 1 െ cos 2‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2 sinଶ ‫ݔ‬

1 െ cos ‫ݔ‬ 2 sinଶ ‫ݔ‬ sin ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
lim ൌ lim ൌ 2 lim ൬ ൰ ൌ 2ሺ1ሻଶ ൌ 2
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬
ୱ୧୬ ௫
Since we have lim ൌ 1.
௫→଴ ௫
୲ୟ୬ ସ௫ ଴
(g) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ୱ୧୬ ହ௫ ଴
tan 4‫ݔ‬ 4 tan 4‫ ݔ‬4 lim tan 4‫ݔ‬

tan 4‫ݔ‬ 4‫ݔ‬ 4ሺ1ሻ 4
lim ൌ lim ‫ ݔ‬ൌ lim 4‫ݔ‬ ൌ ௫→଴ ൌ ൌ
௫→଴ sin 5‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ sin 5‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 5sin 5‫ݔ‬ sin 5‫ ݔ‬5ሺ1ሻ 5
5 lim
‫ݔ‬ 5‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 5‫ݔ‬
୲ୟ୬ ସ௫ ୱ୧୬ ହ௫
Since we have lim௫→଴ ൌ 1 and lim௫→଴ .
ସ௫ ହ௫
ୱ୧୬ ଷ௫ ଴
(h) lim ൌ
௫→଴ ହ௫ య ିସ௫ ଴
sin 3‫ݔ‬ sin 3‫ݔ‬ 3‫ݔ‬ sin 3‫ݔ‬ 3‫ݔ‬

lim ൌ lim ∙ ൌ lim ∙ lim
௫→଴ 5‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 3‫ݔ‬ 5‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 3‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ 5‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬
3‫ݔ‬ 3‫ݔ‬ 3 3
ൌ ሺ1ሻ∙ lim ଷ ൌ lim ଶ
ൌ ൌെ
௫→଴ 5‫ ݔ‬െ 4‫ݔ‬ ௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ሺ5‫ ݔ‬െ 4ሻ 0െ4 4
ୱ୧୬ ଷ௫
Since we have lim ൌ1
௫→଴ ଷ௫
 One-Sided Limits and Limits at Infinity

One-Sided Limits
To have a limit ‫ ܮ‬as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܿ, a function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ must be defined on both
sides of c and its values ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ must approach ‫ ܮ‬as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܿ from either side.
Because of this, ordinary limits are called two-sided.
If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ fails to have a two-sided limit at ܿ, it may still have a one-sided limit, that
is, a limit if the approach is only from one side. If the approach is from the right, the
limit is a right-hand limit. From the left, it is a left-hand limit.
௫
The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ |௫| has limit 1 as ‫ ݔ‬approaches 0 from the right, and െ1
limit as ‫ ݔ‬approaches 0 from the left. Since these one-sided limit values are not the
same, there is no single number that ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ approaches as ‫ ݔ‬approaches 0. So ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
does not have a (two-sided) limit at 0.
THEOREM
A function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ has a limit as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܿ if and only if it has left-hand and
right-hand limits there and these one-sided limits are equal:
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ܮ‬ ⟺ lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫݀݊ܽ ܮ‬ lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ܮ‬
௫→௖ ௫→௖̅ ௫→௖ శ
Example Find the limits from the right and the left for the following
ଵ
, ‫ݔ‬൏4
ଶ௫ିସ ௫
(a) If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ቐ (b) lim |௫|
௫→଴
య
√‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 8, ‫ݔ‬൒4
ሺ2‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻଷ ‫ݔ‬൏0
|௫ାସ|
(c) If lim (d) If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ቐ3‫ ݔ‬൅ 8, 0 ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൏ 1
௫→ିସ ௫ାସ
‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 8, ‫ݔ‬൒1
Solution
ଵ ଵ ଵ
(a) 1- limష ൌ ൌ
௫→ర ଶ௫ିସ ଼ିସ ସ
య య య
2- limశ √‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 8 ൌ √16 െ 8 ൌ √8 ൌ 2
௫→ర
So the limit ( D.N.E ) since limశ ് limష

௫→ర ௫→ర
‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬൒ 0
(b) First we know that |‫ |ݔ‬ൌ ቄ , so
െ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݔ‬൏0
௫
1- limష ൌ െ1
௫→బ ି௫
௫
2- limశ ൌ 1
௫→బ ௫

௫→బ ௫→బ
‫ ݔ‬൅ 4, ‫ ݔ‬൒ െ4
(c) We know that |‫ ݔ‬൅ 4| ൌ ൜ , so
െሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4ሻ, ‫ ݔ‬൏ െ4
ିሺ௫ାସሻ
1- lim
ష
ൌ െ1
௫→షర ௫ାସ
ሺ௫ାସሻ
2- lim ൌ1
௫→షర ௫ାସ
శ

௫→ర ௫→ర
(d) 1- limష ሺ2‫ ݔ‬൅ 1ሻଷ ൌ ሺ0 ൅ 1ሻଷ ൌ 1

௫→బ
2- limశ3‫ ݔ‬൅ 8 ൌ 0 ൅ 8 ൌ 8
௫→బ
3- limష3‫ ݔ‬൅ 8 ൌ 3ሺ1ሻ ൅ 8 ൌ 11

௫→భ
4- limశ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 8 ൌ ሺ1ሻଶ ൅ 8 ൌ 9

௫→భ
 Continuous function
Continuity at a Point
A function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is a continuous function at a point ܿ of it’s domain if:
1- ݂ሺܿሻ is exist.
2- lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is exist.
௫→௖
3- lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺܿሻ

௫→௖
Example Discuss the continuity of the following functions

௫ିସ
, ‫ݔ‬൐4
√௫ିଶ
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ቐ 4 at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 4.
, ‫ݔ‬ൌ4
3‫ ݔ‬െ 8 , ‫ݔ‬൏4
௫ మ ିସ
, ‫്ݔ‬2
௫ିଶ
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൞ at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2
6 , ‫ݔ‬ൌ2
‫ݔ‬ଶ െ 2 , ‫ ݔ‬൑ 1
(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൜ at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1
4‫ ݔ‬െ 2 , ‫ݔ‬൐1
‫ݔ‬ଶ , 0 ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൏ 2
(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൜ at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2
7െ‫ݔ‬ , 2൑‫ݔ‬൏4
ୱ୧୬ሺ௫ାଵሻ
, ‫്ݔ‬1
ሺ௫ାଵሻ
(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൞ at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1
1 , ‫ݔ‬ൌ1
Solution
To discuss the continuity of the above functions we do the following
1- First find the value of the function at the given point,
2- We find the limit of the function approach to the given point.
3- We see if the value from number (1) is equal to the limit in number (2)
then the function is continuous function at the given point.
If the value from number (1) is not equal to the limit in number (2) then
the function is not continuous function at the given point.
(a) 1- ݂ሺ4ሻ ൌ 4
2- limషሺ3‫ ݔ‬െ 8ሻ ൌ 12 െ 8 ൌ 4
௫→ర
௫ିସ ൫√௫ିଶ൯൫√௫ାଶ൯
limశ ቀ ቁ ൌ limశ ቀ ቁ ൌ limశ √‫ ݔ‬൅ 2 ൌ √4 ൅ 2 ൌ 4
௫→ర √ ௫ିଶ ௫→ర √௫ିଶ ௫→ర
lim݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4
௫→ସ
3- Since lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ4ሻ ൌ 4

௫→ସ
then the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 4.
(b) 1- ݂ሺ2ሻ ൌ 6
௫ మ ିସ ሺ௫ିଶሻሺ௫ାଶሻ
2- lim ൌ lim ൌ4
௫→ଶ ௫ିଶ ௫→ଶ ௫ିଶ
3-Since lim݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് ݂ሺ2ሻ

௫→ଶ
then the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not continuous at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2.

(c) 1- ݂ሺ1ሻ ൌ െ1
2- limశሺ4‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻ ൌ 2
௫→భ
lim ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2 ൌ െ1
௫→ష
భ
Since limశ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് limష ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ then the limit is not exist

௫→భ ௫→భ
So the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not continuous at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 1.

(d) 1- ݂ሺ2ሻ ൌ 5
2- limశሺ7 െ ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 5
௫→మ
limష‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൌ 4
௫→మ
Since limశ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് limష݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ then the limit is not exist

௫→మ ௫→మ
So the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is not continuous at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2.

(e) 1- ݂ሺെ1ሻ ൌ 1
2- lim
ష
ൌ1
௫→షభ ሺ௫ାଵሻ
lim ൌ1
௫→షభ ሺ௫ାଵሻ
శ
lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 1
௫→ିଵ
3- Since lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺെ1ሻ ൌ 1

௫→ିଵ
then the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ1.
Example Find the value of ‫ ݇ & ܥ‬which make the following functions continuous
functions at the given points:
݇ ൅ 3‫ݔ‬ , ‫ݔ‬൒2
(a) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ቐ at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2
௫ మ ିସ
, ‫ݔ‬൏2
௫ିଶ
2‫ݔ‬ , ‫ ݔ‬൑ െ1
(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ൝‫ ݔܥ‬൅ 2݇ , െ 1 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ 2
െ3‫ݔ‬ , ‫ݔ‬൒2
Solution
(a) Since ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous function then we must have lim ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ2ሻ
௫→ଶ
So 1- ݂ሺ2ሻ ൌ ݇ ൅ 6
௫ మ ିସ ሺ௫ିଶሻሺ௫ାଶሻ
2- limష ൌ limష ൌ limషሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2ሻ ൌ 4
௫→మ ௫ିଶ ௫→మ ௫ିଶ ௫→మ
lim ሺ݇ ൅ 3‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݇ ൅ 6
௫→శ
మ
Since ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous then the limit is exist and we have limష݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ limశ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
௫→మ ௫→మ
From 2 we get ݇ ൅ 6 ൌ 4 ⟹ ݇ ൌ െ2
(b) To the values of ‫ ݇ & ܥ‬we have to discuss the function at two points െ1 , 2
at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ1
lim ‫ ݔܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ ‫ ܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ ݂ሺെ1ሻ ൌ െ2
௫→శ
షభ
Then we have ‫ ܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ െ2 ⟶ ሺ1ሻ

at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2
lim ‫ ݔܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ 2‫ ܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ ݂ሺ2ሻ ൌ െ6
௫→ష
మ
Then we have 2‫ ܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ െ6 ⟶ ሺ2ሻ

By solving the two equation (1) & (2) we get
‫ ܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ െ2
2‫ ܥ‬൅ 2݇ ൌ െ6 then ‫ ܥ‬ൌ െ4 by substitute ‫ ܥ‬into (1) we get ݇ ൌ 1
െ‫ ܥ‬ൌ 4
3 DIFFERENTIATION
DEFINITION Derivative Function
The derivative of the function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ with respect to the variable x is the function
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ whose value at x is
݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ െ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lim
௛→଴ ݄
provided the limit exists.
Example Applying the Definition

௫
Differentiate ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ିଵ
Solution
௫
Here we have ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
௫ିଵ
and
ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ
݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ ൌ , ‫݋ݏ‬
ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ െ 1
݂ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ െ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ lim
௛→଴ ݄
ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ ‫ݔ‬
െ
ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻ െ 1 ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
ൌ
݄
1 ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ െ ‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ െ 1ሻ
ൌ lim ∙
௛→଴ ݄ ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ
1 െ݄
ൌ lim ∙
௛→଴ ݄ ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ െ 1ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ
െ1 െ1
ൌ lim ൌ
௛→଴ ሺ‫ ݔ‬൅ ݄ െ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻ ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 1ሻଶ
 Differentiation Rules
This section introduces a few rules that allow us to differentiate a great variety of
functions. By proving these rules here, we can differentiate functions without
having to apply the definition of the derivative each time.
Powers, Multiples, Sums, and Differences

The first rule of differentiation is that the derivative of every constant function is
zero.
RULE 1 (Derivative of a Constant Function)
If ƒ has the constant value ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ܿ, then
݂݀ ݀
ൌ ሺܿሻ ൌ 0.
݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬
Example
If ƒ has the constant value ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 8 then
݂݀ ݀
ൌ ሺ8ሻ ൌ 0
݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬
Similarly,
݀ ߨ ݀
ቀെ ቁ ൌ 0 ܽ݊݀ ൫√3൯ ൌ 0
݀‫ݔ‬ 2 ݀‫ݔ‬
The second rule tells how to differentiate ‫ ݔ‬௡ if n is a positive integer.
RULE 2 Power Rule for Positive Integers

If n is a positive integer, then
݀ ௡
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݊‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ
݀‫ݔ‬
Example Interpreting Rule 2

݂ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ‫ݔ‬ସ …
݂ᇱ 1 2‫ݔ‬ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ 4‫ ݔ‬ଷ …
The third rule says that when a differentiable function is multiplied by a constant,
its derivative is multiplied by the same constant
RULE 3 Constant Multiple Rule
If u is a differentiable function of x, and c is a constant, then
݀ ݀‫ݑ‬
ሺܿ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ ܿ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
In particular, if n is a positive integer, then
݀
ሺܿ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ ൌ ܿ ݊ ‫ݑ‬௡ିଵ
݀‫ݔ‬
Example
If ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ then
݀
ሺ3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ 3 ∙ 2‫ ݔ‬ൌ 6‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݔ‬
The next rule says that the derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is
the sum of their derivatives.
RULE 4 Derivative Sum Rule
If u and v are differentiable functions of x, then their sum ‫ ݑ‬൅ ‫ ݒ‬is differentiable
at every point where u and v are both differentiable. At such points,
݀ ݀‫ݒ݀ ݑ‬
ሺ‫ ݑ‬൅ ‫ݒ‬ሻ ൌ ൅ .
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬
Example Derivative of a Sum

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 12‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀ ସ ݀
ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ൅ ሺ12‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ 4‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 12
The Sum Rule also extends to sums of more than two functions, as long as there
are only finitely many functions in the sum. If ‫ݑ‬ଵ , ‫ݑ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݑ‬௡ are differentiable at x,
then so is ‫ݑ‬ଵ ൅ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൅ ⋯ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௡ and
݀ ݀‫ݑ‬ଵ ݀‫ݑ‬ଶ ݀‫ݑ‬௡
ሺ‫ݑ‬ଵ ൅ ‫ݑ‬ଶ ൅ ⋯ ൅ ‫ݑ‬௡ ሻ ൌ ൅ ൅ ⋯൅
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
Example Derivative of a Polynomial

4
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5‫ ݔ‬൅ 1
3
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀ ଷ ݀ 4 ଶ ݀ ݀
ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ ൬ ‫ ݔ‬൰െ ሺ5‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ ሺ1ሻ
݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬ ݀‫ ݔ‬3 ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
4
ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ∙ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 5 ൅ 0
3
8
ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 5
3
Products and Quotients
While the derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of their derivatives,
the derivative of the product of two functions is not the product of their derivatives.
For instance,
݀ ݀ ଶ ݀ ݀
ሺ‫ݔ ∙ ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2‫ݔ‬, ‫݈݄݁݅ݓ‬ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ∙ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 1 ∙ 1 ൌ 1
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
The derivative of a product of two functions is the sum of two products, as we
now explain.
RULE 5 Derivative Product Rule
If u and v are differentiable at x, then so is their product uv, and
݀ ݀‫ݒ‬ ݀‫ݑ‬
ሺ‫ݒݑ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ ൅‫ݒ‬
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
Example Using the Product Rule
Find the derivative of
1 1
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ൬‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ൰
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
Solution
We apply the Product Rule with ‫ ݑ‬ൌ 1⁄‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ሺ1⁄‫ ݔ‬ሻ:
݀ 1 ଶ 1 1 1 1 1
൤ ൬‫ ݔ‬൅ ൰൨ ൌ ൬2‫ ݔ‬െ ଶ ൰ ൅ ൬‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ ൰ ൬െ ଶ ൰
݀‫ݔ ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
1 1
ൌ 2െ ଷെ1െ ଷ
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
2
ൌ 1െ ଷ
‫ݔ‬
Example Using the Product Rule

‫ ݕ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3ሻ
Solution
From the Product Rule with u ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻ and ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3ሻ we find
݀
ሾሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3ሻሿ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻሺ3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൅ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3ሻሺ2‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 6‫ݔ‬
ൌ 5‫ ݔ‬ସ ൅ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 6‫ݔ‬
Just as the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is not the
product of their derivatives, the derivative of the quotient of two functions is not the
quotient of their derivatives. What happens instead is the Quotient Rule.
RULE 6 Derivative Quotient Rule
If u and v are differentiable at x and if ‫ݒ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് 0, then the quotient ‫ݑ‬⁄‫ ݒ‬is
differentiable at x, and
݀‫ݑ‬ ݀‫ݒ‬
݀ ‫ݑ‬ ‫ݒ‬ െ‫ݑ‬
ቀ ቁ ൌ ݀‫ ݔ‬ଶ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݒ ݔ‬ ‫ݒ‬
In function notation,
݀ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ െ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ݃ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
൤ ൨ൌ
݀‫݃ ݔ‬ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ݃ଶ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
Example Using the Quotient Rule
‫ݐ‬ଶ െ 1
‫ݕ‬ൌ ଶ
‫ ݐ‬൅1
Solution
We apply the Quotient Rule with ‫ ݑ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ െ 1 and ‫ ݒ‬ൌ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ൅ 1:
݀ ሺ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻ ∙ 2‫ ݐ‬െ ሺ‫ ݐ‬ଶ െ 1ሻ ∙ 2‫ ݐ‬2‫ ݐ‬ଷ ൅ 2‫ ݐ‬െ 2‫ ݐ‬ଷ ൅ 2‫ݐ‬ 4‫ݐ‬
ൌ ൌ ൌ
݀‫ݐ‬ ሺ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻଶ ሺ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻଶ ሺ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ൅ 1ሻଶ
Negative Integer Powers of ࢞

The Power Rule for negative integers is the same as the rule for positive integers.
RULE 7 Power Rule for Negative Integers
If ݊ is a negative integer and ‫ ് ݔ‬0 then
݀ ௡
ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ݊‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ
݀‫ݔ‬
Example
ௗ ଵ ௗ ଵ
(a) ቀ ቁ ൌ ௗ௫ ሺ‫ି ݔ‬ଵ ሻ ൌ ሺെ1ሻ‫ି ݔ‬ଶ ൌ െ ௫ మ
ௗ௫ ௫
ௗ ସ ௗ ଵଶ
(b) ቀ య ቁ ൌ 4 ሺ‫ି ݔ‬ଷ ሻ ൌ 4ሺെ3ሻ‫ି ݔ‬ସ ൌ െ ర
ௗ௫ ௫ ௗ௫ ௫
RULE 8 Derivative of logarithm functions and exponential functions

ௗ
1- ݁ ௨ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ᇱ . ݁ ௨
ௗ௫
ௗ
2- ܽ௨ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ᇱ . ܽ௨ . ln ܽ
ௗ௫
ௗ ௨ᇲ
3- log ௔ ‫ ݑ‬ൌ
ௗ௫ ௨.୪୬ ௔
ௗ ௨ᇲ
4- ln ‫ ݑ‬ൌ
ௗ௫ ௨
ௗ ೙ ௨ᇲ
5- ൫ √‫ ݑ‬൯ ൌ ೙
ௗ௫ ௡ √௨೙షభ
Example Differentiate the following

ௗ
(a) ݁௫ ൌ ݁௫
ௗ௫
ௗ మ మ
(b) ݁ ௫ ൌ 2‫ݔ‬. ݁ ௫
ௗ௫
ௗ య య
(c) 7௫ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ . 7௫ . ln 7
ௗ௫
ௗ ସ௫ య ସ
(d) log ହ ‫ ݔ‬ସ ൌ ൌ
ௗ௫ ௫ ర ୪୬ ହ ௫ ୪୬ ହ
ௗ ଵ
(e) ln ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
ௗ௫ ௫
ௗ ଷ௫ మ ଷ
(f) ln ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൌ ൌ
ௗ௫ ௫య ௫
ௗ ଵ
(g)
ௗ௫
൫√‫ݔ‬൯ ൌ
√௫
ௗ య ସ௫ య
(h)
ௗ௫
൫√‫ ݔ‬ସ ൯ ൌ య
ଷ √௫ య
 Second- and Higher-Order Derivatives

If ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is a differentiable function, then its derivative ݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is also a
function. If ݂ ᇱ is also differentiable, then we can differentiate ݂ ᇱ to get a new
function of x denoted by ݂ ᇱᇱ . So ݂ ᇱᇱ ൌ ሺ݂ ᇱ ሻᇱ . The function ݂ ᇱᇱ is called the second
derivative of ƒ because it is the derivative of the first derivative. Notationally
ᇱᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀ଶ‫ݕ‬ ݀ ݀‫ݕ‬ ݀‫ ݕ‬ᇱ
݂ ൌ ଶൌ ൬ ൰ൌ ൌ ‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱ ൌ ‫ܦ‬ଶ ሺ݂ሻሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ܦ‬௫ଶ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
The symbol ‫ܦ‬ଶ means the operation of differentiation is performed twice.
If ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ଺ ݔ‬, then ‫ ݕ‬ᇱ ൌ 6‫ ݔ‬ହ and we have
݀‫ ݕ‬ᇱ
ᇱᇱ
݀
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ൌ ሺ6‫ ݔ‬ହ ሻ ൌ 30‫ ݔ‬ସ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
Thus ‫ܦ‬ଶ ሺ‫ ଺ ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 30‫ ݔ‬ସ .
If ‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱ is differentiable, its derivative, ‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱᇱ ൌ ݀‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱ ⁄݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݀ ଷ ‫ݕ‬⁄݀‫ ݔ‬ଷ is the third
derivative of y with respect to x. The names continue as you imagine, with
ሺ௡ሻ
݀ ሺ௡ିଵሻ ݀ ௡ ‫ݕ‬
‫ݕ‬ ൌ ‫ݕ‬ ൌ ௡ ൌ ‫ܦ‬௡ ‫ݕ‬
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
denoting the nth derivative of y with respect to x for any positive integer n.
Example Finding Higher Derivatives

The first four derivatives of ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2 are
First derivative: ‫ ݕ‬ᇱ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ݔ‬
Second derivative: ‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱ ൌ 6‫ ݔ‬െ 6
Third derivative: ‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱᇱ ൌ 6
Fourth derivative: ‫ ݕ‬ሺସሻ ൌ 0
The function has derivatives of all orders, the fifth and later derivatives all being
zero.
 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Derivative of the Sine Function

The derivative of the sine function is the cosine function:
݀
ሺsin ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ᇱ cos ‫ݑ‬
݀‫ݔ‬
Example Derivatives Involving the Sine

(a) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ sin ‫ݔ‬:
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀
ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬െ ሺsin ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬െ cos ‫ݔ‬
(b) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ sin ‫ݔ‬:

݀‫ݕ‬ ݀
ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ሺsin ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ cos ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ݔ‬
ୱ୧୬ ௫
(c) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ :
௫
݀
݀‫ ݔ݀ ∙ ݔ ݕ‬ሺsin ‫ݔ‬ሻ െ sin ‫ ∙ ݔ‬1
ൌ
݀‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ଶ
‫ ݔ‬cos ‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫ݔ‬
ൌ
‫ݔ‬ଶ
Derivative of the Cosine Function
The derivative of the cosine function is the negative of the sine function:
݀
ሺcos ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ െ‫ݑ‬ᇱ sin ‫ݑ‬
݀‫ݔ‬
Example Derivatives Involving the Cosine

(a) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 5‫ ݔ‬൅ cos ‫ݔ‬:
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀ ݀
ൌ ሺ5‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ ሺcos ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ 5 െ ‫ݔ݊݅ݏ‬
(b) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ሺsin ‫ݔ‬ሻሺcos ‫ݔ‬ሻ:
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀ ݀
ൌ sin ‫ݔ‬ ሺcos ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ cos ‫ݔ‬ ሺsin ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ sin ‫ ݔ‬ሺെ sin ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ cos ‫ ݔ‬ሺcos ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ൌ cosଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ sinଶ ‫ݔ‬
 Derivatives of the Other Basic Trigonometric Functions

Because sin ‫ ݔ‬and cos ‫ ݔ‬are differentiable functions of x, the related functions
sin ‫ݔ‬ cos ‫ݔ‬ 1 1
tan ‫ ݔ‬ൌ , cot ‫ ݔ‬ൌ , sec ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ܽ݊݀ csc ‫ ݔ‬ൌ
cos ‫ݔ‬ sin ‫ݔ‬ cos ‫ݔ‬ sin ‫ݔ‬
are differentiable at every value of x at which they are defined. Their derivatives,
calculated from the Quotient Rule, are given by the following formulas. Notice the
negative signs in the derivative formulas for the cofunctions.
Derivatives of the Other Trigonometric Functions
ௗ
1- ሺtan ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ᇱ sec ଶ ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫
ௗ
2- ሺsec ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ݑ‬ᇱ sec ‫ ∙ ݑ‬tan ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫
ௗ
3- ሺcot uሻ ൌ െ‫ݑ‬ᇱ csc ଶ ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫
ௗ
4- ሺcsc ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ െ‫ݑ‬ᇱ csc ‫ ∙ ݑ‬cot ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫
Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions

ௗ ௨ᇲ
1- ሺsinିଵ ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ |ݑ‬൏ 1
ௗ௫ √ଵି௨మ
ௗ ି୳ᇲ
2- ሺcosିଵ ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ |u| ൏ 1
ௗ௫ √ଵି୳మ
ௗ ௨ᇲ
3- ሺtanିଵ ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ
ௗ௫ ଵା௨మ
ௗ ି௨ᇲ
4- ሺcot ିଵ ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ
ௗ௫ ଵା௨మ
ௗ ௨ᇲ
5- ሺsec ିଵ ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ |ݑ‬൐ 1
ௗ௫ |௨|√௨మ ିଵ
ௗ ି୳ᇲ
6- ሺcsc ିଵ ‫ݑ‬ሻ ൌ |‫ |ݑ‬൐ 1
ௗ௫ |୳|√୳మ ିଵ
Example Find ‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱ if ‫ ݕ‬ൌ sec ‫ݔ‬

Solution
‫ ݕ‬ൌ sec ‫ݔ‬

‫ ݕ‬ᇱ ൌ sec ‫ ∙ ݔ‬tan ‫ݔ‬
݀
‫ ݕ‬ᇱᇱ ൌ ሺsec ‫ ∙ ݔ‬tan ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬
݀ ݀
ൌ sec ‫ݔ‬ ሺtan ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ tan ‫ݔ‬ ሺsec ‫ݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ sec ‫ ݔ‬ሺsec ଶ ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൅ tan ‫ ݔ‬ሺsec ‫ ݔ‬tan ‫ݔ‬ሻ
ൌ sec ଷ ‫ ݔ‬൅ sec ‫ ݔ‬tanଶ ‫ݔ‬
Example find the derivative of the following

ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ାଵ
(a) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 3‫ ଻ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 5 (b) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ
ଷ
ଷ ఱ ିଶ
(c) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ (d) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݁ ସ௫
௫
(e) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ √‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3 (f) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 5ଷ௫ାଶ

ఱ
(g) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ √2‫ ݔ‬൅ 5 (h) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ lnሺsin ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ
మ
(i) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݁ ௫ cos 2‫ݔ‬ (j) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ cos ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ
ర
௘ೣ
(k) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ tanିଵ 3௫ (l) ‫ ݕ‬ൌ
ୱ୧୬ ௫
Solution
ௗ
(a) 3‫ ଻ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 5 ൌ 21‫ ଺ ݔ‬൅ 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ
ௗ௫
ௗ ଶ௫ మ ାଷ௫ାଵ ସ௫ାଷ
(b) ൌ
ௗ௫ ଷ ଷ
ௗ ଷ ௗ ିଷ
(c) ൌ 3‫ି ݔ‬ଵ ൌ െ3‫ି ݔ‬ଶ ൌ
ௗ௫ ௫ ௗ௫ ௫మ
ௗ ఱ ିଶ ఱ ିଶ
(d) ݁ ସ௫ ൌ 20‫ ݔ‬ସ . ݁ ସ௫
ௗ௫
భ భ
ௗ ௗ ଷ௫ మ ଷ௫ మ
(e) √‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3 ൌ ௗ௫ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3ሻమ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 3ሻିమ ൌ
ௗ௫ ଶ ଶ√௫ య ାଷ
ௗ
(f) 5ଷ௫ାଶ ൌ 3 ൈ 5ଷ௫ାଶ . ln 5
ௗ௫
ௗ ఱ ଶ
(g) √2‫ݔ‬ ൅5ൌ ఱ
ௗ௫ ହ ඥሺଶ௫ାହሻర
ௗ ଶ௫ ୡ୭ୱ ௫ మ
(h) lnሺsin ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ሻ ൌ
ௗ௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫ మ
ௗ మ మ మ
(i) ݁ ௫ cos 2‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2݁ ௫ sin 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݁ ݔ‬௫ cos 2‫ݔ‬
ௗ௫
ௗ ିଷ௫ మ
(j) cos ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൌ
ௗ௫ √ଵି௫ ల
ௗ ଶ௫
(k) tanିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൌ
ௗ௫ ଵା௫ ర
ర ర ర
ௗ ௘ೣ ସ௫ య ௘ ೣ ୱ୧୬ ௫ ି ௘ ೣ ୡ୭ୱ ௫
(l) ൌ
ௗ௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫ ሺୱ୧୬ ௫ሻమ
 Implicit Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to ‫ݔ‬, treating ‫ ݕ‬as a
differentiable function of ‫ݔ‬.
2. Collect the terms with ݀‫ݕ‬⁄݀‫ ݔ‬on one side of the equation.
3. Solve for ݀‫ݕ‬⁄݀‫ݔ‬.
Example Find ݀‫ݕ‬⁄݀‫ ݔ‬if ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ sin ‫ݕݔ‬

Solution
‫ ݕ‬ଶ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ sin ‫ݕݔ‬
݀ ଶ ݀ ଶ ݀
ሺ‫ ݕ‬ሻ ൌ ሺ‫ ݔ‬ሻ ൅ ሺsin ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀
2‫ݕ‬ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺcos ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ ሺ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀‫ݕ‬
2‫ݕ‬ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺcos ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ ൬‫ ݕ‬൅ ‫ ݔ‬൰
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݕ‬ ݀‫ݕ‬
2‫ݕ‬ െ ሺcos ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ ൬‫ ݔ‬൰ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ ሺcos ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ‫ݕ‬
݀‫ݔ‬ ݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ݕ‬
ሺ2‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬cos ‫ݕݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݕ‬cos ‫ݕݔ‬
݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݕ‬cos ‫ݕݔ‬
ൌ
݀‫ ݔ‬2‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬cos ‫ݕݔ‬
 Minima and Maxima and critical points

We find the first derivative of the function and let it equal to 0 to find:
1- The critical points.
2- Increasing and Decreasing Intervals.
3- absolute maximum and absolute minimum
Example Find the critical point and Increasing and Decreasing Intervals and
absolute maximum and absolute minimum of
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 4
Solution
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0
‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ݔ‬ሺ‫ ݔ‬െ 2ሻ ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 ‫ ݔ ݎ݋‬ൌ 2
To find the critical points substitute the values of ‫ ݔ‬into ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
If ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 we get 0ଷ െ 3 ൈ 0ଶ ൅ 4 ൌ 4 the first critical point is ሺ0,4ሻ.
If ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2 we get ሺ2ሻଷ െ 3 ൈ ሺ2ሻଶ ൅ 4 ൌ 0 the second critical point is ሺ2,0ሻ.
The function is increasing at ሺെ∞, 0ሻ ∪ ሺ2, ∞ሻ

and the function is decreasing at ሺ0,2ሻ
the extremum maximum point is ሺ2,0ሻ
the extremum minimum point is ሺ0,4ሻ
Rolle’s Theorem
THEOREM Rolle’s Theorem
Suppose that ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous at every point of the closed interval ሾܽ, ܾሿ
and differentiable at every point of its interior ሺܽ, ܾሻ. If
݂ሺܽሻ ൌ ݂ሺܾሻ
then there is at least one number c in ሺܽ, ܾሻ at which
݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ 0
The steps to use rolle’s theorem

1- The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous on the closed interval ሾܽ, ܾሿ.
2- The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ a differentiable on an open interval ሺܽ, ܾሻ.
3- ݂ሺܽሻ ൌ ݂ሺܾሻ.
4- If the above three steps are satisfied then we can find ܿ ∈ ሺܽ, ܾሻ
݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ 0
Example The polynomial function

‫ݔ‬ଷ
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ െ 3‫ݔ‬
3
is continuous at every point of ሾെ3,3ሿ and it is differentiable at every point of
ሺെ3,3ሻ. Since Rolle’s Theorem says that ݂ ᇱ must be zero at least once in the open
interval between ܽ ൌ െ3 and ܾ ൌ 3. In fact, ݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3 is zero twice in this
interval, once at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ√3 and again at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ √3.
Example Find the value or values of ܿ that satisfy the Rolle’s theorem
1- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1, ሾ0,1ሿ
2- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 12‫ ݔ‬൅ 11, ሾ0,4ሿ
3- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬െ 1, ሾ1,3ሿ
ଵ
4- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ , ሾെ1,1ሿ
௫మ
Solution
1- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 is continuous on ሾ0,1ሿ. (by using continuity conditions)
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 2
݂ሺ0ሻ ൌ െ1 , ݂ሺ1ሻ ൌ 2
Since ݂ሺ0ሻ ് ݂ሺ1ሻ the function doesn’t satisfy the Rolle’s conditions.
2- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 12‫ ݔ‬൅ 11 is continuous on ሾ0,4ሿ. (by using continuity
conditions )
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 6‫ ݔ‬െ 12
݂ሺ0ሻ ൌ 11 , ݂ሺ4ሻ ൌ 48 െ 48 ൅ 11 ൌ 11
Since ݂ሺ0ሻ ൌ ݂ሺ4ሻ ⟹ ݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ 0 ܿ ∈ ሺ0,4ሻ
݂ሺܿሻ ൌ 6ܿ െ 12 ൌ 0 ⟹ 6ܿ ൌ 12 ⟹ ܿൌ2 and 2 ∈ ሺ0,4ሻ
3- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √‫ ݔ‬െ 1 is continuous on ሾ1,3ሿ. ( by using continuity conditions )
ଵ
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ
ଶ√௫ିଵ
݂ሺ1ሻ ൌ √0 , ݂ሺ3ሻ ൌ √2
Since ݂ሺ1ሻ ് ݂ሺ3ሻ the function doesn’t satisfy the Rolle’s conditions
ଵ
4- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ is not continuous at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0, so we can’t use the Rolle’s theorem
௫మ
The Mean Value Theorem

THEOREM The Mean Value Theorem
Suppose ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous on a closed interval ሾܽ, ܾሿ and differentiable on
the interval’s interior ሺܽ, ܾሻ. Then there is at least one point ܿ in ሺܽ, ܾሻ at which
݂ሺܾሻ െ ݂ሺܽሻ
݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ
ܾെܽ
The steps to use mean value theorem

1- The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ is continuous on the closed interval ሾܽ, ܾሿ.
2- The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ a differentiable on an open interval ሺܽ, ܾሻ.
3- If the above two steps are satisfied then we can find ܿ ∈ ሺܽ, ܾሻ
݂ሺܾሻ െ ݂ሺܽሻ
݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ
ܾെܽ
Example
The function ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ is continuous for 0 ൑ ‫ ݔ‬൑ 2 and differentiable for
0 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൏ 2. Since ݂ሺ0ሻ ൌ 0 and ݂ሺ2ሻ ൌ 4, the Mean Value Theorem says that at
some point c in the interval, the derivative ݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬must have the value
ሺ4 െ 0ሻ⁄ሺ2 െ 0ሻ ൌ 2. In this (exceptional) case we can identify c by solving the
equation 2ܿ ൌ 2 to get ܿ ൌ 1.
Example Find the value or values of ܿ that satisfy the mean value theorem
1- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ݔ‬, ሾെ2,2ሿ
2- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1, ሾ0,1ሿ
3- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 1, ሾെ2,4ሿ
Solution
1- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬is continuous on ሾെ2,2ሿ. (by using continuity conditions)
݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 2
݂ሺെ2ሻ ൌ 0 , ݂ሺ2ሻ ൌ 8
௙ሺଶሻି௙ሺିଶሻ ଼ି଴
Now ݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ ൌ 2ܿ ൅ 2 ⟹ 2ܿ ൅ 2 ൌ
ଶିሺିଶሻ ସ
⟹ 8ܿ ൅ 8 ൌ 8 ⟹ ܿ ൌ 0 , 0 ∈ ሺെ2,2ሻ
2- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ൅ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 is continuous on ሾ0,1ሿ. (by using continuity conditions)

݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 2
݂ሺ0ሻ ൌ െ1 , ݂ሺ1ሻ ൌ 2
௙ሺଵሻି௙ሺ଴ሻ
Now ݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ ൌ 2ܿ ൅ 2 ⟹ 2ܿ ൅ 2 ൌ 2 ൅ 1
ଵି଴
ଵ
⟹ 2ܿ ൌ 1 ⟹ ܿൌ , 0 ∈ ሺ0,2ሻ
ଶ
3- ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ ൅ 1 is continuous on ሾെ2,4ሿ. (by using continuity conditions)

݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ
݂ሺെ2ሻ ൌ െ7 , ݂ሺ4ሻ ൌ 65
௙ሺସሻି௙ሺିଶሻ ଺ହା଻
Now ݂ ᇱ ሺܿሻ ൌ ൌ 3ܿ ଶ ⟹ 3ܿ ଶ ൌ ൌ 12
ସିሺିଶሻ ଺
⟹ ܿଶ ൌ 4 ⟹ ܿ ൌ േ2 , 2 ∈ ሺെ2,4ሻ& െ 2 ∉ ሺെ2,4ሻ
So ܿ ൌ 2
THEOREM L’Hôpital’s Rule (First Form)

Suppose ݂ሺܽሻ ൌ ݃ሺܽሻ ൌ 0, that ݂ ᇱ ሺܽሻ and ݃ᇱ ሺܽሻ exist, and that ݃ᇱ ሺܽሻ ് 0.
Then
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ݂ ᇱ ሺܽሻ
lim ൌ ᇱ
௫→௔ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ݃ ሺܽሻ
Example Using L’Hôpital’s Rule

3‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫ ݔ‬3 െ cos ‫ݔ‬
(a) lim ൌ ฬ ൌ2
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ 1 ௫ୀ଴
1
(b) √1 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 2 √1 ൅ ‫ݔ‬ 1
lim ൌ ተ ൌ
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ 1 2
௫ୀ଴
Sometimes after differentiation, the newnumerator and denominator both equal

zero at ‫ ݔ‬ൌ ܽ, as we see in Example 46. In these cases, we apply a stronger form
of l’Hôpital’s Rule.
THEOREM 7 L’Hôpital’s Rule (Stronger Form)
Suppose that ݂ሺܽሻ ൌ ݃ሺܽሻ ൌ 0, that ݂ and ݃ are differentiable on an open
interval ‫ ܫ‬containing ܽ, and that ݃ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ് 0 on ‫ ܫ‬if ‫ ് ݔ‬0 Then
݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ݂ ᇱ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
lim ൌ lim ᇱ
௫→௔ ݃ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ௫→௔ ݃ ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ
assuming that the limit on the right side exists
Example Applying the Stronger Form of L’Hôpital’s Rule

(a) √1 ൅ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 െ ‫ ݔ‬⁄ 2 0
lim
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ଶ 0
ሺ1⁄2ሻሺ1 ൅ ‫ݔ‬ሻିଵ⁄ଶ െ 1⁄2 0
ൌ lim ‫݈݈݅ݐݏ‬ ; ݂݂݀݅݁‫݊݅ܽ݃ܽ ݁ݐܽ݅ݐ݊݁ݎ‬
௫→଴ 2‫ݔ‬ 0
െሺ1⁄4ሻሺ1 ൅ ‫ݔ‬ሻିଷ⁄ଶ 1 0
ൌ lim ൌെ ܰ‫ݐ݋‬ ; ݈݅݉݅‫݀݊ݑ݋݂ ݏ݅ ݐ‬
௫→଴ 2 8 0
(b) ‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫ݔ‬ 0

lim
௫→଴ ‫ݔ‬ଷ 0
1 െ cos ‫ݔ‬ 0
ൌ lim ‫݈݈݅ݐݏ‬
௫→଴ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ 0
sin ‫ݔ‬ 0
ൌ lim ‫݈݈݅ݐݏ‬
௫→଴ 6‫ݔ‬ 0
cos ‫ ݔ‬1 0
ൌ lim ൌ ܰ‫݀݊ݑ݋݂ ݏ݅ ݐ݈݅݉݅ ; ݐ݋‬
௫→଴ 6 6 0
4 Introduction to Matrices
What is a Matrix?
A matrix is a rectangular array of elements, usually numbers, e.g
1 3 0
቎െ2 8 2 ቏
4 0 െ1
2 0 117
The above matrix is a ሺ4 ൈ 3ሻ matrix, i.e. it has three columns and four rows
4.1 Why use Matrices?
We use matrices in mathematics and engineering because often we need to deal
with several variables at once—eg the coordinates of a point in the plane are written
ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ or in space as ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬, ‫ݖ‬ሻ and these are often written as column matrices in the
form:
‫ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ ܽ݊݀ ቈ‫ݕ‬቉
‫ݖ‬
It turns out that many operations that are needed to be performed on coordinates
of points are linear operations and so can be organized in terms of rectangular
arrays of numbers, matrices. Then we find that matrices themselves can under
certain conditions be added, subtracted and multiplied so that there arises a whole
new set of algebraic rules for their manipulation.
In general, an ሺ݊ ൈ ݉ሻ matrix A looks like:
ܽଵଵ ܽଵଶ ܽଵଷ … ܽଵ௠
ܽ ܽଶଶ ܽଶଷ … ܽଶ௠
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൦ ଶଵ ൪
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮
ܽ௡ଵ ܽ௡ଶ ܽ௡ଷ … ܽ௡௠
Here, the entries are denoted ܽ௜௝ , Capital letters are usually used for the matrix
itself.
4.2 Dimension
In the above matrix ‫ܣ‬, the numbers ݊ and ݉ are called the dimensions of ‫ܣ‬. So
it has ݊ ൈ ݉ dimension.
4.3 Addition
It is possible to add two matrices together, but only if they have the same
dimensions. In which case we simply add the corresponding entries:
1 3 7 2 4 1 3 7 8
൥4 2 0൩ ൅ ൥െ1 1 8൩ ൌ ൥ 3 3 8൩
5 8 2 6 െ5 7 11 3 9
If two matrices don’t have the same size (dimensions) then they can’t be added,
or we say the sum is ‘not defined’.
Example
1 2 6 3 7 5
൥0 െ2൩ ൅ ൥1 2൩ ൌ ൥1 0൩
3 7 0 0 3 7
1 2
4 0
൥0 െ2൩ ൅ ቂ ቃ ൌ ݅‫݂݀݁݊݅݁݀݊ݑ ݏ‬
3 െ2
3 7
4.4 Multiplying Matrices
When multiplying matrices, keep the following in mind: lay the first row of the
first matrix on top of the first column of the second matrix; only if they are both of
the same size can you proceed. The rule for multiplying is: go across the first
matrix, and down the second matrix, multiplying the corresponding entries, and
adding the products. This new number goes in the new matrix in position of the row
of the first matrix, and the column of the second matrix. For example:
1 2 2 0 3 1ൈ2൅2ൈ1 1ൈ0൅2ൈ5 1ൈ3൅2ൈ7
ቂ ቃቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
3 4 1 5 7 3ൈ3൅4ൈ1 3ൈ0൅4ൈ5 3ൈ3൅4ൈ7
4 10 17
ൌቂ ቃ
10 5 37
Symbolically, if we have the matrices A and B as follows:

‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൦ ଶଵ ൪
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮
ܾ ܾଵଶ ܾଵଷ … ܾଵ௤
‫ ۍ‬ଵଵ ‫ې‬
ܾ ܾଶଶ ܾଶଷ … ܾଶ௤ ‫ۑ‬
‫ ܤ‬ൌ ‫ ێ‬ଶଵ
‫⋮ ێ‬ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮‫ۑ‬
‫ܾۏ‬௣ଵ ܾ௣ଶ ܾ௣ଷ … ܾ௣௤ ‫ے‬
then the product AB is given by:
௠ ௠ ௠
‫ۍ‬෍ ܽଵ௜ ܾ௜ଵ ෍ ܽଶ௜ ܾ௜ଶ … ෍ ܽଵ௜ ܾ௜௤ ‫ې‬
௜ୀଵ
‫ ێ‬௠ ௜ୀଵ ௜ୀଵ ‫ۑ‬
௠ ௠
‫ێ‬෍ ܽଶ௜ ܾ௜ଵ ෍ ܽଶ௜ ܾ௜ଶ … ෍ ܽଶ௜ ܾ௜௤ ‫ۑ‬
‫ ێ‬௜ୀଵ ௜ୀଵ ௜ୀଵ ‫ۑ‬
‫ێ‬ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ‫ۑ‬
௠ ௠ ⋮ ௠
‫ێ‬෍ ܽ ܾ ෍ ܽ௡௜ ܾ௜ଶ … ෍ ܽ௡௜ ܾ௜௤ ‫ۑ‬
‫ ۏ‬௜ୀଵ ௡௜ ௜ଵ ௜ୀଵ ௜ୀଵ ‫ے‬
Where ∑௠
௜ୀଵ ܽଵ௜ ܾ௜ଵ stands for ܽଵଵ ܾଵଵ ൅ ܽଵଶ ܾଶଵ ൅ ܽଵଷ ܾଷଵ ൅ ⋯ ൅ ܽଵ௡ ܾ௡ଵ
Note that we must have ݉ ൌ ‫݌‬, i.e. the number os columns in the first matrix
must equal the number of rows of the second; otherwise, we say the product is
undefined.
Example
1 3
െ1 2 0
(a) ቂ ቃ ൥0 െ1൩
4 1 െ2
7 5
െ1 ൈ 1 ൅ 2 ൈ 0 ൅ 0 ൈ 7 െ1 ൈ 3 ൅ 2 ൈ െ1 ൅ 0 ൈ 5
ൌቂ ቃ
4 ൈ 1 ൅ 1 ൈ 0 ൅ െ2 ൈ 7 4 ൈ 3 ൅ 1 ൈ െ1 ൅ െ2 ൈ 5
െ1 െ5
ൌቂ ቃ
െ10 1
4 7
2 0
(b) ቂ ቃ ൥െ8 2൩ is undefined
3 െ1
2 1
1 0 2 1ൈ2൅0ൈ5 2
(c) ቂ ቃቂ ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
3 1 5 3ൈ2൅1ൈ5 11
We see from the examples
(a) Product of ሺ2 ൈ 3ሻ matrix with a ሺ3 ൈ 2ሻ matrix is a ሺ2 ൈ 2ሻ matrix

(c) Product of ሺ2 ൈ 2ሻ matrix with a ሺ2 ൈ 1ሻ matrix is a ሺ2 ൈ 1ሻ matrix
Note that the two middle numbers must be the same if the product is defined;
and then the dimensions of the answer is just the two outer numbers. Thus, the
product of an ሺ݊ ൈ ݉ሻ matrix with a ሺ݉ ൈ ‫ݍ‬ሻ matrix is an ሺ݊ ൈ ‫ݍ‬ሻ matrix.
4.5 Scalar Multiplication

There is another type of multiplication involving matrices called scalar
multiplication. This means just multiplying each entry of the matrix by a number.
For example:
െ1 2 0 െ3 6 0
3ቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
4 1 െ2 12 3 െ6
4.6 Rules
There are some rules which matrix addition and multiplication obey:
Associative ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ ൅ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫ ܣ‬൅ ሺ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ܥ‬ሻ
Commutative ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ܣ‬
Distributive ‫ܣ‬ሺ‫ ܤ‬൅ ‫ܥ‬ሻ ൌ ‫ ܤܣ‬൅ ‫ܥܣ‬
Distributive ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫ ܥܣ‬൅ ‫ܥܤ‬
Associative ሺ‫ܤܣ‬ሻ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬ሺ‫ܥܤ‬ሻ
Non–Commutative ‫( ܣܤ ് ܤܣ‬usually)
Moving Constants ‫ܣ‬ሺߣ‫ܤ‬ሻ ൌ ߣሺ‫ܤܣ‬ሻ
(Assuming that the sums and products are defined in all cases.)
Example
1 0 െ1 4 2
Let ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ, ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ, ‫ܥ‬ൌቂ ቃ
3 2 1 െ2 3
Consider the following:
1 0 െ1 4 െ1 4
‫ ܤܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
3 2 1 െ2 െ1 8
െ1 4 1 0 11 8
‫ ܣܤ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
1 െ2 3 2 െ5 െ4
Now, ‫ܣܤ ് ܤܣ‬, and we see that two matrices are not the same if they are
multiplied the other way around. Also consider:
1 0 2 2
‫ ܥܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
3 2 3 12
െ1 4 2 10
‫ ܥܤ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
1 െ2 3 െ4
2 10 12
‫ ܤܣ‬൅ ‫ ܥܤ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ ൅ ቂ ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
12 െ4 8
1 0 െ1 4 0 4
‫ܣ‬൅‫ ܤ‬ൌቂ ቃ൅ቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
3 2 1 െ2 4 0
0 4 2 12
ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
4 0 3 8
and we notice that ሺ‫ ܣ‬൅ ‫ܤ‬ሻ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫ ܥܣ‬൅ ‫ ܥܤ‬as required.
4.7 Transpose
Another operation on matrices is the transpose. This just reverses the rows and
columns, or equivalently, reflects the matrix along the leading diagonal. The
transpose of ‫ ܣ‬is normally written ‫ܣ‬௧
Note that the transpose of a ሺ݊ ൈ ݉ሻ matrix is a ሺ݉ ൈ ݊ሻ matrix.
Example
As an example of the transpose:
2 0
2 4 െ1 ௧
‫ܣ‬ൌቂ ቃ, ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൥ 4 3൩
0 3 5
െ1 5
4.8 Square Matrices

Given a number ݊, ሺ݊ ൈ ݊) matrices have very special properties. Note that if
we have two ሺ݊ ൈ ݊ሻ matrices, the product is defined and will also be an ሺ݊ ൈ ݊ሻ
matrix
4.9 The Identity Matrix
There also exists a special matrix, known as the identity, ‫ܫ‬௡ൈ௡ :
1 0 0 0
1 0 0
1 0
‫ܫ‬ଶൈଶ ൌ ቂ ቃ, ‫ܫ‬ଷൈଷ ൌ ൥0 1 0൩, ‫ܫ‬ସൈସ ൌ ቎0 1 0 0቏ , ݁‫ܿݐ‬.
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
which has 1’s on the main diagonal, and 0’s everywhere else. This matrix has
the property that, given any ሺ݊ ൈ ݊ሻ matrix ‫ܣ‬:
‫ܫܣ‬௡ൈ௡ ൌ ‫ܣ‬ ܽ݊݀ ‫ܫ‬௡ൈ௡ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܣ‬
i.e. multiplying by the identity on either side doesn’t change the matrix. This is
similar to the property of 1 when multiplying numbers. We usually abbreviate ‫ܫ‬௡ൈ௡
to just ‫ ܫ‬when it’s obvious what ݊ is.
Example
1 7 1 0
Let ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ , ‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬ଶൈଶ ൌ ቂ ቃ
3 2 0 1
Now, we check the properties of the identity:
1 7 1 0 1 7
‫ ܫܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
3 2 0 1 3 2
1 0 1 7 1 7
‫ ܣܫ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
0 1 3 2 3 2
as required.
5 Determinants
One of the most important properties of square matrices is the determinant. This
is a number obtained from the entries
5.1 Determinant of a ሺ૛ ൈ ૛ሻ Matrix
a b
Let A ൌ ቂ ቃ. Then, the determinant of ‫ܣ‬, denoted ݀݁‫ ܣ ݐ‬or |‫ |ܣ‬is given by
c d
ܽ݀ – ܾܿ.
Example
2 3
det ቂ ቃ ൌ 2 ൈ 5 െ 3 ൈ 1 ൌ 10 െ 3 ൌ 7
1 5
െ1 2
det ቂ ቃ ൌ ሺെ1ሻሺെ6ሻ െ 2 ൈ 3 ൌ 6 െ 6 ൌ 0
3 െ6
Before we go on to larger matrices, we need to define minors
5.2 Minors
Let ‫ ܣ‬be the ሺ݊ ൈ ݊ሻ matrix
‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൦ ଶଵ ൪
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮
Then, the minor ݉௜௝ , for each ݅, ݆, is the determinant of the ሺ݊ െ 1 ൈ ݊ െ 1ሻ
matrix obtained by deleting the ݅ ௧௛ row and the ݆௧௛ column. For example, in the
above notation:
ܽଶଶ ܽଶଷ ܽଶସ … ܽଶ௠
ܽ ܽଷଷ ܽଷସ … ܽଷ௠
݉ଵଵ ൌ det ൦ ଷଶ ൪
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮
ܽ௡ଶ ܽ௡ଷ ܽ௡ସ … ܽ௡௠
ܽଵଶ ܽଵଷ ܽଵସ … ܽଵ௠
ܽ ܽଷଷ ܽଷସ … ܽଷ௠
݉ଶଵ ൌ det ൦ ଷଶ ൪
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ … ⋮
ܽ௡ଶ ܽ௡ଷ ܽ௡ସ … ܽ௡௠
Example
2 1 െ1
We compute all the minors of ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൥ 0 4 3 ൩
െ5 0 െ2
4 3 0 3 0 4
݉ଵଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ8 ݉ଵଶ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ 15 ݉ଵଷ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ 20
0 െ2 െ5 െ2 െ5 0
1 െ1 2 െ1 2 1
݉ଶଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ2 ݉ଶଶ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ9 ݉ଶଷ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ5
0 െ2 െ5 െ2 െ5 0
1 െ1 2 െ1 2 1
݉ଷଵ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ7 ݉ଷଶ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ6 ݉ଷଷ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ8
4 3 0 3 0 4
5.3 Minors and Cofactors

The numbers called ‘cofactors’ are almost the same as minors, except some have
a minus sign in accordance with the following pattern:
൅ െ ൅ െ …
቎െ ൅ െ ൅ …
൅ െ ൅ െ …቏
… … … … …
The best way to remember this is as an ‘alternating’ or ‘chessboard’ pattern. The
cofactors from the previous example are:
ܿଵଵ ൌ ݉ଵଵ ൌ െ8 ܿଵଶ ൌ െ݉ଵଶ ൌ െ15 ܿଵଷ ൌ ݉ଵଷ ൌ 20
ܿଶଵ ൌ െ݉ଶଵ ൌ 2 ܿଶଶ ൌ ݉ଶଶ ൌ െ9 ܿଶଷ ൌ െ݉ଶଷ ൌ െ5
ܿଷଵ ൌ ݉ଷଵ ൌ 7 ܿଷଶ ൌ െ݉ଷଶ ൌ െ6 ܿଷଷ ൌ ݉ଷଷ ൌ 8
5.4 Determinant of a (3 × 3)–Matrix

2 1 െ1
Letting ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ൥ 0 4 3 ൩ as before, we compute the determinant using the top
െ5 0 െ2
row:
det ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ܽଵଶ ܿଵଶ ൅ ܽଶଶ ܿଶଶ ൅ ܽଷଶ ܿଷଶ ൌ 1 ൈ ሺെ15ሻ ൅ 4 ൈ ሺെ9ሻ ൅ 0 ൈ ሺെ6ሻ
ൌ െ15 െ 36 െ 0 ൌ െ51
It doesn’t matter which row or column is used, but the top row is normal. Note
that it is not necessary to work out all the minors (or cofactors), just three.
Example
1 0 4
Let ‫ ܤ‬ൌ ൥െ2 1 0൩. We compute the determinant of B:
3 2 1
1 0 4
1 0 െ2 0 െ2 1
det ൥െ2 1 0൩ ൌ 1 ቚ ቚ െ 0ቚ ቚ ൅ 4ቚ ቚ
2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1
ൌ 1ሺ1 െ 0ሻ െ 0ሺെ2 െ 0ሻ ൅ 4ሺെ4 െ 3ሻ ൌ 1 െ 28 ൌ െ27
5.5 Inverses
Let ‫ ܣ‬be an ݊ ൈ ݊ matrix, and let ‫ ܫ‬be the ݊ ൈ ݊ identity matrix. Sometimes,
there exists a matrix ‫ିܣ‬ଵ (called the inverse of ‫ )ܣ‬with the property:
‫ିܣ ܣ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ ܫ‬ൌ ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ‫ܣ‬
5.6 Inverse of a ૛ ൈ ૛ Matrix
ܽ ܾ
Let ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ. Then, the inverse of ‫ܣ‬, ‫ିܣ‬ଵ is given by:
ܿ ݀
1 ݀ െܾ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ ൌ ቂ ቃ
ܽ݀ െ ܾܿ െܿ ܽ
To check, we multiply:
1 ݀ െܾ ܽ ܾ 1 ݀ܽ െ ܾܿ ܾ݀ െ ܾ݀
‫ିܣ‬ଵ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃൌ ቂ ቃ
ܽ݀ െ ܾܿ െܿ ܽ ܿ ݀ ܽ݀ െ ܾܿ െܿܽ ൅ ܽܿ െܾܿ ൅ ܽ݀
1 ܾܽ െ ܾܿ 0 1 0
ൌ ቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
ܽ݀ െ ܾܿ 0 ܽ݀ െ ܾܿ 0 1
In a similar fashion we could show that ‫ିܣ ܣ‬ଵ ൌ ‫ܫ‬.
Of course, the inverse could also be written
1 ݀ െܾ
‫ିܣ‬ଵ ൌ ቂ ቃ
det ‫ ܣ‬െܿ ܽ
Note, that if ݀݁‫ ܣ ݐ‬ൌ 0, then we have a division by zero, which we can’t do. In
this situation there is no inverse of ‫ܣ‬.
5.7 Inverse of 3 × 3 (and higher) Matrices

Recall the definition of a minor: given an ሺ݊ ൈ ݊ሻ matrix ‫ܣ‬, the minor ݉௜௝ is
the determinant of the ሺ݊ െ 1 ൈ ݊ െ 1ሻ matrix obtained by omitting the ݅ ௧௛ row
and the ݆௧௛ column.
Example
1 0 4
Let A ൌ ൥െ2 1 0൩. We calculate the minors:
3 2 1
1 0 െ2 0 െ2 1
݉ଵଵ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ1 ݉ଵଶ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ2 ݉ଵଷ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ7
2 1 3 1 3 2
0 4 1 4 1 0
݉ଶଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ8 ݉ଶଶ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ11 ݉ଶଷ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ2
2 4 3 1 3 2
0 4 1 4 1 0
݉ଷଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ4 ݉ଷଶ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ8 ݉ଷଷ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ1
1 0 െ2 0 െ2 1
Recall also the pattern of + and − signs from which we obtain the cofactors:
൅ െ ൅
൥െ ൅ െ൩
൅ െ ൅
Now, we put the minors into a matrix and change their signs according to the
pattern to get the matrix of cofactors:
1 2 െ7
൥8 െ11 െ2൩
െ4 െ8 1
The next stage is take the transpose:
1 8 െ4
൥ 2 െ11 െ8൩
െ7 െ2 1
and finally we must divide by the determinant, which is −27:
1 1 8 െ4
ିଵ
‫ܣ‬ ൌ ൥ 2 െ11 െ8൩
െ27
െ7 െ2 1
The same procedure works for ሺ݊ ൈ ݊ሻ matrices.

(I) Work out the minors.
(II) Put in the − signs to form the cofactors.
(III) Take the transpose.
(IV) Divide by the determinant.
Furthermore, an ݊ ൈ ݊ matrix has an inverse if and only if the determinant is
not zero. So, it’s a good idea to calculate the determinant first, just to check whether
the rest of the procedure is necessary.
6 Linear Systems
We discuss one very important application of finding inverses of matrices.
6.1 Simultaneous Equations

Often, when solving problems in mathematics, we need to solve simultaneous
equations, e.g. something like:
2‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 3
5‫ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ ݕ‬ൌ 7
from which we would obtain ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2 and ‫ ݕ‬ൌ െ1. The process we have used up
until now is a little messy: we combine the equations to try and eliminate one of the
unknown variables. There is a more systematic way using matrices. We can write
the equations in a slightly different way:
2‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ݕ‬ 3
൤ ൨ൌቂ ቃ
5‫ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ݕ‬ 7
Now we can check that the first matrix is equal to the product:
2‫ ݔ‬൅ ‫ݕ‬ 2 1 ‫ݔ‬
൤ ൨ൌቂ ቃቂ ቃ
5‫ ݔ‬൅ 3‫ݕ‬ 5 3 ‫ݕ‬
and so altogether we have a matrix equation:
2 1 ‫ݔ‬ 3
ቂ ቃ ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
5 3 7
The next stage is to use the inverse of the ሺ2 ൈ 2ሻ matrix, so let’s calculate that
now.
2 1 ଵ 3 െ1 3 െ1
Let ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ቂ ቃ, then ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ൌ ቂ ቃൌቂ ቃ
5 3 ଶൈଷ ି ଵൈହ െ5 2 െ5 2
Now, we take the matrix equation above, and multiply by ‫ିܣ‬ଵ
2 1 ‫ݔ‬ 3
ቂ ቃ ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
5 3 7
3 െ1 2 1 ‫ݔ‬ 3 െ1 3
ቂ ቃቂ ቃ ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃቂ ቃ
െ5 2 5 3 െ5 2 7
Then, doing the multiplication:
1 0 ‫ݔ‬ 3 ൈ 3 ൅ ሺെ1ሻ ൈ 7
ቂ ቃ ቂ‫ݕ‬ቃ ൌ ൤ ൨
0 1 ሺെ5ሻ ൈ 3 ൅ 2 ൈ 7
‫ݔ‬ 2
ቂ‫ ݕ‬ቃ ൌ ቂ ቃ
െ1
and so ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2 and ‫ ݕ‬ൌ െ1, as required. So, provided we can work out the
inverse of the matrix of coefficients, we can solve simultaneous equations.
6.2 Larger Systems

The same thing works with 3 equations in ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ݖ‬. Suppose we have
‫ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݕ‬൅ 2‫ ݖ‬ൌ െ1
3‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫ ݖ‬ൌ 2
2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬൅ 8‫ ݖ‬ൌ 7
Then, the matrix form is
1 2 2 ‫ݔ‬ െ1
൥0 3 െ2൩ ቈ‫ݕ‬቉ ൌ ൥ 2 ൩
2 െ1 8 ‫ݖ‬ 7
Now, we denote the 3 ൈ 3 matrix by ‫ܣ‬, and calculate the inverse of ‫ܣ‬. The
minors are as follows:
3 െ2 0 െ2 0 3
݉ଵଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ 22 ݉ଵଶ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ4 ݉ଵଷ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ6
െ1 8 2 8 2 െ1
2 2 1 2 1 2
݉ଶଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ 18 ݉ଶଶ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ4 ݉ଶଷ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ5
െ1 8 2 8 2 െ1
2 2 1 2 1 2
݉ଷଵ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ10 ݉ଷଶ ൌ ቚ ቚ ൌ െ2 ݉ଷଷ ൌ ቚ ቚൌ3
3 െ2 0 െ2 0 3
Recall the chessboard pattern:

൅ െ ൅
൥െ ൅ െ൩
൅ െ ൅
So we have the following matrix of cofactors:
22 െ4 െ6
൥െ18 4 5൩
െ10 2 3
We can calculate the determinant by taking any row or column, and multiplying
the original matrix entry by its corresponding cofactor, and then adding — let’s
choose the top row:
det ‫ ܣ‬ൌ 1 ൈ 22 ൅ 2 ൈ ሺെ4ሻ ൅ 2 ൈ ሺെ6ሻ ൌ 22 െ 8 െ 12 ൌ 2
and so the determinant is 2, and so we will be able to find the inverse. From the
matrix of cofactors, we take the transpose, and then divide by the determinant to get
‫ିܣ‬ଵ :
11 െ9 െ5
1 22 െ18 െ10
െ2 2 1
‫ିܣ‬ଵ ൌ ൥െ4 4 2 ൩ൌ൦ 5ൗ 3ൗ ൪
2 െ3 2 2
െ6 5 3
Now, we return to solving the simultaneous equations, where we had:

1 2 2 ‫ݔ‬ െ1
‫ݕ‬
൥0 3 െ2൩ ቈ ቉ ൌ ൥ 2 ൩
2 െ1 8 ‫ݖ‬ 7
Multiplying both sides on the left by ‫ିܣ‬ଵ , we have:
11 െ9 െ5 11 െ9 െ5
1 2 2 ‫ݔ‬ െ1
െ2 2 1 െ2 2 1
൦ ൪ ൥0 3 െ2൩ ቈ‫ݕ‬቉ ൌ ൦ ൪൥ 2 ൩
െ3 5ൗ2 3ൗ2 2 െ1 8 ‫ݖ‬ െ3 5ൗ2 3ൗ2 7
And we know that ‫ିܣ‬ଵ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ܫ‬, so

11 ൈ ሺെ1ሻ ൅ 9 ൈ 2 ൅ ሺെ5ሻ ൈ 7
1 0 0 ‫ݔ‬
ሺെ2ሻ ൈ ሺെ1ሻ ൅ 2 ൈ 2 ൅ 1 ൈ 7
൥0 1 0൩ ቈ‫ݕ‬቉ ൌ ൦ ൪
5 3
0 0 1 ‫ݖ‬ ሺെ3ሻ ൈ ሺെ1ሻ ൅ ൈ 2 ൅ ൈ 7
2 2
െ64
‫ݔ‬
13
ቈ‫ݕ‬቉ ൌ ൦ 37 ൪
‫ݖ‬
2
and so we get ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ64, ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 13 and ‫ ݖ‬ൌ 37ൗ2 . It’s a very good idea to
check calculations like this!

37
‫ ݔ‬൅ 2‫ ݕ‬൅ 2‫ ݖ‬ൌ ሺെ64ሻ ൅ 2ሺ13ሻ ൅ 2 ൬ ൰ ൌ െ64 ൅ 26 ൅ 37 ൌ െ1
2
37
3‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫ ݖ‬ൌ 3ሺ13ሻ െ 2 ൬ ൰ ൌ 39 െ 37 ൌ2
2
37
2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬൅ 8‫ ݖ‬ൌ 2ሺെ64ሻ െ 13 ൅ 8 ൬ ൰ ൌ െ128 െ 13 ൅ 148 ൌ 7
2
as required.
References
Thomas Calculus 11th Edition
Larson Calculus, 11th Edition

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‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪By Ali Khalil Al-shaikhly‬‬

‫‪shaikhly‬‬ ‫‪Mathematics 1‬‬

‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌــــــــﺔ اﻟﻧﺟـــــــــم اﻟﺳـــــــــــﺎطﻊ – اﻟﺑرﯾﻘـــــــــﺔ‬

‫ﻣﻘـــــرر رﯾﺎﺿﯾــــــﺎت ‪GS113‬‬

‫اﻋداد ‪ /‬أ‪ .‬ﻋﻠﻲ ﺧﻠﯾل اﺳﻣﺎﻋﯾل اﻟﺷﯾﺧﻠﻲ‬

 Elementary Set Theory

Example All the subsets of a set ሼܽ, ܾ, ܿሽ

So, the Power Set should have 2ଶ ൌ 8 set.

The Intersection of two sets ‫ ܣ‬and ‫ ܤ‬is written ‫ ܤ ∩ ܣ‬and defined

The Equality of two sets is written ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ‫ ܤ‬and defined

The operations of union ⋃ and intersection ∩ satisfy the distributive laws

1- ‫ ܤ ∪ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ1,2,3,4,5,7ሽ 5- ‫ ܤ‬െ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሼ3,5ሽ

3- ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ሾ3,5ሿ

4- ‫ ܥ‬െ ‫ ܣ‬ൌ ሾെ5, െ4ሿ

5- ‫ܤ‬௖ ൌ ሺെ∞, െ1ሻ ∪ ሺ10, ∞ሻ

6- ሺ‫ ܣ‬െ ‫ܥ‬ሻ௖ ൌ ሺെ∞, 3ሻ ∪ ሺ5, ∞ሻ

Notice the rules for multiplying an inequality by a number. Multiplying by a

Example Solve the following inequalities

(e) െ5 ൑ 3 െ 2‫ ݔ‬൏ 11 (f) 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൏ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2

െ‫ ݔ‬൏ 6‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 Multiply both sides by 3

0 ൏ 7‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 add x to both sides

െ3 ൏ 7‫ݔ‬ subtract 3 from both sides

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ 3ൗ7 , ∞ሻ

െ10 ൏ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 4 ൏ 10 Multiply both sides by 5

(f) 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 ൏ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 4 ൏ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2

The steps to solve any nonlinear inequalities are:

Example solve the nonlinear inequalities

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ4 , 3ሻ

(b) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 7‫ ݔ‬൅ 10 ൒ 0

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞ ,2ሿ ∪ ሾ5, ∞ሻ

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞, 0ሻ ∪ ሺ4,5ሻ

and ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1 ൌ 0 ⟹ ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ1

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ1,1ሻ

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞, െ2ሿ ∪ ሾ5, ∞ሻ

Absolute Value Properties

2- |ab| ൌ |a||b| The absolute value of a product is the product of the

௔ |௔| The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient of the

Example Illustrating the Triangle Inequality

Absolute Values and Intervals

Example Solving an Equation with Absolute Values

(c) |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൒ 1 (d) |3‫ ݔ‬െ 1| ൑ 5

The solution set is the open interval ሺ1ൗ3 , 1ൗ2ሻ.

(c) |2‫ ݔ‬െ 3| ൒ 1

The solution set is ‫ ∈ ݔ‬ሺെ∞ , 1ሿ ⋃ ሾ2 , ∞ ሻ.

(d) |3‫ ݔ‬െ 1| ൑ 5

(e) ห|‫ |ݔ‬െ 1ห ൌ 3

 Functions and Their Graphs

How to find the domain

We notice the curve is either on or

2- Between ‫ ݔ‬ൌ െ2 and ‫ ݔ‬ൌ 3, ሺ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9ሻ gets closer to 0, so ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ will go to

We can see in the following graph

(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ25 െ √‫ݔ‬ (d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √25 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ

(b) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ 4 ൅ √‫ ݔ‬െ 3

(c) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ25 െ √‫ݔ‬

(d) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ √25 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ

(e) ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ඥ36 െ |‫|ݔ‬

then ‫ ݕ‬൐ 0 we get

 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients

Function Formula Domain

 Even and Odd functions