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MIGRATION 3. Irregular Migrants - (also known as


By Group 5 undocumented or illegal migrants) These are
the people who enter a country, usually in
Migration search of employments, without the necessary
- means crossing the boundary of a political or documents and permits.
administrative unit for a certain minimum period.
It can happen within country and between 4. Refugees - According to the 1951 UN
country. (Boyle et al. 1998) Convention: is a person residing outside his or
her country of nationality, who is unable or
unwilling to return because of a "well-founded
fear of persecution on account of race, religion,
TYPES OF MIGRATION nationality, membership in a particular social or
political opinion
Internal Migration 5. Asylum Seekers - people who move across
borders in search of protection, but who may
- refers to a move from one area (a province, not fulfill the strict criteria lay down by the 1951
district or municipality) to another within one Convention.
country. It spans great distances and bring
together very different people (e.g. movements 6. Forced Migration - this includes not only
of Uigar ‘national minority’ people from the refugees and asylum seekers but also people
western provinces of China to cities in the East). forced to move by environmental catastrophes
or development projects.
International Migration
7. Family Members - (also known as family
- means crossing the frontiers which separate reunion or family reunification migrants). This
one of the world’s approximately 200 states refers to migration to join people who have
from another. (e.g., between the Southern already entered in immigration country under
Philippines and Sabah in Malaysia). one of the above categories.
- Sometimes the frontiers ‘migrate’, rather than 8. Return Migrants - these are the people who
the people, making internal migrants into return to their countries of origin after a long
international ones. For instance, the break-up of period in another country. They are often
the former Soviet Union turned millions of looked favorably as they may bring with them
former internal migrants into foreigners in the capital, skills, and experience useful for
successor states. economic development.
According to Skeldon, internal and
international migration are connected because
CAUSES OF MIGRATION
internal migration often happens first. People
who move to cities might gain skills, networks,
or savings that help them later move abroad.
International migration is an integral
Also, changes in the economy, policies, or
part of globalisation, which may be
conflicts can affect both types of migration. By
characterised as the widening, deepening and
studying these connections, Skeldon argues
speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness
that internal and international migration should
in all aspects of contemporary social life. The
be seen as parts of the same process.
key indicator of globalisation is the rapid
increase in cross-border flows of all sorts:
finance, trade, ideas, pollution, media products
CATEGORIES OF INTERNATIONAL and people.
MIGRATION
1. Disparity in levels of income, employment
1. Temporary Labor Migrants - (also known and social well-being between differing
as guest workers or overseas contract workers). areas
This refers to men and women who migrate for • Neo-classical economic theory states
a limited period in order to take up employment that main cause of migration is
and send money home. individuals’ efforts to maximise their
income by moving from low-wage to
2. Highly Skilled and Business Migrants - high-wage economies.
people with qualifications as managers, • An alternative economic approach is
executives, professionals, technicians or similar, provided by the ‘new economics of
who move within internal labor markets of labour migration’, which argues that
transnational corporations and international migration cannot simply be explained by
organizations or who seek employment through income differences between two
international labor markets for scarce skills. countries, but also by factors such as
chances of secure employment,
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availability of capital for entrepreneurial • The links between migrant community


activity, and the need to manage risk and area of origin may persist over
over long periods. generations. Remittances fall off and
visits home may decline in frequency,
2. Demographic Differences but familial and cultural links remain.
• Differences in demographic patterns • In the long run, migrations may lead to
with regard to fertility, mortality, age- international communicative networks,
structure and labour force growth are which affect economic relations, social
also important. and political institutions, and the culture
and national identity of all the countries
3. Political and Environmental Crisis concerned.
• There is no simple relationship between
poverty and emigration.
• Departure from the very poorest areas HISTORICAL TRENDS
may be rare, because people lack the
economic capital needed to travel, the
cultural capital needed to become aware Migration has been part of human
of opportunities elsewhere, and the history due to population growth, climatic
social capital (or networks) needed to changes, and economic needs. Wars, nation-
successfully find work and to cope in a building, and empire formation also pushed
new environment. people to move, both voluntarily and by force.
• However, in the event of a catastrophe
(such as war or environmental Colonial and Industrial Era (15th Century
degradation) which destroy minimal Onwards)
subsistence levels, even the poorest • European colonialism spurred massive
may be forced to migrate, usually under migration, with Europeans moving
very bad conditions. overseas as sailors, traders, soldiers,
farmers, and administrators.
4. Development leads to migration • Forced Labor: This era included the
• Development leads to migration, forced migration of 15 million African
because economic and educational slaves and, later, the use of indentured
improvements make people capable of workers transported across colonies.
seeking better opportunities elsewhere. • Industrialization: Economic hardship and
landlessness in Western Europe led to
5. Historical and Colonial Ties mass emigration, especially to the U.S.,
• Migratory movements generally arise where 30 million people arrived between
from the existence of prior links between 1861 and 1920.
sending and receiving countries based
on colonisation, political influence, trade, Migration Slowdown (1918–1945)
investment or cultural ties • After WWI, economic and political
• A migration system is constituted by issues slowed migration. In the U.S.,
two or more countries which exchange "nativist" groups opposed immigrants
migrants with each other. from Southern and Eastern Europe,
leading Congress to establish a quota
6. Job recruitment or Military service system restricting immigration.
• Typically, migratory chains are started • Unlike other nations, France continued
by an external factor, such as recruiting foreign labor, attracting
recruitment or military service, or by an Italians, Poles, Spaniards, and others
initial movement of young (usually male) for industrial and agricultural work.
pioneers. • Nazi Germany: The regime forcibly
• Networks based on family or on recruited foreign workers to replace
common place of origin help provide German men conscripted into the
shelter, work, assistance with military.
bureaucratic procedures and support in
personal difficulties. Post-WWII Migration Expansion
• A migration industry emerges, • Phase 1 (1945–1973): Economic growth
consisting of recruitment organisations, spurred large-scale labor migration to
lawyers, agents, smugglers and other Western Europe, North America, and
middle-people. Such people can be both Oceania from less-developed countries.
helpers and exploiters of migrants. The • Phase 2 (Mid-1970s Onwards): After the
emergence of a migration industry with 1973 Oil Crisis, global recession, and
a strong interest in the continuation of shifts in capital investment led to new
migration has often confounded migration flows. Southern Europe, the
government efforts to control or stop Gulf, Latin America, Africa, and Asia
movements. emerged as new migration destinations.
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The Volume of Contemporary Migration Feminization of Migration

- The most comprehensive recent figures have • Women made up about 48% of
been provided by a study carried out by the international migrants by 1995,
United Nation Population Division, which gives outnumbering male migrants in some
estimates on migrant stock (the number of receiving countries.
foreign-born residents) in 218 countries or • Increased independence in female
territories (Zlotnik 1999)’ migration, with more women moving as
heads of households or independently
Growth of International Migration rather than as dependents.
• Public perceptions and migration
• Migrant stock rose from 75 million in regulations often lagged behind, treating
1965 to 120 million in 1990, women as dependents despite this trend.
representing about 2% of the world
population.
• By the late 1990s, migrant numbers Migration and Development
increased to an estimated 135-140
million, including 13 million refugees
recognized by the UNHCR.
• Despite the growth, international International Migration Growth
migrants are a small minority compared
to the global population, with most Over the last 50 years, international
people remaining in their countries of migration has increased significantly and
origin. evolved in unexpected ways, creating new
challenges for policymakers worldwide.
Internal vs. International Migration
Migration and Development Impact
• Internal migration is far larger; for
example, India had 200 million internal • Migration can hinder development in
migrants in 1981. origin countries by causing "brain drain"
• In the late 1980s, around 750 million to (loss of skilled personnel) and
1 billion people (about one-sixth of the transferring human capital from poorer
world's population) migrated internally. to richer countries.
• Benefits for origin countries are realized
Regional Concentration of Migrants if migrants return with enhanced skills or
if remittances outweigh costs of
• 90% of the world’s migrants live in just upbringing.
55 countries.
• 1990 stats show that 4.6% of the Labor-Exporting vs. Labor-Importing
developed world's population were Countries
migrants, compared to 1.6% in
developing countries. • Labor-importing countries aim for a
• Highest immigrant shares by region flexible, low-cost workforce, while labor-
(1990): Oceania (17.8%), North America exporting countries seek to generate
(8.6%), Western Europe (6.1%). jobs and maximize remittance inflows.
• Some governments, particularly in Asia,
Migration Patterns have established agencies (e.g.,
Bangladesh’s BMET, India’s Office of
• Migration flows from less-developed to the Protector of Emigrants) to manage
developed countries increased in the labor emigration.
1980s-1990s. • Despite regulation attempts, irregular
• Labor migration from the least migration remains high, leading to
developed countries to newly exploitation and human trafficking
industrialized countries (NICs), issues.
especially in East Asia.
Remittances
Impact on Local Areas
• Remittances are crucial, with global
• Migration can cause local labor figures rising from $2 billion in 1970 to
shortages in sending areas and affect $70 billion in 1995, providing substantial
family and community life. financial support for many emigration
• Immigrants in destination countries often countries.
concentrate in urban and industrial • Proper channels, low fees, and special
areas, forming distinct neighborhoods investment schemes are needed to
and communities. harness remittances for productive use.
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Protection of Migrants Abroad movements between the member


countries. This applies particularly to the
• Countries like the Philippines (through European Union, which has introduced
OWWA) provide services such as pre- almost totally free movement for citizens
departure orientation and support of member states as part of European
abroad, but challenges remain, citizenship. However, none of the
especially for irregular migrants. regional economic bodies have yet
• Limited consular resources and a fear of introduced comprehensive common
losing employment options reduce the policies with regard to migrants from
effectiveness of migrant protection third countries.
efforts. • Emigration countries frequently seek to
make bilateral agreements with
Return Migration and Reintegration immigration countries on the regulation
of migration and the rights and
• Lack of coordinated support leaves most conditions of their citizens.
returnees struggling to find jobs
matching their acquired skills, often
resulting in unproductive businesses. Settlement and Ethnic Diversity
• Effective reintegration requires pre- and
post-return counseling, investment
credits, and maintenance of social • For receiving countries, the key question
networks. is whether immigration will lead to
• International cooperation between origin settlement, formation of ethnic
and host countries is essential for communities, and new forms of ethnic
successful reintegration and maximizing and cultural diversity.
developmental benefits.
• In the 1960s, Western European policy-
makers thought that ‘guest-workers’
would not settle permanently. However,
International Cooperation on Migration after the Oil Crisis, family reunion and
community formation took place. The
Gulf oil countries do not allow family
International cooperation could help to reunion and settlement, yet their
ensure orderly migration and to enhance the economies are structurally dependent
contribution of migration to development. on foreign labour. This is leading to
increased length of stay and family
• However, efforts and outcomes so far formation, despite the rules.
have been disappointing. The main
reasons for this are lack of long-term • Whatever policy-makers expect. This is
strategies by both emigration and partly due to the social nature of the
immigration countries, and the migration process, which is sustained by
reluctance of immigration countries to informal networks once it gets started.
take steps which might increase the cost Another factor is the increasing strength
of migrant labour to employers. of human rights safeguards in many
• Major elements of an international countries, which make it difficult for
regulatory framework already exist in governments to deport migrants or to
ILO Conventions No. 97 of 1949 and deny them the right to live with their
No. 143 of 1975, and in the 1990 families.
United Nations Convention on the • Pluralism and multiculturalism refer
Rights of Migrant Workers and to societies where people can maintain
Members of their Families. These their different cultural and religious
standards need to be linked together in identities.
a comprehensive framework to regulate • The overall experience of the last 50
the rights and conditions of migrant years is that immigration almost always
workers. However, the main problem is leads to cultural changes, which may be
that relatively few countries (especially perceived as threatening. Since political
immigration countries) have ratified leaders generally do little to prepare
these instruments. their populations for such developments,
• Currently, most countries (especially the result is often a politicization of
emigration countries) lack effective issues connected with migration and the
systems for monitoring international emergence of conflicts which may take
migration. Moreover, definitions and many years to resolve.
statistical categories vary considerably.
• Some regional bodies have highly
developed policies with regard to
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Migration as a Challenge to the Nation nation-building process have found it


State difficult to resolve the contradiction.

Development of Transnational Communities


Migration is one of the forces eroding
the power of the nation-state. This is particularly Modern forms of transport and
apparent to one of the crucial aspects of nation- communication make it possible for immigrants
state sovereignty – the border-control. and their descendants to maintain long-term
links with the ancestral homeland. Thus, the
The Flor Contemplacion Case in 1995 idea that a state must be based on a relatively
homogenous nation is becoming difficult to
- It was a case where the state of the sustain.
country of origin (Philippines) is unable to
provide effective protection to nationals abroad,
which led to a public outcry in the Philippines.

- It was highly publicized incident that


highlighted the vulnerability of Filipino overseas
workers and the limitations of the Philippine
government in protecting them.

The Schengen Agreement in Europe


- It is an agreement or treaty signed by
many European countries aiming for making it
easier for people to travel between the
Schengen Area or countries.

• Several African and Asian countries


have carried out quite draconian
measures, such as mass expulsion of
foreign workers, building fences and
walls along borders, severe
punishments for illegal entrants, and
sanctions against employers.
• In an increasingly international
economy, it is difficult to open borders
for movements of information,
commodities, and capital and yet close
them to people.
• Millions of people move irregularly as
they are aided by transnational
‘migration industry’ consisiting of
recruiters, labour brokers, travel agents
– working both legally and illegally.

Ethnic Homogeneity

- It is defined in terms of common language,


culture, traditions, ans history.

- It has been seen as the basis of the


nation-state on the idea of cultural unity in many
countries.

• Immigration and ethnic diversity


threaten the idea of the nation having GROUP 5:
ethnic homogeneity as the basis, BITOR, Alaiza
because they create a people without BUTUNGAN, Sittie Najmah
common ethnic origins. MOLOK, Sittie Jamaicah
MASTURA, Mohammad Hafiydh
• Absorption of immigrants has been part AMER, Mohammad Ashraf
of the myth of nation-building of the
classical countries of immigration.
However, countries which place a
common culture at the heart of their

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