COMMUNITY & ECOSYSTEM

ECOLOGY Ch : 45 P:855-880
 Populations do not occur as single entities.
Populations must interact with each other.
These group of populations living and
interacting with each other in an area is called
community.
Habitat and Niche
Each species occupies a particular position in the
community, both in a spatial sense (where it lives) and in
a functional sense (what role it plays).

○A particular place where a species lives and

reproduces is its habitat.
○The ecological niche is the role a species plays in its
community.
 Community Structure
The organization of a biological community with respect to ecological interactions
is referred to as community structure.

Species interact in three ways:

Competition
Predation
Symbiosis (long-term interaction)
Species richness, number of species in a
particular community,
Species diversity, includes both the number of
species (species richness), abundance of each
species in a particular community.

A visualization of species richness, A visualization of species abundance,

5 species 5 species
COMPETITION
Species can compete with each other for resources such as;
light, space, nutrients, mates. It is considered to be an
important limiting factor - regulating of population
size and species richness.
 In 1930s, Russian ecologist G.F. Gause grew two species of
Paramecium.

P. Aurelia is the better

competitor
&
P.caudatum dies out

P : 859
Flamingos competing for Male hartebeest locking horns and fiercely defending Wolves defending their
territories, mates or food. their territories. kill.

Male gorillas fighting for a harem of The roots of the cactus plants which compete for
females. space below the ground.
 PREDATION
●Predation is a biological interaction where a predator (an
organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism that is
attacked). Predators may or may not kill their prey prior
to feeding on them, but the act of predation often results in the
death of its prey.
● Not all predators are animals. Carnivorous plants, catch their prey in a pool of water
containing digestive enzymes. These plants absorb nutrients from the insects while they
digest them.
● On a microscopic scale, protozoa and bacteria also consume prey organisms. They play
an important role in maintaining population sizes in microbial communities.
 Predator – Prey Interactions

Predator and prey populations are regulating each

The snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) and the other. As the number of prey increases, the
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) number of predators also increases since there is
an increase in available food supply. The number
Studies have revealed that the hare and lynx of prey then decreases followed by a decrease in
populations cycle regularly, as graphed. the number of predators since there is now less
food available for them.
PREY DEFENSES
1. Camouflage (Crypsis)
Camouflage is a passive defense mechanism which allows an organism to blend into its background

Malaysian Orchid Mantis Flounder Fish Rabbit on Snow

2. Warning Colorization:
Many organisms use brightly coloured markings to show predators that they are poisonous. This
provides a warning to predators who show some caution when dealing with brightly coloured prey.

Poison Dart Frog Flamboyant cuttlefish The striped skunk

3. Mimicry :
Prey sometimes escape being eaten by a predator using mimicry, where they mimic
organisms that are harmful or unpalatable. In Batesian mimicry, a harmless organism
mimics a harmful organism. The effectiveness of this mimicry depends on the harmful
species outnumbering the mimics so predators don’t learn that prey with certain markings
are tasty.

Redspotted Purple Butterfly (mimicking Pipevine Swallowtail)

They can mimic large bumblebees and even
sound like them to warn off potential
predators.
SYMBIOSIS
● The word symbiosis literally means 'living together,' but when we use the
word symbiosis in biology, what we're really talking about is a close, long-term
interaction between two different species.

3 Types of Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism

• Both members • One species • One of the

benefit. benefits, while species harms
the other is the other but
neither benefited tends to not kill
nor harmed. it.
MUTUALISM
● Symbiotic relationships in which each species benefits are mutualistic.

Example1: There are hundreds of examples of mutualisms

between a heterotroph and an alga.
Lichens
The fungus cannot photosynthesize so it
can not create food from solar energy,
but the alga can photosynthesize. The
fungus benefits from the food
synthesized by the alga. The alga needs
water but cannot hold it well, but the
fungus is like a sponge more able to
absorb and hold moisture. The alga
benefits from the carbon dioxide
produced.
 Paramecium bursaria engulfs unicellular green
algae in cytoplasm.

○ The paramecium certainly benefits from the food

synthesized by the alga. It can be cultured apart from
the alga but then must be given extra food.

○ The alga benefits from the carbon dioxide produced

by its host as well as the host's ability to transport it
to a spot where there is light.

The cytoplasm of Paramecium bursaria filled with green

Chlorella algae.
Example 2 : Mutualistic relations between plants and fungi are
very common.
The fungus invades and lives in the
secondary roots. The association is called
a mycorrhiza.

● The fungus helps the host plant absorb

inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus from
the soil.

● Some mycorrhizal fungi also secrete

antibiotics which may help protect their
host from invasion by parasitic fungi and
bacteria.
 LICHEN MYCORRHIZA

CO2 & Nutrients and CO2 &

Water Antibiotics Water&Protection

Plant
Paramecium Alga
Fungus Alga Fungus (Root
Structure)
O2& Protection & O2&
Food Place Food

Alga : Singular / Algae :

 COMMENSALISM
● Commensalism means "at table together". It is used for symbiotic relationships in
which one organism consumes the unused food of another. One species is benefited,
and the other one neither benefited nor harmed.

Example1 : The remora and the shark.

•The dorsal fin of the remora
is modified into a sucker with
which it forms a temporary
attachment to the shark.
•When the shark feeds, the
remora picks up scraps. The
shark makes no attempt to
prey on the remora.
Example 2 : Barnacles attach themselves to the backs of some
aquatic animals.
● Barnacles that attach themselves
to the backs of whales or the
shells of horseshoe crabs are
provided with both a home and
transportation.

Some species of barnacles are Barnacles on sea turtle.

found only as commensals on
the jaws of whales.
 PARASITISM
● Parasitism is a type of symbiosis in which one of the species causes some harm to the
other but tends to not kill it.
•Small parasites can be endoparasites (heartworms & Dirofilaria
•Viruses (such as HIV) worms)

•Bacteria (e.g., strep infection)

• Protists (e.g., malaria)

•Fungi (e.g., rusts and smuts)

•Larger ones are more likely to be ectoparasites (leeches&
•Plants (e.g., corpse flower) bedbugs).

•Animals (e.g., tapeworms and fleas)

All Kingdoms have

parasitic members.
Corpse flower- Mistletoe –Parasite Cuscuta (Dodder) –
Parasite Plant Plant Parasite Plant
 VOCABULARY - REVIEW I

Competitio Parameciu
Niche n Predation Symbiosis m
Carnivorus Camouflage

Parasitis
Mimicry Mutualism Commensalism Lichen Alga Algae
m

Engulf Mycorrhiza Remora Shark Whale Barnacle Aquatic

Bacteriu
Kingdom Virus Bacteria Fungus Fungi Tapeworm
m

Ectoparasit
BedBug Fleas Leech Endoparasite
e
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Each community has a history that can be surveyed over a period
of time…
Ecological succession is the observed process of change
in the species structure of an ecological community over
time.
The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire),
or even millions of years after a mass extinction.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
●Ecological succession is a change within a community
involving a series of species replacements.

●Primary succession occurs in areas where there is no soil

formation, such as following a volcanic eruption or a glacial
retreat. Wind, water, and other abiotic factors start the
formation of soil from exposed rock.
●Secondary succession occurs in areas where soil is present,
as when a cultivated field, returns to a natural state.
Primary Succession
Primary succession begins in barren areas, such as on bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier. The first
inhabitants are lichens or plants—those that can survive in such an environment. Over hundreds of years
these “pioneer species” convert the rock into soil that can support simple plants such as grasses. These
grasses further modify the soil, which is then colonized by other types of plants. Each successive stage
modifies the habitat by altering the amount of shade and the composition of the soil. The final stage of
succession is a climax community, which is a very stable stage that can endure for hundreds of years.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJ6fmPNVDDA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uGcDed4xVD4
Secondary Succession
Secondary succession follows a major disturbance, such as a fire or a flood. The stages of secondary
succession are similar to those of primary succession; however, primary succession always begins on
a barren surface, whereas secondary succession begins in environments that already possess soil. In
addition, through a process called old-field succession, farmland that has been abandoned may
undergo secondary succession.
 ECOSYSTEMS:

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

PRODUCERS
CONSUMERS
DECOMPOSERS
A. Producers - Autotrophs
Producers synthesize organic compounds from Inorganic Molecules
inorganic compounds.
Energy

There are two types of producers :

Organic Molecules
Photoautotrophs : Sunlight energy 🡪 Photosynthesis
- Photosynthetic bacteria -Euglena - Plants

Chemoautotrophs : Chemical energy 🡪 Chemosynthesis

- Chemosynthetic bacteria
Euglena Cyanobacteria Volvox Colony

Dionea Fern Moss

B. Consumers - Heterotrophs Organic Molecules

Consumers take their organic compounds from

Organic Molecules
environment.
Inorganic Molecules
There are many types of consumers :
1. Some prokaryotic organisms – Heterotroph bacteria –
Pathogens

Salmonella typhrium Neisseria meningitidis Aeromonas hydrophila

1.Some prokaryotic organisms – Heterotroph bacteria (Patogen bacteria)

2.Unicellular eukaryotic organisms

Protista Kingdom: Amoeba Paramecium Plasmodium

3.Multicellular eukaryotic organisms

Fungi Kingdom: Animal Kingdom
Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores

Next Page
 Animal Kingdom

Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores

C. Decomposers
Dead Bodies – Dead Organic
Molecules
Decomposers (or saprotrophs) are organisms that
break down dead organisms by a process called
decomposition.
Inorganic Molecules

Decomposers use dead organisms and non-living organic

compounds as their food source.

1. Bacteria
2 . Fungi
3 . Worms
Ervinia coratovora Bacteria on Bulgaria inquinans
Saprophyte bacterium degrading Black bulgar
leaf in compost

Flammulina velutipes
Earthworm
 Matter and Energy in Ecosystems

The fundamental source of energy in almost all

ecosystems is the energy from the sun.

Autotrophs, the producers such as plants can use the

energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water
into organic compounds.
Heterotrophs are the consumers of the
ecosystem; they cannot make their own
food. Their food source is autotrophs.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GM8En5pVelo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_RBHfjZsUQ
 Food Web
The movement of energy from producers to consumers is
called
a Food Web & Chain.
Each level of ecosystem is called a TROPHIC LEVEL .

The food chain has a number of steps that starts with the
producers and flows through
a series of levels of consumers.
 QUATERNARY CONSUMER

TERTIARY CONSUMER

SECONDARY CONSUMER

PRIMARY CONSUMER
ENERGY PROD
SOURCE UCER
ENERGY
SOURCE = SUN

A series of Trophic Levels

Starts with
PRODUCER
Level 1: Plants and algae make
their own food and are called
producers.

Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and

are called primary consumers.

Level 3: Carnivores that eat

herbivores are called secondary
consumers.
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other
carnivores are called tertiary
consumers.
Level 5: Apex predators that have
no predators are at the top of the
food chain.
 Apex predators

great white
shark,

giant Tasmanian
squid Devil

Siberian
tiger

Huma Pytho
BIOMASS
The total mass of one trophic
level in an ecosystem.

The biomass, or total dry weight (g/m2), for

trophic levels in a food web at Silver Springs,
Florida.
 QUATERNARY CONSUMER

TERTIARY CONSUMER

SECONDARY CONSUMER

PRIMARY CONSUMER
ENERGY
PROD
SOURCE UCER
 90%
H E A T LOSS

10 000 1 000
PRIMARY 100
SECONDARY 10
TERTIARY 1
APEX
PRODUCER
Cal. CONSUMER
Cal. CONSUMER
Cal. CONSUMER
Cal. PREDATOR
Cal.

90%
M A T T E R LOSS

energy
loss
Energy in a Food Web
Energy flows through an
ecosystem via
photosynthesis.

As organic nutrients pass

from one component to the
other only a portion of
energy is transferred.
ENERGY FLOW
●At each step only about
10% of the energy is
passed up through the
chain.

●The rest is released into

the atmosphere as
heat, movement,
growth, defecation.
BIOACCUMULATION

●The accumulation of
chemicals in an organism.

●Bioaccumulation occurs
Organisms can not excrete toxic when an organism absorbs a
substances. toxic substances.
DDT Commercial -1 DDT Commercial -2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UiCSvQvVys https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtcXXbuR244
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZk6vcmLcKw
Energy Pyramid of Food Web
Biomass
Tertiary
Consumer
Individual Mass

Secondary
Consumer Individual Number

Primary
Consumer Using sunlight energy

Toxic Effect
Producer (bioaccumulation)
 VOCABULARY - REVIEW II

Trophic
Food Web Primary Secondary Tertiary
Level

Energy Energy
Quaternary Apex Biomass
Flow Pyramid

Bio
Feces Defecation Toxic Excrete
accumulation