Functions

Function
Let A and B be two nonempty sets. A function f (x) from A into B is a rule that assigns to each
element x in A exactly one element f (x) in B. The set of all possible values of x (independent
variable) is called Domain. The set of all possible values of f (x) (dependent variable) is called
Range.

Example: Determine whether each rule is a function or not and justify. If the given rule is a function,
then provide the domain and range.

x 0 1 2 3 x 0 1 2 0 x 0 1 2 3
f (x) 8 2 5 4 g(x) 8 2 5 3 h(x) 8 2 5 8

Example: The squaring function assigns to each real number x its square x2 . It is defined by

f (x) = x2

√
(a) Evaluate f (−2), f ( 5), and f (a + h).

(b) Find the domain and range of f .

Example: A cell phone plan costs $39 a month. The plan includes 400 free minutes and charges 20 cents
for each additional minute of usage. The monthly charges are a function of the number of minutes used,
given by (
39 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 400,
C(x) =
39 + 0.2(x − 400) if x > 400.

Find C(100), C(400), and C(480).

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Example: Given the piecewise-defined function


 3x + 1 if x ≤ 0
2

f (x) = if 0 < x < 1
xx2


if x ≥ 1

1
(a) Find f ( ), f (−2), and f (|a| + 2).
3

(b) Find the domain of f .

Domain of a Function
If a function is defined by a formula, with no domain specified, then the domain is assumed to be
the set of all real numbers for which the formula makes sense and produces a real number.

Example: Find the domain of each function.

1
(a) f (x) =
x

√
(b) g(x) = x

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Example: Find the domain of each function. Use interval notation to express the domain.

1
(a) f (x) =
x2 −x

√
(b) g(x) = 9 − x2

t
(c) h(t) = √
t+1

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Graph of Functions

Graph of Functions

The graph of a function f is the set of points of the form (x, f (x)) as x varies over the domain of f .

Example: Graph of f is given below.

(a) Find f (2) and f (−3).

(b) Find all values of x such that f (x) = 0.

Vertical Line Test

If a vertical line crosses a graph in more than one point, then the graph does not represent a function.

Example: Determine whether the following graph represents a function or not. Explain.

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 Domain and Range from Graph
A number b is in the domain of a function f if and only if the line x = b intersects the graph of f .
A number c is in the range of a function f if and only if the line y = c intersects the graph of f .

Example: Graph of the function f is given below. State the domain and range of f

Example: Sketch the graph of a function whose domain is [0, 2] and whose range is (1, 3).

Example: Sketch the graph of a function whose domain is [0, 2] and whose range is {1}.

Example: Sketch the graph of a function whose domain is [0, 2] and whose range is {1, 3}.

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Function Transformations

Vertical Transformations
Vertical Transformations are the transformations which affect f (x) (i.e. y-coordinate).
• Vertical Shift: Suppose f is a function and a > 0.
– The graph of g(x) = f (x) + a is obtained by shifting the graph of f up a units.
– The graph of h(x) = f (x) − a is obtained by shifting the graph of f down a units.
• Vertical Stretch: Suppose f is a function and c > 0.
– The graph of g(x) = cf (x) is obtained by vertically stretching the graph of f by a factor
of c.
• Vertical Reflection: Suppose f is a function.
– The graph of g(x) = −f (x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of f in the x-axis.
• Order of Vertical Transformations: The vertical transformations are done using the order
of operations.

Example: Suppose g(x) = 2f (x) − 1.

(a) Sketch the graph of g
(b) Find the domain and range of g.

Example: Determine the transformations that we need to apply to the graph of f (x) = |x| to obtain the
graph of g(x) = −3|x| + 2. Specify the order.

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 Horizontal Transformations
Horizontal Transformations are the transformations which affect x.
• Horizontal Shift: Suppose f is a function and b > 0.
– The graph of g(x) = f (x − b) is obtained by shifting the graph of f right b units.
– The graph of h(x) = f (x + b) is obtained by shifting the graph of f left b units.
• Horizontal Stretch: Suppose f is a function and c > 0.
– The graph of h(x) = f (cx) is obtained by horizontally stretching the graph of f by a factor
of 1c .
• Horizontal Reflection: Suppose f is a function.
– The graph of h(x) = f (−x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of f in the y-axis.
• Order of Horizontal Transformations: the horizontal transformations are done using the
opposite of order of operations.

Example: Suppose g(x) = f (2x + 1).

(a) Sketch the graph of g
(b) Find the domain and range of g.

Example: Determine the transformations that we need to apply to the graph of f (x) = |x| to obtain the
1
graph of g(x) = | x − 3|. Specify the order.
2

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Even and Odd Functions
Even Function
A function is called even if f (−x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f . A function is even if and
only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the vertical axis.

Odd Function
A function is called odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for every x in the domain of f . A function is odd if and
only if its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Example: Determine if the following function is even, odd, or neither.

x2 − 1
f (x) =
3x

Example: Determine if the following function has symmetry with respect to the vertical axis or the origin.
√
x2 + 5
g(x) =
|x| − 3

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Summary of Transformations

Original Function y = f (x)

Shifted up k units y = f (x) + k

Shifted down k units y = f (x) − k

Shifted left k units y = f (x + k)

Shifted right k units y = f (x − k)

Reflected in x-axis y = −f (x)

Reflected in y-axis y = f (−x)

Vertical stretch by k (Multiply y by k) y = kf (x)

1
Horizontal stretch by k
(Multiply x by k1 ) y = f (kx)

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Composition of Functions

Composition
If f and g are functions, then the composition of f and g, denoted f ◦ g, is the function defined by

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of f . In other
words, (f ◦ g)(x) is defined whenever both g(x) and f (g(x)) are defined.
1
Example: Suppose f (x) = x2 + 1 and g(x) = . Find f ◦ g and g ◦ f and their domains.
x

Note
It is possible to take the composition of three or more functions. For instance, the composite function
f ◦ g ◦ h is found by first applying h, then g, and then f as follows:

(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = f (g(h(x)))

Example: Find f ◦ g ◦ h, given

(
1 x−1 if x < 0
f (x) = g(x) = h(x) = x2
x x+1 if x ≥ 0

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 Decomposition
Decomposing a function means writing it as the composition of two or more simpler functions.
Typically a function can be decomposed into the composition of other functions in different ways.

Example: Give an example of nontrivial functions f and g such that

1
(f ◦ g)(x) =
(x − 4)3

Example: Give an example of nontrivial functions f , g, and h such that

3
(f ◦ g ◦ h)(x) = √
x3 +5

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Inverse Functions and Graphs

One-to-one Function
A function f is called one-to-one if for each number y in the range of f there is exactly one number
x in the domain of f such that f (x) = y. In other words no two inputs in the domain have the same
output.

Example: Is f (x) = x2 a one-to-one function? Explain.

Horizontal Line Test

Horizontal line test: A function is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the
graph of the function at most one point.

Example: Given (
2x + 1 if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
−x − 3 if x < 0
determine if f is a one-to-one function using the graph of f .

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 Inverse Function
Suppose f is a one-to-one function. If y is in the range of f , then f −1 (y) is defined to be the number
x such that f (x) = y. The function f −1 is called the inverse function of f . In other words

f (x) = y if and only if f −1 (y) = x

Finding a formula for an inverse function: Suppose f is a one-to-one function. To find a formula for
f −1 (y), solve the equation f (x) = y for x in terms of y.
A few examples:

y in terms of x x in terms of y
y
y = 2x x=
2
1
y = 3x + 1 x = (y − 1)
3
√
y = x3 x= 3y

x−3
Example: Suppose f (x) = . Find a formula for f −1 .
x−4

Properties of Inverse Functions

• Domain of f −1 = Range of f
• Range of f −1 = Domain of f
• f (f −1 (y)) = y for every y in the range of f
• f −1 (f (x)) = x for every x in the domain of f

x−3
Example: Suppose f (x) = . Find the domain and the range of f −1 .
x−4

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 Graph of Inverse Functions
The graph of a function and the graph of its inverse are symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

Example: The graph of f is given below.

a) Find f −1 (1).

b) Sketch the graph of f −1 .

Increasing Function

A function f is called increasing if f (a) < f (b) when a < b and a, b are in the domain of f . Every
increasing function is one-to-one.

Decreasing Function

A function f is called decreasing if f (a) > f (b) when a < b and a, b are in the domain of f . Every
decreasing function is one-to-one.

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