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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration

INTRODUCTION

• The neural system and the endocrine system jointly co-ordinate and regulate the physiological functions in the
body.
• The neural co-ordination is fast very exact and short lived, whereas chemical co-ordination is usually slow,
widespread and long lasting.
• All cells of our body are not innervated by nerve fibres but the cellular function need to be continuously
regulated so a special kind of coordination and integration has to be provided. This function is carried out by
hormones.

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ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES

• Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence, called ductless glands. Their secretions are called hormones.
• Classical definition of hormone – A chemical produced by endocrine glands and released into the blood
and transported to a distantly located target organ.
• Current scientific definition of hormones – Non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular
messengers and are produced in trace amounts.
• The new definition covers a number of new molecules in addition to the hormones secreted by the organised
endocrine glands.
• Invertebrates possess very simple endocrine systems with few hormones whereas a large number of chemicals
act as hormones and provide coordination in the vertebrates.
Types of Hormones

Water soluble Lipid soluble

Amine Peptides and Steroid Thyroid

protein Hormones Hormones Hormones

eg. Epinephrine,eg. Oxytocin, eg. Minera corticoids, eg. Thyroxine

Vaso pressin, Gulco corticoids.
Norepinephrine
MSH, PTH, TSH, Testosterone, Estrogen,
FSH, LH progesterone

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HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine glands and hormone producing diffused tissues/cells located in different parts of our body constitute the
endocrine system. Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis in males and ovary
in females) are the organised endocrine bodies in our body. In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal
tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hormones. A brief account of the structure and functions of all major endocrine
glands and hypothalamus of the human body is given in the following sections.

Organised endocrine gland : Where hormone producing cells are present in cluster/tissue form called organised
endocrine gland.
Examples : Pituitary, Pancreas, Parathyroid, Pineal, Thyroid, Thymus, Adrenal and Gonads (Testis in males and Ovary in
females.

Non-organised endocrine gland : Where hormone producing cells are present in scattered form called non-organised
or diffused endocrine tissue.
Example : Heart, Liver, Kidney, Gastrointestinal tract

Question-1: Body co-ordination is exhibited by-

(1) Blood vascular system (2) Nervous system
(3) Endocrine system (4) Nervous and endocrine system
Answer: (4)

Question-2: Hormones may be-

(1) Amino acid derivatives (2) Peptides
(3) Steroids (4) All of the above
Answer: (4)

Question-3: Endocrine glands produce or Action of endocrine glands is mediated through-

(1) Hormones (2) Enzymes (3) Minerals (4) Vitamins
Answer: (1)

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MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

• Hormones are two types :
(i) Water soluble hormones
(ii) Lipid soluble hormones
• Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called hormone receptors
located in the target tissues only.
• Hormone receptors present on the cell membrane of the target cells are called membrane-bound receptors
and the receptors present inside the target cell are called intracellular receptors. Mostly nuclear receptors
(present in the nucleus). Binding of a hormone to its receptor leads to the formation of a hormone-receptor
complex.
• Each receptor is specific to one hormone only and hence receptors are specific.
• Hormone-Receptor complex formation leads to certain biochemical changes in the target tissue. Target tissue
metabolism and hence physiological function are regulated by hormone

(1) WATER SOLUBLE HORMONES :

Hormone which interact with membrane bound receptor normally do not enter the target cell, but generate
secondary messenger (eg. cyclic GMP / cyclic AMP, IP3, Ca++ etc.) which in turn regulate cellular metabolism.

Hormone

(2) LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONE :

Hormone which interact with intracellular receptor (Steroid, iodothyronine) mostly regulate gene expression or
chromosome function by the interaction of hormone receptor complex with the genome. Cumulative
biochemical action results in physiological and developmental effects.

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On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided into groups :
(i) Peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic
hormones, etc.)
(ii) Steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
(iii) Iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
(iv) Amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine).

HYPOTHALAMUS
• The hypothalamus is the basal part of diencephalon (forebrain) and it regulates a wide spectrum of body
functions.
• It contains several groups of neurosecretory cells called nuclei which produce hormones. These hormones
regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones.
• However, the hormones produced by hypothalamus are of two types, the releasing hormones (which stimulate
secretion of pituitary hormones) and the inhibiting hormones (which inhibit secretions of pituitary hormones).

For example:
• A hypothalamic hormone called Gonadotrophin releasing hormone
(GnRH) stimulates the pituitary synthesis and release of gonadotrophins.
• On the other hand, somatostatin from the hypothalamus, inhibits the
release of growth hormone from the pituitary.
• These hormones originating in the hypothalamic neurons, pass through
axons and are released from their nerve endings.
• These hormones reach the pituitary gland through a portal circulatory
system and regulate the functions of the anterior pituitary.
• The posterior pituitary is under the direct neural regulation of the
hypothalamus.

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PITUITARY GLAND
• On the basis of development pituitary gland is completely ectodermal.
• It is located in the sella.tursica (bony cavity) of sphenoid bone.
• This gland is attached to the hypothalamus through a stalk which is called as infundibulum.

• It is divided anatomically into an adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) and a neurohypophysis (posterior

pituitary).
• Adenohypophysis consists of two portions, pars distalis and pars intermedia.
• The pars distalis region of pituitary, commonly called anterior pituitary, produces growth hormone (GH), prolactin
(PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
• Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone called melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH). However, in humans,
the pars intermedia is almost merged with pars distalis.
• Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) also known as posterior pituitary, stores and releases two hormones called
oxytocin and vasopressin, which are actually synthesised by the hypothalamus and are transported axonally to
neurohypophysis.

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POSTERIOR LOBE OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS :-

Posterior lobe of pituitary gland is 1/4th part of total gland. It is just like nervous tissue, because in it, the terminal ends

of the axons of neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus are swollen.

HORMONES SECRETED BY NEUROHYPOPHYSIS

1. OXYTOCIN OR PITOCIN :-
• Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles (non-striated) of our body and stimulates their contraction.
• In females, it stimulates a vigorous contraction of uterus at the time of child birth, and milk ejection from the
mammary gland.
• It is the main parturition hormone. It stimulates the fast/ rapid contractions and expansions of non- striated
muscles of the uterine wall at the last moment of gestation period (pregnancy). Due to this uterine contractions,
labour pains start just before child birth.
• This hormone is secreted by pituitary glands of mother at the time of parturition.

• Oxytocin hormone contracts the myoepithelial cells present at all the sides of alveoli of mammary glands. Thus,
it helps in milk ejection so it is also called milk let down hormone.

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• In female, this hormone related with emotion. Even thought, cry or sound of baby can bring about release of
this hormone in lactating mother.

2. ADH OR VASOPRESSIN :-
• It acts mainly at the kidney and stimulates reabsorption of water and electrolytes by the distal convoluted

tubules (in DCT and collecting duct of nephrons) and thereby reduces loss of H2O through urine (Diuresis),

Hence, it is also called as "Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)"

• Hyposecretion of ADH causes "Diabetes insipidus" (taste less urine or water drinker's disease), Which is

characterised by polyuria, diluted urine, dehydration, excessive thirst (polydipsia) low BP (hypotension) etc.

• Intake of coffee, tea and excess alcohol etc. decreases the secretion of ADH.

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Question-1: Hypophysial hormone that stimulates reabsorption of water and electrolyte by the distal tubules of
kidneys is :-
(1) Oxytocin (2) Aldosterone (3) Cortisol (4) Vasopressin
Answer: (4) Vasopressin

Question-2: The hyposecretion of posterior pituitary hormone cause :-

(1) Cretinism (2) Diabetes insipidus (3) Goitre (4) Diabetes mellites
Answer: (1) Diabetes insipidus
Explanation:
(1) cretinism - hyposecretion of thyroxine in children/Pregnancy
(2) Diabetes insipidus - hyposecretion of ADH
(3) Goiter - hyposecretion of thyroxine / deficiency of iodine.
(4) Diabetes Melitus - hyposecretion of insulin.

Question-3: Neurohypophysis releases :-

(1) Vasopressin (2) Oxytocin
(3) Oxytocin & prolactin (4) Vasopressin & oxytocin
Answer: (4) Vasopressin & oxytocin

Question-4: "Sella turcica" is a :-

(1) Depression in skull enclosing pituitary (2) Cavity of skull enclosing ears
(3) Covering of testis (4) Kind of endocrine gland
Answer: (1) Depression in skull enclosing pituitary
Explanation:
The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella tursica

HORMONES SECRETED BY ADENOHYPOPHYSIS

1. GROWTH HORMONE OR SOMATOTROPHIC HORMONE [G.H. or S.T.H] :-
Effect on growth–
(i) Promotes elongation of bones
(ii) GH promotes mitosis & increases number of cells in many visceral organs e.g. liver
(iii) GH stimulates growth of muscle and cartilage

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Effect on metabolism
Fat : Increases lipolysis. Under the influence of growth hormone fat is used for energy in preference to carbohydrate

and protein.

Carbohydrate : GH decreases uptake of glucose in the cells, so it is also called diabetogenic hormone.
Protein : GH increases amino acid uptake by the cells of the liver & muscles & helps in protein synthesis.

Diseases due to hyposecretion or hypersecretion of somatotropin hormone :.

(a) Hyposecretion of STH : Due to deficiency of STH in childhood or adolescence, pituitary dwarfism is
observed.
• Dwarfism due to the defect of pituitary is called Ateliosis.
• Clowns of circus are such dwarfs, they are called midgets.

(b) Hypersecretion of STH :

(i) Due to hypersecretion of GH in childhood, the bones of legs & hands become
very long and height of that person increases very much. Body becomes
imbalanced. This disease is called Gigantism.
(ii) Excess secretion of growth hormone in adults especially in middle age can
result in severe disfigurement like excess enlargement of bones of face,
vertebral column and fore limbs, called Acromegaly, which may lead to serious
complications, and premature death if unchecked.
The disease is hard to diagnose in the early stages and often goes undetected for many
years, until changes in external features become noticeable
Over secretion of GH = Gigantism = Abnormal growth of body
Low secretion of GH = Pituitary dwarfism = Stunted growth of body

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2. PROLACTIN / LACTOTROPHIC HORMONE(PRL/LTH)

• Regulates the growth of mammary glands and formation of milk.
• Responsible for lactation after delivery.
• Hormone of maternity.

3. ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH)

• Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of steroid hormones from adrenal cortex. (Mainly Glucocorticoids)

4. THYROTROPHIC [T.T.H OR T.S.H.] OR THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE :-

• T.S.H. stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine. TSH helps in almost all steps of the thyroid hormone
synthesis & it causes growth of thyroid gland.
• Secretion of TSH is stimulated by Thyrotrophin releasing factor of hypothalamus.

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5. FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE [FSH] :-

• It is secreted in male and female both.

• In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis and normal functioning of seminiferous tubules.

• In females, it stimulates oogenesis and development of Graafian follicles in ovary.

• Estrogen hormone that is secreted by Graafian follicles is also affected by FSH.

6. LUTEINIZING HORMONE [LH OR ICSH] OR INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMULATING

HORMONE :-
• It stimulates ovulation in female. As a result of this corpus luteum is formed.

• Hormone progesterone which is secreted by corpus luteum is also stimulated by L.H.

• In men LH is called ICSH. It affects the Leydig's cells or Interstitial cells of testes and stimulates the secretion of

male hormone "Testosterone".

• FSH and LH both are called gonadotrophic hormone GTH.

• FSH and LH act in combined form so these are called synergesic hormone.

• Gonadotrophic hormones (FSH & LH) secretion starts during puberty. Their secretion is regulated by

hypothalamus.

MELENOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)

HORMONE TARGET ORGAN FUNCTIONS

Melanocyte Stimulating SKIN Regulate pigmentation of skin (Darkening).
hormone (MSH) or (In man MSH is Secreted It is responsible for colour change in
(Intermedin) by anterior Lobe because Amphibian and Reptiles (Metachrosis).
middle Lobe is ill MSH is functional in Poikilothermals.
developed)
Function in humans is still unknown.

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Question-1: Abnormal growth of bones due to hyper secretion of growth hormone in adult is known as:

(1) Acromegaly (2) Dwarfism (3) Gigantism (4) Both (1) and (2)
Answer: (1) Acromegaly
Explanation:
Hyper secretion of growth hormone in adult is called acromegaly

Question-2: Which of the following hormone induces ovulation?

(1) FSH (2) LH (3) Vasopressin (4) Oxytocin
Answer: (2) LH

Question-3: Growth hormone is produced in :-

(1) Adrenals (2) Thyroid (3) Pituitary (4) Thymus
Answer: (3) Pituitary

Question-4: MSH Produced by the pars intermedia of pituitary causes in lower vertebrates: -
(1) Darkening of skin (2) Light coloration of skin
(3) Both (4) None of these
Answer: (1) Darkening of skin
Explanation:
MSH is responsible for darkening of skin whereas melatonin is responsible for lightening of skin.

THYROID GLAND
• The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on either side of the trachea.
• Both the lobes are interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus (non glandular part).
Origin :- Endodermal
Position :- Located in the neck between the trachea and larynx.
Structure :- 'H‘ shape, Largest Endocrine gland.

Larynx

Thyroid Gland

Isthmus

Trachea

Ventral view

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• The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues.

• Each thyroid follicle is composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity. These follicular cells synthesise two
hormones, tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)

Cross sections of Thyroid gland

• Thyroid is the only endocrine gland in the body which stores its hormone (for 2-3 months) in its inactive state.
Synthesis of Thyroxine is stimulated by TSH.
• Thyroglobulin is the stored form of Thyroid hormones in the follicles of thyroid gland sufficient for body supply
of thyroxine for the next 3 months.
• Iodine is essential for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid.
• Thyroid gland requires approximately "120 µg" Iodine per day for the production of thyroxine.
• Minimum intake of iodine is 200 µg/day.
• If iodine intake is < 50 µg/day, then thyroid disorders may develop.

FUNCTION OF THYROID HORMONE

• Regulates basal metabolic rate (BMR) of the body. (Calorigenic Hormone)

• Supports the process of red blood cell formation.

• Thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates,

proteins and fats.

• Maintenance of water and electrolyte balance is also influenced

by thyroid hormones.

• It is responsible for physical, mental and sexual growth.

• Required for the development of the nerve fibres and their

myelination.

• It stimulates the metamorphosis of tadpole larva in amphibians.

Due to its deficiency, larva does not metamorphose into adult.

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HYPOSECRETION OF THYROID OR HYPOTHYROIDISM

• GOITRE – Deficiency of iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism and enlargement of the thyroid gland.

• CRETINISM – Hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes defective development and maturation of the
growing baby leading to stunted growth (cretinism), mental retardation, low intelligence quotient,
abnormal skin, deaf-mutism, etc.

• MYXOEDEMA – In adult women, hypothyroidism may cause menstrual cycle to

become irregular. Falling of hair, loose and swollen skin, deposition of adipose fat
are other symptoms related to it.

HYPERSECRETION OF THYROID OR HYPERTHYROIDISM

• Due to cancer of the thyroid glands or due to development of nodules the rate of synthesis and secretion of
thyroid hormones is increased to abnormal high levels leading to a condition called hyperthyroidism.
• GRAVE'S DISEASE or EXOPHTHALMIC GOITER or Basedow disease enlargement of thyroid gland, protrusion
of eye balls, increased BMR and weight loss is seen.

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PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS
• These cells are found in the stroma of thyroid gland & basal part of follicles. These cells are of endocrine
nature.
• These cells secrete thyrocalcitonin (Calcitonin) hormone which lacks iodine. It enhances the deposition of
Ca++ in bones, thus making bones solid and strong. This hormone is antagonistic to Collip’s hormone or
PTH.
• Thus thyrocalcitonin (TCT) regulates the blood calcium level.

Question-1: Largest endocrine gland is:-

(1) Adrenal gland (2) Thyroid gland (3) Thymus (4) Kidney
Answer: (2) Thyroid Gland

Question-2: The basal metabolic rate (BMR) in body cells is regulated by: -
(1) Parathyroid (2) Thyroid (3) Pituitary (4) Thymus
Answer: (2) Thyroid

Question-3: Hypothyroidism in adults causes: -

(1) Addison's disease (2) Myxoedema (3) Sterility (4) Cretinism
Answer: (2) Myxoedema

Question-4: Which gland stores hormone in intercellular space before its secretion into blood?
(1) Pancreas (2) Thyroid (3) Testis (4) Ovary
Answer: (2) Thyroid

PARATHYROID GLAND
Origin: - Endodermal
Position: -Present on the backside of thyroid gland.
Four in number (One pair each in the two lobes of the thyroid gland).
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or Collip's hormone or parathormone is secreted by
parathyroid gland.
• It is polypeptide in nature.
• The secretion of PTH is regulated by the circulating levels of calcium ions.

1. Increases activity of Osteoclast cells and stimulates the process of bone resorption (bone demineralisation/
dissolution) of bones.
2. Also stimulates reabsorption of Ca++ by renal tubules.
3. Increases Ca++ absorption from the digested food.
4. Increases urinary excretion of PO43–.

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Functions of Parathormone: -
• Increase in blood calcium level causes
Hypercalcemia
• Decrease in blood phosphate level causes
Hypophosphatemia
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the Ca2+ levels
in the blood.
• Parathormone is essential for survival because
it significantly contributes to "homeostasis" by
regulating the amount of calcium and
phosphate ions in the ECF.
• Calcium is key element in many physiological
functions like proper permeability of cell
membranes, muscular activities, nerve impulse
conduction, heart-beat, blood coagulation, bone formation, fertilization of ova, etc.

IRREGULARITIES OF PARATHYROID GLAND

(A) HYPOPARATHYROIDISM
Tetany Hypocalcaemia
• Amount of Ca2+ in ECF decreases.
• Muscles and nerves get unnecessarily irritated and start convulsion and cramping.

(B) HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
Osteoporosis
• Due to hypersecretion of PTH, osteoclast cells feed excess amount of bone unnecessarily.
• As a result of this, bones become brittle and weak. This condition is called as Osteoporosis.

Question-1: Removal of Parathyroid in human beings result in :-

(1) Tetany (2) Simmond's disease
(3) Myxoedema (4) Addison's disease
Answer: (1) Tetany
Explanation:
Removal of Parathyroid gland   Parathormone   Ca++ in ECF  tetany

Question-2: Parathormone controls :-

(1) Fatty acid metabolism (2) Sodium and potassium metabolism
(3) Calcium and phosphate metabolism (4) Protein metabolism
Answer: (3) Calcium and phosphate metabolism

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ADRENAL GLAND
• Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of each kidney.
• The gland is composed of two types of tissues –
(i) The centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla
(ii) Outside this lies the adrenal cortex

• Adrenal Gland divided in to 2 parts

(1) Outer cortex (80 - 90%) – Mesodermal in origin
(2) Inner Medulla (10 - 20%) – Ectodermal in origin

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• The adrenal cortex secretes many hormones, commonly called as corticoids.

ZONA GLOMERULOSA (MINERALOCORTICOIDS)

• Corticoids, which regulate the balance of water and electrolytes in our body are called mineralocorticoids.
Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid in our body.
• Aldosterone acts mainly at the renal tubules and stimulates the reabsorption of Na + and water and excretion of
K+ and phosphate ions. Thus, aldosterone helps in the –
(i) Maintenance of electrolytes
(ii) Maintenance of body fluid volume
(iii) Maintenance of osmotic pressure
(iv) Maintenance of blood pressure.
• Aldosterone hormone is also known as Salt retaining hormone. It increases sodium concentration in ECF.

Water
and Na+

ZONA FASCICULATA (GLUCOCORTICOIDS)

• Hormone – Glucocoricoids / Cortisol / Hydrocorticosterone / diabetogenic hormone / "Life - saving hormone"
• The corticoids, which are involved in carbohydrate metabolism are called glucocorticoids. In our body,
cortisol is the main glucocorticoid.
• Glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis; and inhibit cellular uptake and utilisation
of amino acids.
• Cortisol is also involved in maintaining the cardio-vascular system as well as the kidney functions.
• Glucocorticoids, particularly cortisol, produces anti-inflammatory reactions and suppresses the immune
response (Now a days, Cortisol is used in transplantation of organs).
• Cortisol stimulates the RBC production.

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ZONA RETICULARIS (SEX CORTICOIDS) (SEX HORMONES) (GONADOCORTICOIDS)

• Androgens in males and estrogens in females.
• Small amounts of androgenic steroids are also secreted by the adrenal cortex which play a role in the growth
of axial hair, pubic hair and facial hair during puberty.
• Both hormones are secreted in both male and female, but hormones secreted by gonads inactivate opposite
hormones secreted by Adrenal gland.

ADRENAL MEDULLA

FUNCTIONS OF CATECHOLAMINES
• It increases alertness and pupilary dilation. It also constricts the arrector pilli muscle of hair, due to this hair
are raised (PILOERECTION) and increases sweating by stimulating sweat glands.
• Increases the heartbeat, the strength of heart contraction and thus circulation of blood becomes faster.
• The hormone stimulates the trachea and bronchi muscles to relax, as a result of it, rate of respiration is
increased. So, adrenaline hormone is used to cure asthma.
• The hormone enhances the flow of blood by vasodilation of blood vessels of brain, heart, liver and skeletal
muscles.
• It constricts the blood vessels of skin (Vasoconstriction).
• It also stimulates the breakdown of glycogen resulting in an increased concentration of glucose in blood.
• In addition, it also stimulates the breakdown of lipids and proteins.

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• The hormone stimulates contraction in spleen, as a result of it, spleen pours its stored blood into blood stream.
• It checks the secretion of saliva and reduces the peristaltic movements in alimentary canal.
• Due to the effect of this hormone, clotting period of blood is reduced.

Control of Adrenal Secretion :-

• ACTH of anterior pituitary controls the secretion of adrenal cortex (mainly glucocorticoids).
• Secretion of mineralocorticoids is controlled by Renin (Kidney).
• Adrenal medullary hormones are controlled by nervous system.

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Question-1: Epinephrine is :-
(1) Secreted from pancreas and decreases heart beat
(2) Secreted from adrenal medulla and increases heart beat
(3) Secreted from adrenal medulla and decreases heart beat
(4) Secreted from pancreas and increases heart beat
Answer: (2) Secreted from adrenal medulla and increases heart beat

Question-2: Hormones produced by adrenal cortex and gonads (sex hormone) are chemically :-
(1) Proteinous (2) Steroids
(3) Glycoprotein (4) Phenolic compound
Answer: (2) Steroids

Question-3: Undersecretion of adrenal cortex causes :-

(1) Sterility (2) Addison's disease
(3) Cretinism (4) Dwarfism
Answer: (2) Addison's disease

Question-4: The function of norepinephrine is :-

(1) Almost similar to epinephrine (2) Similar to ADH
(3) Opposite to epinephrine (4) Opposite to ADH
Answer: (1) Almost similar to epinephrine
Explanation:
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine are commonly called catecholamines which is released during emergency.

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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration (Endocrine)

THYMUS
Origin :- Endodermal
Position :- The thymus gland is a lobular structure (bilobed) located between lungs behind sternum on the ventral
side of aorta.
Hormone secrete :- Thymosin
Nature of thymosin :- Proteinaceous.

FUNCTION OF THYMUS GLAND

• The thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune
system.
• This gland secretes the peptide hormones called thymosins.
• Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes,
which provide cell-mediated immunity.
• Thymus provide cell mediated immunity so thymus is also called "Throne
of immunity" and "Training school of T- lymphocytes".
• In addition, thymosin also promote production of antibodies to provide
humoral immunity.
• Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased
production of thymosins. As a result, the immune responses of old
persons become weak.

Question-1: Role of thymus in homosapiens is chiefly concerned with :-

(1) Reproduction (2) Immunology (3) Calcium balance (4) Blood coagulation
Answer: (2) Immunology

Question-2: Origin of Thymus Gland is

(1) Ectoderm (2) Endoderm (3) Mesoderm (4) None of above
Answer: (2) Endoderm

PINEAL GLAND
Origin :- Ectodermal
Position :- It is located at the dorsal side of forebrain (Dorsal side of Diencephalon). Also known as Epiphysis cerebri.
Nature of hormone :- Amino acid derivative
Hormone secreted :- Melatonin

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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration (Endocrine)

FUNCTION OF PINEAL GLAND

• Melatonin plays a very important role in the regulation of a 24-hour (diurnal/circadian) rhythm of our body.
• For example, it helps in maintaining the normal rhythms of sleep-wake cycle, body temperature.
• Melatonin also influences metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle and our defense capability.
• It regulates our sexual maturity.

Question-1: Melatonin is a hormone produced by :-

(1) Adrenal gland (2) Pituitary gland (3) Pineal gland (4) Thymus gland
Answer: (3) Pineal gland

Question-2: Which hormone influences metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle and our defense capability?
(1) Melatonin (2) Thymosin (3) Thyroxine (4) Epinephrine
Answer: (1) Melatonin
Explanation:
Melatonin Influences metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle and our defense capability

PANCREAS

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Origin :- Endodermal
Position :- Elongated organ situated between the limbs of the ‘C’ shaped duodenum.
Nature :- Heterocrine / Mixed / Composite gland / Compound (both exocrine and endocrine).

• The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion
secretes hormones, insulin and glucagon.
PANCREAS

Exocrine part Endocrine part

(98 -99%) (1 -2%)

It includes pancreatic acini It includes Islets of Langerhans

secrete digestive enzymes (1 to 2 million)
(scattered between acini.)

EXOCRINE PART

ENDOCRINE PART
The two main types of cells in the Islet of Langerhans are called -cells and -cells.

(i) -cells – secrete a hormone glucagon

(ii) -cells – secrete insulin

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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration (Endocrine)

GLUCAGON
• This is secreted by α-cells.
• Peptide hormone.
• Plays an important role in maintaining the normal blood glucose levels.
• Acts mainly on the liver cells (hepatocytes).
• Stimulates glycogenolysis resulting in an increased blood sugar (hyperglycemia).
• In addition, this hormone stimulates the process of gluconeogenesis which also contributes to hyperglycemia.
• Glucagon reduces the cellular glucose uptake and utilisation. Thus, glucagon is a hyperglycemic hormone.

INSULIN
• Insulin is a peptide hormone, which plays a major role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis.
• Insulin acts mainly on hepatocytes and adipocytes (cells of adipose tissue), and enhances cellular glucose
uptake and utilisation. As a result, there is a rapid movement of glucose from blood to hepatocytes and
adipocytes resulting in decreased blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia).
• Insulin also stimulates conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) in the target cells.
• The glucose homeostasis in blood is thus maintained jointly by the two – insulin and glucagon.

Blood vessel
Glucose
Insulin 4
3

5
Glucose 6
Insulin 1 2 Glucose
channel
receptor channel
closed
open

Glucose
Inside cell

HYPOSECRETION OF INSULIN
Diabetes mellitus –
• Prolonged hyperglycemia (Increased level of glucose in blood> 180 mg/dl) leads to a complex disorder called
diabetes mellitus which is associated with loss of glucose through urine and formation of harmful compounds
known as ketone bodies.
• Diabetic patients are successfully treated with insulin therapy.
• Three hallmark symptoms of diabetes mellitus –
(i) Polyuria (Excessive urination).
(ii) Polydipsia (Excessive thirst).
(iii) Polyphagia (Excessive hunger)

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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration (Endocrine)

• Other symptoms include – Dehydration, Loss of weight and tiredness.

• Due to active and incomplete decomposition of fats in fatty tissues, ketone bodies are formed which leads to
ketoacidosis.
• The combined effect of Ketoacidosis, Dehydration and Hyperglycemia may cause Diabetic Coma to the patient,
patient becomes unconscious and even may die.

DIABETES SYMPTOMS

SOMATOSTATIN
• Secreted by -cells
• It regulates (inhibits) the secretion of insulin and glucagon.

PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE (PP)

• Secreted by F-cells / PP-cells
• Its functions are unknown yet today, perhaps it controls the absorption of food in intestine.

Question-1: Glucagon is secreted by :-

(1) Leydig cells (2) Islets of langerhans (3) Corpus luteum (4) Glisson's capsule
Answer: (2) Islets of Langerhans

Question-2: Which gland is both exocrine as well as endocrine?

(1) Pituitary (2) Mammary gland (3) Thyroid (4) Pancreas
Answer: (4) Pancreas

Question-3: Insulin by chemical nature is :-

(1) Carbohydrate (2) Protein (3) Steroid (4) Lipid
Answer: (3) Protein

Question-4: Which hormone has anti insulin effect :-

(1) Cortisol (2) Oxytocin (3) Aldosterone (4) Glucagon
Answer: (4) Glucagon

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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration (Endocrine)

GONADS (IN MALE -TESTIS)

• A pair of testis is present in the scrotal sac (outside abdomen) of male individuals.

• Testis performs dual functions as a primary sex organ as well as an endocrine gland.

• Testis is composed of seminiferous tubules and stromal or interstitial tissue.

• The Leydig cells or interstitial cells, which are present in the intertubular spaces produce a group of hormones

called androgens mainly testosterone.

• Androgens regulate the development, maturation and functions of the male accessory sex organs like

epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.

• These hormones stimulate muscular growth, growth of facial and axillary hair, aggressiveness, low pitch

of voice etc.

• Androgens play a major stimulatory role in the process of spermatogenesis (formation of spermatozoa).

• Androgens act on the central neural system and influence the male sexual behaviour (libido).

• These hormones produce anabolic (synthetic) effects on protein and carbohydrate metabolism.

GONADS (IN FEMALE -OVARY)

• Females have a pair of ovaries located in the abdomen.
• Ovary is the primary female sex organ which produces one ovum during each menstrual cycle.
• In addition, ovary also produces two groups of steroid hormones called estrogen and progesterone.
• Ovary is composed of ovarian follicles and stromal tissues.
• The estrogen is synthesised and secreted mainly by the growing ovarian follicles. After ovulation, the ruptured
follicle is converted to a structure called corpus luteum, which secretes mainly progesterone.
• Estrogens produce wide ranging actions such as stimulation of growth and activities of female secondary sex
organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, appearance of female secondary sex characters (e.g., high
pitch of voice, etc.), mammary gland development.
• Estrogens also regulate female sexual behavior.
• Progesterone supports pregnancy.
• Progesterone also acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli (sac-like structures which
store milk) and milk secretion.

HEART
• The atrial wall of our heart secretes a very important peptide hormone called Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF),
which decreases blood pressure.
• When blood pressure is increased, ANF is secreted which causes dilation of the blood vessels. This reduces
the blood pressure.

KIDNEY
• The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone called Erythropoietin which stimulates
erythropoiesis (formation of RBC).

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Chemical Co-ordination & Integration (Endocrine)

GASTRO INTESTINAL TRACT

• Endocrine cells present in different parts of the gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide hormones –
(i) Gastrin
(ii) Secretin
(iii) Cholecystokinin (CCK)
(iv) Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
• Gastrin acts on the gastric glands and stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
• Secretin acts on the exocrine pancreas and stimulates secretion of water and bicarbonate ions.
• Cholecystokinin (CCK) acts on both pancreas and gall bladder and stimulates the secretion of pancreatic
enzymes and bile juice, respectively.
• Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
• Several other non-endocrine tissues secrete hormones called growth factors. These factors are essential for
the normal growth of tissues and their repairing/regeneration.

Question-1: Estrogen is secreted by :-

(1) Liver (2) Spleen (3) Ovaries (4) Pituitary
Answer: (3) Ovaries

Question-2: Androgens are secreted by :-

(1) Pituitary (2) Testes (3) Ovaries (4) Thyroid
Answer: (2) Testes

Question-3: The "erythropoietin" hormone regulates: -

(1) Blood pressure (2) Water level of blood
(3) Glucose level of blood (4) Rate of formation of red blood cells
Answer: (4) Rate of formation of red blood cells
Explanation:
Erythropoietin hormone is released by kidney which help in formation of blood.

Question-4: Which of the following hormone is not secreted by gastro-intestinal tract ?

(1) Gastrin (2) Secretin (3) Cholecystokinin (4) Erythropoietin
Answer: (4) Erythropoietin

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