Hormones:

A hormone is a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in

multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory
system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behavior.
Or
Hormones are substances produced by highly specialized tissues
called the "Endocrine" or "ductless glands", carried by blood stream
to a remote tissue or viscera called the "Target organ" on which they
exert characteristic physiological effects.
 hormones classification on the basis on proximity of site
of synthesis to site of action

 Autocrine Hormones: those that act on the same cells

that synthesize them;

 Paracrine Hormones: those that are synthesized very

close to their site of action;

 Endocrine Hormones: those that are synthesized by

endocrine glands and transported in the blood to target
cells that contain the appropriate receptors;
 hormones classification on the basis of solubility in
aqueous medium in cells
• Hydrophilic Hormones (Lipophobic Hormones); Hormones
that are soluble in aqueous medium; They cannot cross the
cell membrane, Thus, they bind to receptor molecules on the
outer surface of target cells, initiating reactions within the cell
that ultimately modifies the functions of the cells;
Examples: Insulin, Glucagon, Epinephrine
• Lipophilic Hormones (Hydrophobic Hormones); Hormones
that are not soluble in aqueous medium, but soluble in lipid;
They can easily cross the cell membrane, Thus, they can
enter target cells and bind to intracellular receptors to
carryout their action;
Examples: Thyroid hormones, Steroid hormones;
• Classification of Hormones: On the
bases of proteinaceous nature Hormones are
classified into two groups:
I. Proteinaceous Hormones (Peptide
Hormones)
II. Non proteinacous Hormones (Steroid
Hormones)
 Proteinaceous Hormones (Peptide Hormones)
 Peptide hormones are proteins that have an effect on the endocrine
system of animals.
 Like other proteins, peptide hormones are synthesized in cells from
amino acids according to mRNA transcripts.
 Several important peptide hormones are secreted from the pituitary
gland.
 The anterior pituitary secretes three: prolactin, which acts on the
mammary gland; adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which acts on
the adrenal cortex to regulate the secretion of glucocorticoids and
growth hormone, which acts on bone, muscle, and the liver.
 The posterior pituitary gland secretes antidiuretic hormone, also called
vasopressin, and oxytocin.
 Peptide hormones are produced by many different organs and tissues
like pancreas (glucagon, insulin and somatostatin), the gastrointestinal
tract (cholecystokinin, gastrin).
Main Peptide Hormones: Insulin , Glucagon , Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) , Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) , Oxytocin , Prolactin
 Classification according to mechanism of a Hormones
 Hormone which bind to intracellular receptors
 Hormones, which bind to membrane receptors
Mechanism of Hormonal Action
Hormones, which bind to membrane receptors
• The hormones that are protein or amines in compositions such
as Growth hormone, ADH, oxytocin, Insulin, Adrenaline, FSH,
TSH etc shows this mechanism of action.
• These hormones are water soluble and cannot passes through
the lipid membrane and they have their target receptor on the
cell membrane. The receptor are fixed on the cell membrane, so
hormone can bind on the specific receptor.
• Binding of hormone on specific receptor on target cell activates
the enzyme Adenylcyclase in the cell membrane and causes
production of cyclic AMP (cAMP).
•cAMP act as secondary messenger. It diffuse through the cell membrane and activates
(Protein Kinase) various enzymatic reaction to cause biochemical changes. After the target cell
responded to the changes, cAMP is deactivated by a group of enzymePhosphodiesterase
 Mobile receptor mechanism
• The lipid soluble hormones such as steroid hormones and
Fatty acids hormones can easily passes through the
plasma membrane.
• They have their receptor inside the cell, freely floating in
the cytoplasm. Binding of hormone to the specific
receptor activates the enzymatic activity of the cell for
biochemical changes.
• Some hormones (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen,
cortisol, thyroxine) have their receptor localized inside the
nucleus, the hormone-receptor complex are carried inside
the nucleus.
• The hormone-receptor complex initiate transcription of
the DNA to form specific mRNA.
• mRNA initiate protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The
protein (enzyme) causes biochemical changes in the cell.
 The pituitary gland
• The pituitary gland or Hypophysis Cerebri is an ovoid structure of about
0.5 gm in adults. It is connected to the brain through a stalk called
Infundibulum.
The pituitary is divided into two lobes.
• The anterior Pituitary.
• The Posterior Pituitary
The Anterior Pituitary
Hypothalamus (a region of brain) controls the anterior pituitary by
producing:
• The Releasing Hormone: Stimulates the release of pituitary
hormones.
• The Inhibiting Hormone: Inhibits the release of pituitary
hormones.
RH and IH are produced in the cell bodies of neurosecretory neurons. • They
are stored in the ends of the axons(present just above the pituitary) until
needed. • When released, the hormones diffuse into capillaries draining
into veins which in turn drain into capillaries of pituitary. • They then bind
to the target cells causing them to release hormones
 Origin and location of Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland is also called The Hypophysis, is
the smallest endocrine gland.
• Hypophysis (meaning undergrowth) is so named
because of its location below the brain as
undergrowth.
• This is an unpaired small ovoid gland and is no longer
than the end of the little finger.
• It is located at the base of the brain and lies below the
diencephalon in a depression of basis phenoid bone
of the skull called Sella Turcica.
• It is a complex structure formed of ectodermic growth
of the mouth cavity and down growth of the
infandibulum.
• Anterior Pituitary
• The anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis secretes hormones that
regulate a wide range of bodily activities, from growth to reproduction.
Release of anterior pituitary hormones is stimulated by releasing
hormones and suppressed by inhibiting hormones from the
hypothalamus.
• Thus, the hypothalamic hormones are an important link between the
nervous and endocrine systems.
Hypophyseal Portal System
• Hypothalamic hormones reach the anterior pituitary through a portal
system.
• In a portal system, blood flows from one capillary network into a portal
vein, and then into a second capillary network without passing through
the heart.
• In the hypophyseal portal system , blood flows from capillaries in the
hypothalamus into portal veins that carry blood to capillaries of the
anterior pituitary.
 Types of Anterior Pituitary Cells
1. Somatotrophs secrete human growth hormone (hGH) or somatotropin”:
Human growth hormone in turn stimulates several tissues to secrete
insulinlike growth factors, hormones that stimulate general body growth and
regulate aspects of metabolism.
2. Thyrotrophs secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
or thyrotropin :TSH controls the secretions and other activities of the thyroid
gland.
3. Gonadotrophs secrete two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and luteinizing hormone. FSH and LH both act on the gonads. They
stimulate secretion of estrogens and progesterone and the maturation of
oocytes in the ovaries, and they stimulate sperm production and secretion of
testosterone in the testes.
4. Lactotrophs secrete prolactin (PRL), which initiates milk production in the
mammary glands.
5. Corticotrophs secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) or corticotropin , which stimulates the adrenal cortex to
secreteglucocorticoids such as cortisol. Some corticotrophs, remnants of the
pars intermedia, also secrete melanocyte-stimulating hormone
(MSH).
 Human Growth Hormone and Insulinlike
Growth Factors
• Somatotrophs are the most numerous cells in the anterior pituitary, and
human growth hormone (hGH) is the most plentiful anterior pituitary
hormone. The main function of hGH is to promote synthesis and
secretion of small protein hormones called insulinlike growth factors
(IGFs) or somatomedins.
In response to human growth hormone, cells in the liver, skeletal
muscles, cartilage, bones, and other tissues secrete IGFs, which
may either enter the bloodstream from the liver or act locally .

The functions of IGFs include the following:

• 1. IGFs cause cells to grow and multiply by increasing uptake
of amino acids into cells and accelerating protein synthesis.
IGFs also decrease the breakdown of proteins and the use of amino
acids for ATP production. Due to these effects of the IGFs, human
growth hormone increases the growth rate of the skeleton and skeletal
muscles during childhood and the teenage
 In adults, human growth hormone and IGFs help maintain the
mass of muscles and bones and promote healing of injuries
and tissue repair.
2. IGFs also enhance lipolysis in adipose tissue, which results in
increased use of the released fatty acids for ATP production by
body cells.
3. In addition to affecting protein and lipid metabolism, human
growth hormone and IGFs influence carbohydrate metabolism
by decreasing glucose uptake, which decreases the use of
glucose for ATP production by most body cells. This action
spares glucose so that it is available to neurons for ATP
production in times of glucose scarcity. IGFs and human
growth hormone may also stimulate liver cells to release
glucose into the blood
• Their secretory activity is controlled mainly by
two hypothalamic hormones:
(1) growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH)
promotes secretion of human growth hormone,
and
(2) Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
suppresses it.
 Follicle-stimulating Hormone
• In females, the ovaries are the targets for follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH). Each month FSH initiates the
development of several ovarian follicles, saclike
arrangements of secretory cells that surround a
developing oocyte. FSH also stimulates follicular cells to
secrete estrogens (female sex hormones). In males, FSH
stimulates sperm production in the testes.
Gonadotropinreleasing hormone (GnRH) from the
hypothalamus stimulates FSH release. Release of GnRH
and FSH is suppressed by estrogens in females and by
testosterone (the principal male sex hormone) in males
through negative feedback systems. There is no
gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone.