Per-Tbl_Notes_Segment-4_Periodic_Trends

Periodic Trends
© Mr. D. Scott; Celina High School
Metal vs Non-metal
Metal Non-metal Semi-metal (metalloid)
Metal = atoms that readily lose electrons to form

positive ions (cations);
Non-metal = atoms that readily gain electrons to

form negative ions (anions);
Atomic Radius
Period Trend = ?
Group Trend = ?
Atomic radius is controlled by

TWO important factors.
Effective nuclear charge, is the net positive
charge acting on an electron in a multi-electron
atom. The term "effective" is used because the
repelling effect of lower level electrons prevents
higher level electrons from experiencing the full
nuclear charge. In an atom with many electrons
the outer electrons are simultaneously attracted to
the positive nucleus and repelled by the negatively
charged electrons beneath.
e- Electrostatic Repulsion
- - - -
+ e e e e
e- Electrostatic Attraction
Here is how effective nuclear charge
reduces the atomic radius across a period:
Atomic Radius Atomic Radius Atomic Radius
e-
e - e-
e-
e - e- e- e-
++ +++
++ e- ++ e- e - ++ e- e-
+ + e- +++
e-
e-
Going left to right across a period, electrons

are added to existing energy levels as the
nucleus grows more positive. This
increasing effective nuclear charge pulls
the outer electrons in closer to the nucleus
thus reducing the atomic radius.
Period Trend = Atomic radius decreases with

increasing atomic number
More detailed notes on Effective Nuclear Charge can

be found here.
The second important factor affecting atomic radius is
the layering of energy levels. Here is how it works:
+ As you progress downward

through a group, each period
(row) adds another energy level
(layer of electrons). Each
successive level is further from
the nucleus and therefore
increases the radius when added.
Group Trend = Atomic radius increases with increasing

atomic number
Ionization Energy
Period Trend = ?
Group Trend = ?
Ionization energy is defined as being the energy

required to remove the outermost electron from a
gaseous atom. A "gaseous atom" means an atom that
is all by itself, not connected to others in a solid or a
liquid. When enough energy is added to an atom, the
outermost electron can use that energy to pull away
from the nucleus completely, leaving behind a
positively charged ion.
If the ionization energy is high, that means it takes a lot

of energy to remove the outermost electron. If the
ionization energy is low, that means it takes only a
small amount of energy to remove the outermost
electron.
Ionization energy is affected by three main factors:

(1) effective nuclear charge
(2) number of energy levels (distance from nucleus)
(3) shielding.
Shielding
Inner layers of The hold by
electrons repel the the nucleus
outer electrons on this
away from the + e- e- e- e- outermost
nucleus thus (valence)
reducing the “hold” electron is
on the outer weakened by
electrons by the the repulsion
nucleus. of the inner
electrons.
Shielding makes the outer electrons easier to
remove.
As the nuclear charge increases, the force of attraction

between the nucleus and the electrons increases and it
requires more energy to remove electrons and that
means a higher ionization energy. As you go across
the periodic table, effective nuclear charge is the most
important consideration. So, going across the periodic
table, there should be an increase in ionization energy
because of the increasing effective nuclear charge.
Period Trend = ionization energy increases with

Going down the table, the effect of increased nuclear
charge is balanced by the effect of increased shielding,
and greater distance. With more energy levels, the
outermost electrons (the valence electrons) are further
from the nucleus and are not so strongly attracted to
the nucleus. Additionally, lower layers of electrons
shield the upper electrons lowering the ionization
energy. Thus the ionization energy of the elements
decreases as you go down the periodic table because
it is easier to remove the electrons.
Group Trend = ionization energy decreases with

Looking Closer at Ionization Energy

1s1 1s2 2s1 2s2 2p1 2p2 2p3 2p4 2p5 2p6 3s1 3s2
First Ionization Potential
30
25
20
(volts)
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Atomic Number
Successive Ionization Energies
1st ionization energy = the removal of an electron from
a neutral atom.
2nd ionization energy = removal of one electron from an
atom that has already lost one electron (a +1 ion).
3rd ionization energy = removal of one electron from an
atom that has already lost two electrons (a +2 ion).
Etc…
The amount of energy associated with each successive

removal is always greater than the last amount.
Why?
Because the positive charge of the nucleus stays the

same, so with fewer electrons to be held by the
nucleus, there is more positive charge to “go around”
among the remaining electrons. (The electrostatic
potential is greater when the protons out-number the
electrons.)
(See a table of the energies)

Octet Rule
This rule states that atoms tend to gain or lose
electrons in such a way that they each have eight
electrons in their valence level, giving them the same
electronic configuration as a noble gas. An element's
valence level is full and most stable when it contains
eight electrons, corresponding to an s2p6 electron
configuration. This stability is the reason that the noble
gases are so un-reactive.
The stability of an s2p6 valence is seen when
examining the successive ionization energies.
Example:
Number Symbol Name 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
11 Na sodium 496 4562 6910 9543 13,354
12 Mg magnesium 738 1451 7733 10,543 13,630
Sodium = 1s2 2s22p6 3s1

The 3s1 is on top of an s2p6 (complete octet).
It only takes 496 kJ/mol of energy to remove this one
electron. But, it takes 4562 KJ/mol of energy to
remove a second electron. That’s more than a 900%
increase in energy. Why? Because the 2nd electron
would have to come from the completed s2p6 octet
that is underneath the 3s1electron. This octet must be
very stable if it takes that much additional energy to
take an electron away from it.
Consequence = sodium tends to form only a +1 ion
by losing one electron.
Magnesium = 1s2 2s22p6 3s2
The two 3s2 electrons are on top of the s2p6 in the
second level. As these are removed in succession, the
first one takes 738 kJ/mol of energy, the second one
takes 1451 kJ/mol of energy and the third one takes
7733 kJ/mol of energy. There is a 500% jump in
energy with the removal of this 3rd electron. Like with
sodium, this big jump in energy represents a type of
energy barrier that prevents magnesium from normally
losing any more than two electrons.
Consequence = magnesium tends to form only a +2
ion by losing two electrons.
A sometimes confusing issue:

Why are these ions positive after
they have LOST electrons?
Well, let’s look at sodium to understand this.
If we take away 1 electron,
we then have 10 electrons
and we still have 11 protons.
1s22s22p63s1 =11e-
Sodium + 11 11 protons (+ charge)

Atom protons - 10 electrons (- charge)
+1 net charge
Nucleus
Electron Cloud

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Periodic Trends

© Mr. D. Scott; Celina High School

Metal Non-metal Semi-metal (metalloid)

Metal = atoms that readily lose electrons to form

Non-metal = atoms that readily gain electrons to

Atomic radius is controlled by

Going left to right across a period, electrons

Period Trend = Atomic radius decreases with

More detailed notes on Effective Nuclear Charge can

+ As you progress downward

Group Trend = Atomic radius increases with increasing

Ionization energy is defined as being the energy

If the ionization energy is high, that means it takes a lot

Ionization energy is affected by three main factors:

As the nuclear charge increases, the force of attraction

Period Trend = ionization energy increases with

Group Trend = ionization energy decreases with

Looking Closer at Ionization Energy

The amount of energy associated with each successive

Because the positive charge of the nucleus stays the

(See a table of the energies)

Sodium = 1s2 2s22p6 3s1

A sometimes confusing issue:

Sodium + 11 11 protons (+ charge)

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