Palompon Institute of Technology

College of Technology and Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

Engr. Francis M. Almia

Instructor
OVERVIEW of TOPICS
 Concepts of Stress
 Stress and Strain – Axial Loading
 Torsion
 Pure Bending
 Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending
 Shearing Stresses in Beams and Thin-Walled Members
 Transformations of Stress and Strain
 Principal Stresses Under a Given Loading
 Deflection of Beams
 Columns
 Energy Methods
Normal Stress (Axial/Perpendicular Loading)
Tensile Stress Compressive Stress

Where:
Where:
• 𝑨 = cross sectional area
𝑻 • 𝑨 = cross sectional area
• 𝑷 = axial load (tensile) 𝒄 • 𝑷 = axial load (compressive)
• 𝝈𝑻 = tensile stress
• 𝝈𝒄 = compressive stress
Shearing Stress (Parallel/Tangential Loading)
Single Shear Stress Double Shear Stress

Where: Where:
• 𝑨 = shear area • 𝑨 = shear area
• 𝑷 = shear load • 𝑷 = 𝑭/𝟐 = shear load
• 𝝉 = shearing stress • 𝝉 = shearing stress
Bearing Stress (Pressure Loading)

Where:
• 𝑨 = bearing surface area
• 𝑷 = bearing load
• 𝝈𝒃 = bearing stress

𝒃
Stress on an Oblique Plane Under Axial Loading

Normal Load Tangential Load

𝑭 = 𝑷 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝑽 = 𝑷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

Normal Stress Tangential Stress

𝑭 𝑽
𝝈= 𝝉=
𝑨𝜽 𝑨𝜽
𝑷 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝑷 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝝈= 𝝉=
𝑨𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝑨𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

Maximum Normal Stress Maximum Tangential Stress

𝑷 𝑷
𝝈𝒎 = 𝝉𝒎 =
𝑨𝟎 𝟐𝑨𝟎
Design Considerations (Ultimate/Allowable/FS)
Ultimate Load - The maximum load that a Steps in determining Allowable Load:
structural member or a machine 1. Ultimate Strength of the Material
component will be allowed to carry under 2. Ultimate Load (Normal/Shear/Bearing)
normal conditions and is considerably 3. Factor of Safety
4. Allowable Load(Normal/Shear/Bearing)
smaller than the ultimate load.
𝑷𝒖 𝑷𝒖 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷𝒖
𝝈𝒖 = (𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍) 𝝉𝒖 = (𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓) 𝑭𝑺 = =
𝑨 𝑨 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷𝒂𝒍𝒍
Allowable Load - The maximum load that 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈𝒖 𝝉𝒖
a structural member or a machine 𝑭𝑺 = = =
𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍
component will be allowed to carry under
normal conditions and is considerably 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝑺
smaller than the ultimate load. 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑭𝑺
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝈𝒖 (𝑭𝑺)
Factor of Safety - The ratio of the ultimate 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝝉𝒖 (𝑭𝑺)
load to the allowable load.
Design Considerations (Selection/Loan & Resistance Factor)
Factor of Safety Selection Load and Resistance Factor Design
1. Variations that may occur in the properties of Using the LRFD method the ultimate load, of the
the member structure (i.e., the load at which the structure
2. The number of loadings expected during the ceases to be useful) should be determined. The
life of the structure or machine proposed design is acceptable if the following
3. The type of loadings planned for in the inequality is satisfied:
design or that may occur in the future
4. Type of failure
5. Uncertainty due to methods of analysis
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future The coefficient 𝜙 is the resistance factor, which
because of poor maintenance or accounts for the uncertainties associated with the
unpreventable natural causes structure itself and will normally be less than 1
7. The importance of a given member to the
integrity of the whole structure
Terms and Definition
Stress - The force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section.
Deformation - The change in shape or size of an object due to an applied force or a change in temperature.
Force - A vector quantity that describes the interaction between objects that can cause a change in the object's motion or shape.
Normal Stress – A stress that is perpendicular to the axis of the rod.
Shearing Stress – A stress that occurs when a force is applied parallel or tangential to the surface of a material.
Bearing Stress – The contact pressure between two bodies, where one body supports the load of the other over a specific area.
Axial loading – The application of a force along the axis of an object, causing stress and strain along the same axis.
Ultimate Stress - The maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking or fracturing.
Factor of Safety – A design parameter that provides a margin of safety for structures or mechanical components under load.
Allowable Load – Also called as working or design load. The maximum load that a structure or mechanical component can safely
carry without exceeding its material strength or design limits.
𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 =
𝐹𝑜𝑆 𝐹𝑜𝑆
Ultimate Load – the maximum load before failure.
Yield Load – the load at which the material begins to deform permanently.
Terms and Definition
Average shearing stress is defined as the total shear force acting on a material divided by the area over which the
force is applied, typically expressed in units of force per unit area (e.g., pascals or psi).
Resistance Factor – Coefficients which accounts for the uncertainties associated with the structure itself and will
normally be less than 1
Load Factor – Coefficients which account for the uncertainties associated with the dead and live load and normally
will be greater than 1.
Statically indeterminate refers to a structural system that has more unknown forces or moments than can be
determined solely by the equations of static equilibrium, requiring additional methods (such as compatibility
conditions or material properties) to solve for the unknowns.
Creep is the slow, time-dependent deformation of a material under a constant load or stress, typically occurring at
elevated temperatures relative to the material's melting point.
Tensile strength is the maximum amount of tensile (pulling) stress that a material can withstand before failure,
typically measured as the load per unit area (e.g., megapascals or pounds per square inch) at which a material
fractures or permanently deforms.
Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that a material can withstand without failure, measured as
the load per unit area (e.g., megapascals or pounds per square inch) before it deforms or collapses under
compression.
Centric Loading - a uniform distribution of stress is possible only if the line of action of the concentrated loads P and
P’ passes through the centroid of the section.
Terms and Definition
Permanent deformation is the irreversible change in shape or size of a material when subjected to stress beyond its
elastic limit.
Stress concentrations are localized regions in a material where stress is significantly higher than the average stress
due to geometric discontinuities, such as notches, holes, or changes in cross-section, which can lead to potential
failure or fracture in those areas.
St. Venant's principle states that the effects of localized loads on a structure dissipate with distance, meaning that
the stress and strain in a material can be approximated as if the loads were applied uniformly over a larger area at a
sufficient distance from the load application point.
Residual stress refers to the internal stresses retained in a material after the original cause of the stresses (such as
manufacturing processes or external loads) has been removed, which can significantly affect its mechanical properties
and performance.
Strain is the measure of deformation representing the displacement between particles in a material, typically
expressed as the ratio of change in length to the original length, and can be categorized into types such as tensile,
compressive, and shear strain.
Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo significant plastic deformation before fracture, typically characterized
by its capacity to be stretched into a wire or molded into various shapes without breaking.
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture or break with little to no plastic deformation when subjected to
stress, often resulting in sudden failure without significant prior deformation.
Terms and Definition
Types of Deformation
Plastic Deformation - This occurs when a material is subjected to a force that exceeds its elastic limit.
The deformation is permanent, meaning the material will not return to its original shape after the force
is removed.
Elastic Deformation - This type of deformation is temporary and reversible. When the applied force is
removed, the material returns to its original shape and size. It follows Hooke's Law, where stress is
directly proportional to strain (within the elastic limit).

Types of Allowable Load

Allowable Tensile Load: The maximum tensile force a component can carry without failing.
Allowable Compressive Load: The maximum compressive force a column or beam can support without
buckling or crushing.
Allowable Shear Load: The maximum shear force a joint or component can endure without experiencing
shearing failure.
Allowable Bearing Load: The maximum load a pin, bolt, or contact area can carry without failure due to
bearing stress.
Problems with Solution ( )
Calculate the compressive stress of a sign A copper column of annular cross section has an outer diameter of
board support with a load of 2000 lb. A 15 ft. and is subjected to a force of 45,000 lbs. The allowable
hollow cylinder is used with an outside compressive stress is 300 lb./ft2. What would be the wall thickness?
diameter of 6 in. and thickness of 0.75 inch. 𝐹 𝐹
𝜎 = =𝜋
𝐴 𝑑 −𝑑
4
𝑑 −𝑑
𝑡= 45,000
2 300 = 𝜋
0.75 =
6−𝑑 4 15 − 𝑑
2
𝑑 = 34.015
𝑑 = 4.5 𝑖𝑛
𝑑 = 5.83 𝑓𝑡
𝐹 𝐹 2000
𝜎 = =𝜋 =𝜋 𝑑 −𝑑
𝐴
4 𝑑 −𝑑 4 6 − 4.5 𝑡=
2
15 − 5.83
𝑡=
𝝈𝒄 = 𝟏𝟔𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 𝒑𝒔𝒊 2
𝒕 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟖𝟒 𝒇𝒕
Problems with Solution ( )
A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end
A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm
by a cable as shown in Fig. P-105. Calculate the smallest
must carry a tensile load of 400 kN. Determine the
area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in
outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to
bronze and 120 MPa in steel.
120 MN/m2.
By symmetry:
𝟏
𝑷𝒃𝒓 = 𝑷𝒔𝒕 = (𝟕𝟖𝟒𝟖)
𝟐
𝑷 = 𝝈𝑨
𝝅 𝟐 𝑷𝒃𝒓 = 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑵
𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝑫 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝟒 𝑷𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑵
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝒎
For bronze:
𝑷𝒃𝒓 = 𝝈𝒃𝒓 𝑨𝒃𝒓
𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 = 𝟗𝟎 𝑨𝒃𝒓
𝑨𝒃𝒓 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝟐

For steel cable:

𝑷𝒔𝒕 = 𝝈𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒔𝒕
𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑨𝒃𝒓
 Problems with Solution ( )
A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly
The homogeneous bar shown in Fig. P-106 is supported
attached between steel and bronze sections, as shown in
by a smooth pin at C and a cable that runs from A to B
Fig. P-107. Axial loads are applied at the positions
around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the cable
indicated. If P = 3000 lb and the cross sectional area of
if its diameter is 0.6 inch and the bar weighs 6000 lb.
the rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in each section.

𝑴𝑪 = 𝟎
𝑻 = 𝝈𝑨 For steel: For aluminum: For bronze:
𝟑 𝟏 𝝈𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝑷𝒔𝒕 𝝈𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝒂𝒍 𝝈𝒃𝒓 𝑨𝒃𝒓 = 𝑷𝒃𝒓
𝟓𝑻 + 𝟏𝟎 𝑻 = 𝟓(𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎) 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟕. 𝟏𝟑 = 𝝈[ 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟔 𝟐 ]
𝟑𝟒 𝟒
𝝈𝒔𝒕 (𝟎. 𝟓) = 𝟏𝟐 𝝈𝒂𝒍 (𝟎. 𝟓) = 𝟏𝟐 𝝈𝒃𝒓 (𝟎. 𝟓) = 𝟗
𝝈 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟖. 𝟕𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟕. 𝟏𝟑 𝒍𝒃 𝝈𝒃𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝒔𝒊
𝝈𝒔𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒂𝒍 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒔𝒊
 Problems with Solution ( )
An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod Determine the largest weight W that can be
and a bronze rod as shown in Fig. P-108. Axial loads are supported by two wires shown in Fig. P-109. The
applied at the positions indicated. Find the maximum stress in either wire is not to exceed 30 ksi. The
value of P that will not exceed a stress in steel of 140 cross-sectional areas of wires AB and AC are 0.4 in2
MPa, in aluminum of 90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa. and 0.5 in2, respectively.
For wire AB: By sine law
(from the force polygon):
𝑻𝑨𝑩 𝑾
=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟒𝟎° 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟖𝟎°
𝑻𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟕𝑾
𝝈𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟕𝑾
𝟑𝟎 𝟎. 𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟕𝑾
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
For bronze: For aluminum: For steel:
For wire AC:
𝝈𝒃𝒓 𝑨𝒃𝒓 = 𝟐𝑷𝒃𝒓 𝝈𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝒂𝒍 𝝈𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒔𝒕 = 𝟓𝑷𝒔𝒕 𝑻𝑨𝑪 𝑾
=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎° 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟖𝟎°
𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟐𝟎𝟎) = 𝟐𝑷𝒃𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟐𝟎𝟎) = 𝑷𝒂𝒍 𝟏𝟎𝟎(𝟐𝟎𝟎) = 𝟓𝑷𝒔𝒕
𝑻𝑨𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟗𝟒𝑾
𝑷𝒃𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑷𝒂𝒍 = 𝟑𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑷𝒔𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵
𝝈𝑨𝑪 𝑨𝑨𝑪 = 𝟑𝟎 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟗𝟒𝑾
Safe value of P, use the smallest 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟏 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 Safe load: 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟏 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
Problems with Solution ( )
What force is required to punch a 20-mm- As in Fig. 1-11c, a hole is to be punched out of a
diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick? plate having a shearing strength of 40 ksi. The
The shear strength is 350 MN/m2. compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50 ksi.
(a) Compute the maximum thickness of plate in
The resisting area is which a hole 2.5 inches in diameter can be punched.
the shaded area (b) If the plate is 0.25 inch thick, determine the
along the perimeter diameter of the smallest hole that can be punched.
and the shear force
V is equal to the (a) Maximum thickness of plate: (b) Diameter of smallest hole:
punching force P . Based on puncher strength: Based on compression of puncher:
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴
1 1
𝑃 = 50[ 𝜋 2.5 ] 𝑃 = 50[ 𝜋 𝑑 ]
𝑽 = 𝝉𝑨 4 4
𝑷 = 𝟕𝟖. 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝝅 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒌𝒊𝒑𝒔
→ 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎[𝝅 𝟐𝟎 (𝟐𝟓)] 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆
Based on shear strength of plate: Based on shearing of plate:
𝑷 = 𝟓𝟒𝟗𝟕𝟕𝟖. 𝟕 𝑵
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴 → 𝑉 = 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴 → 𝑉 = 𝑃
𝑷 = 𝟓𝟒𝟗. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵 78.125𝜋 = 40[𝜋(2.5𝑡)] 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝝅𝒅𝟐 = 40[𝜋𝑑(0.25)]
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝒊𝒏
Problems with Solution ( )
Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used A 200-mm-diameter pulley is prevented from rotating relative to
in the clevis shown in Fig. 1-11b if P = 400 kN. 60-mm-diameter shaft by a 70-mm-long key, as shown in Fig. P-
The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa. 118. If a torque T = 2.2 kN·m is applied to the shaft, determine the
width b if the allowable shearing stress in the key is 60 MPa.

𝑽 = 𝝉𝑨
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝑭
𝑽 = 𝝉𝑨 Where:
𝟐. 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝑭 𝑽 = 𝑭 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒌𝑵
𝟏 𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝝅𝒅 𝑭 = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒌𝑵
𝟒 𝑨 = 𝟕𝟎𝒃
Thus, 𝝉 = 𝟔𝟎𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝒅 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝟕𝟑. 𝟑𝟑(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) = 𝟔𝟎(𝟕𝟎𝒃)
𝒃 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟔𝒎𝒎
Problems with Solution ( )
In Fig. 1-12, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet
joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The
allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the
plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet.
Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate;
and (b) the largest average tensile stress in the plates.
Part (a):
From shearing of rivet:
𝑃 = 𝜏𝐴
1
𝑃 = 60 𝜋 20
4
𝑃 = 6000𝜋 𝑁
Part (b):
From bearing of
Largest average tensile stress
plate material:
in the plate::
𝑃=𝜎 𝐴
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴
6000𝜋 = 120 20𝑡
6000𝜋 = 𝜎[7.85(110 − 20)]
𝑡 = 7.85 𝑚𝑚
𝜎 = 26.67𝑀𝑃𝑎
Stress and Strain
Strain Stress-Strain Diagram

Where:
• 𝝐 = strain
• 𝜹 = deformation
• 𝑳 = original length
Stress and Strain

Hooke’s Law Deformations of Members

Under Axial Loading
(𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍)
Where:
• 𝝐 = axial strain
• 𝑬 = Modulus of Elasticity
• 𝝈 = axial stress Where:
• 𝜹 = deformation
(𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓)
• 𝑷 = axial load
Where: • 𝑳 = original length
• 𝜸 = shearing strain • 𝑬 = Modulus of Elasticity
• 𝑮 = Modulus of Rigidity • 𝑨 = cross sectional area
• 𝝉 = shearing stress
Stress and Strain (Involving Temperature Change)
Deformations due to Thermal Stress
𝑻
Where:
• 𝜹𝑻 = deformation due to thermal stress
• 𝜶 = coefficient of thermal expansion
• 𝑳 = original length
• ∆𝑻 = change in temperature

Thermal Strain 𝑻

Where:
• 𝝐𝑻 = thermal strain
• 𝜶 = coefficient of thermal expansion
• ∆𝑻 = change in temperature
 Strain (Axial and Shearing)
Hooke’s Law
Shearing Strain
Axial Strain 𝑮
𝜸𝒙𝒚 =
𝝈𝒙 𝝉𝒙𝒚
𝝐𝒙 =
𝑬 𝑮
𝝈𝒚 𝜸𝒚𝒛 =
𝝉𝒚𝒛
𝝐𝒚 =
𝑬 𝑮
𝝈𝒛 𝜸𝒛𝒙 =
𝝉𝒛𝒙
𝝐𝒛 =
𝑬
Where:
Where:
• 𝜸𝒙𝒚 = 𝜸𝒚𝒛 = 𝜸𝒛𝒙 = shear strain
• 𝝐𝒙 = axial strain • 𝝉𝒙𝒚 = 𝝉𝒚𝒛 = 𝝉𝒛𝒙 = shear stress
• 𝝐𝒚 & 𝝐𝒛 = lateral strain • G = Modulus of Rigidity
• 𝝂 = Poisson’s ratio
• 𝝈𝒙 = axial stress
• 𝑬 = Modulus of Elasticity
Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s Ratio
𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝝐𝒚 𝝐𝒛
𝝂= = =
𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝝐𝒙 𝝐𝒙

𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛
𝝐𝒙 = 𝝐𝒚 = 𝝐𝒛 =
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬

Where:
• 𝝐𝒙 = axial strain
• 𝝐𝒚 & 𝝐𝒛 = lateral strain
• 𝝂 = Poisson’s ratio
• 𝝈𝒙 = axial stress
• 𝑬 = Modulus of Elasticity
Multiaxial Loading
Multiaxial loading
𝝈𝒙 𝝂𝝈𝒚 𝝂𝝈𝒛
𝝐𝒙 = + − −
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝝂𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚 𝝂𝝈𝒛
𝝐𝒚 = − + −
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
𝝂𝝈𝒙 𝝂𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛
𝝐𝒛 = − − +
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬
Dilatation and Modulus
Bulk modulus or
Dilatation ( ) Modulus of Rigidity
modulus of
𝒆 = 𝝐𝒙 + 𝝐 𝒚 + 𝝐 𝒛 compression ( ) 𝑮=
𝑬
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝝂)
𝟏 − 𝟐𝝂
𝒆= (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 ) 𝑬
𝑬 𝒌=
𝟑(𝟏 − 𝟐𝝂) Where:
When subjected to 𝑮 = 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚
hydrostatic pressure (𝒑) When subjected to 𝝂 = 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
hydrostatic pressure (𝒑) 𝑬 = 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝟑(𝟏 − 𝟐𝝂) 𝒌 = 𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒆= 𝒑 𝒑
𝑬 𝒆=−
𝒌
ST. VENANT’s Principle (Stress Concentrations)
St. Venant’s Principle (Stress Distribution)

Stress Concentration Factor

𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒂𝒗𝒆

𝒚 𝒚 𝒂𝒗𝒆
Terms and Definition
• Normal strain is a measure of the deformation or elongation of a material in the direction of an applied force. It
quantifies how much a material stretches or compresses per unit length under tension or compression.
• Stress-strain diagram is a graphical representation of the relationship between the applied stress (force per unit
area) on a material and the corresponding strain (deformation or elongation) it undergoes. It is a fundamental
tool in materials science and engineering to understand the mechanical properties of materials under tensile,
compressive, or shear loading conditions.
• Tensile test is a mechanical test where a material is subjected to a controlled tensile (pulling) force to determine
its response under tension. The purpose of the test is to evaluate several important mechanical properties, such
as tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, and Young’s modulus.
• Compression test is a mechanical test in which a material is subjected to a compressive force, usually between
two flat surfaces, to evaluate its behavior under crushing or squashing loads. The primary goal is to determine
the material's compressive strength, which is the maximum stress the material can withstand before it deforms
or fails.
• Rupture refers to the complete failure or breaking apart of a material or structure under stress, typically
occurring when the material exceeds its ultimate strength, whether in tension, compression, or shear. It marks
the final stage of material deformation, often following phenomena like necking in ductile materials or brittle
fracture in more rigid materials.
• Necking is the localized reduction in cross-sectional area of a ductile material under tensile stress, occurring just
before it fractures.
Terms and Definition
• Repeated loadings, also known as cyclic loadings, refer to the application of fluctuating or alternating loads
on a material or structure over time. These loads can be tensile, compressive, bending, or torsional in nature
and are often repetitive in nature, causing stress and strain cycles within the material.
• Fatigue refers to the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs in materials when they are
subjected to cyclic or repeated loadings, even if the applied stress is below the material's yield or ultimate
tensile strength. Over time, the material weakens, and cracks form and propagate, eventually leading to
sudden and catastrophic failure.
• Endurance limit (also called fatigue limit) is the maximum stress level below which a material can
theoretically endure an infinite number of load cycles without experiencing fatigue failure. This concept is
particularly relevant in materials subjected to cyclic loading or repeated loading, such as in rotating
machinery, bridges, or aircraft components.
• Dilatation refers to the change in volume or dimensions of a material in response to temperature changes,
pressure changes, or other physical conditions. It is often associated with thermal expansion, where
materials expand when heated and contract when cooled.
• Bulk modulus of compression (or simply bulk modulus) is a measure of a material's resistance to uniform
compression. It quantifies how much a material will deform (specifically, reduce in volume) when subjected
to an applied pressure.
• Strain hardening, also known as work hardening, is a phenomenon in which a material becomes stronger
and harder as it is deformed plastically through processes such as stretching, bending, or compressing.
Terms and Definition
• The lower yield point (also known as the yield strength) is the stress level at which a material begins to
deform plastically, meaning that it will not return to its original shape once the load is removed.
• The upper yield point is the maximum stress level that a material can withstand before undergoing
significant plastic deformation.
• Breaking strength, also known as ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or failure strength, is the maximum stress
that a material can withstand while being subjected to tension before it fractures.
• Yield strength is the amount of stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Beyond this point,
the material will no longer return to its original shape when the load is removed, leading to permanent
deformation.
• Percent elongation is a measure of a material's ductility, expressed as the percentage increase in length of a
specimen after it has been subjected to tensile stress until fracture. It quantifies how much a material can
deform before breaking, providing insight into its ability to undergo plastic deformation.
• Brittle refers to a material's tendency to fracture or break with little to no plastic deformation when
subjected to stress. Brittle materials exhibit low ductility and often fail suddenly without significant prior
deformation, making them less forgiving under load compared to ductile materials.
• True stress is a measure of the actual stress experienced by a material as it deforms under load. It takes into
account the changing cross-sectional area of the material during deformation, providing a more accurate
representation of stress than engineering stress, especially in the plastic deformation range.
Terms and Definition
• True strain is a measure of the deformation of a material that accounts for the continuous change in length
as it undergoes plastic deformation. Unlike engineering strain, which is based on the original length of the
specimen, true strain considers the instantaneous length, providing a more accurate representation of
material deformation.
• Engineering stress (also known as nominal stress) is a measure of the load applied to a material divided by
its original cross-sectional area before any deformation occurs.
• Modulus of elasticity, also known as elastic modulus, is a material property that measures its stiffness or
rigidity.
• Modulus of rigidity, also known as the shear modulus or modulus of shear, is a measure of a material's
response to shear stress. It quantifies the material's ability to deform under shear loading, which occurs
when forces are applied parallel to a material's surface.
• Proportional limit is the maximum stress at which a material behaves elastically and the stress is directly
proportional to the strain. Beyond this point, the material may still exhibit elastic behavior, but the
relationship between stress and strain is no longer linear.
• Stiffness is a measure of a material's resistance to deformation under an applied load. It quantifies how
much a material or structure deflects when subjected to a force, reflecting its rigidity and ability to maintain
shape under stress.
• Hardness is a measure of a material's resistance to localized plastic deformation, typically assessed through
indentation, scratching, or abrasion. It reflects the material's ability to withstand wear, indentation, and
other forms of mechanical damage.
Terms and Definition
• Machinability refers to a material's ability to be machined (cut, drilled, milled, etc.) effectively and
economically. It encompasses various factors that influence the ease of cutting and shaping materials during
manufacturing processes.
• Anisotropic refers to a material property that varies in different directions. In anisotropic materials, the
physical and mechanical characteristics—such as strength, stiffness, thermal conductivity, or electrical
conductivity—are not the same along all axes.
• The elastic limit is the maximum stress or strain that a material can withstand without permanent
deformation, beyond which it will not return to its original shape.
• Plastic deformation is the permanent alteration in the shape or size of a material when subjected to stress
beyond its yield point, resulting in a new configuration that remains after the removal of the load.
• Isotropic refers to a material property where the material exhibits the same mechanical or physical
characteristics in all directions, meaning its properties, such as strength, elasticity, and thermal conductivity,
are uniform regardless of the direction of measurement.
• Orthotropic refers to a material property where the material has unique and independent mechanical
properties along three mutually perpendicular axes, meaning its strength, stiffness, and other characteristics
vary based on the direction of loading.
• Malleability is the ability of a material, typically a metal, to be deformed or shaped under compressive
forces, such as hammering or rolling, without breaking.
Problems with Solution (Stress and Strain)
A steel tie rod on bridge must be made to
withstand a pull of 5000 lbs. Find the If the ultimate strength of a steel plate is
diameter of the rod assuming a factor of 42,000 lb/in2, what force is necessary to
safety of 5 and ultimate stress of 64,000 punch a 0.75 in diameter hole in a 0.625 in
lb/in2 . thick plate?

𝝈𝑼 𝑷
=
𝑭𝑺 𝑨 𝐹 = 𝜏 𝜋𝑑𝑡
𝝈𝑼 𝑭
= 𝐹 = 42,000 𝜋 0.750 0.625
𝑭𝑺 𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝟒

𝟔𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎)
= 𝑭 = 𝟔𝟏, 𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒍𝒃
𝟓 𝝅(𝑫)𝟐
𝟒

𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝒊𝒏.
Problems with Solution (Stress and Strain)
What modulus of elasticity in tension is How many 5/6 inch holes can be punch in one motion in a
required to obtain a unit deformation of steel plate made of SAE 1010 steel, 7/16 inch thick using
0.00105 m/m from a load producing a unit a force of 55 tons. The ultimate strength for shear is 50 ksi
tensile stress of 44,000 psi? and use 2 factor of safety.

𝑷 𝑷
𝝈 𝝉𝑼 = =
𝑬= 𝑨 𝝅𝒅𝒕𝒏
𝜺

𝟒𝟒, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝟓𝟓)(𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎)

𝑬= 𝟓𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝟓 𝟕
𝝅 𝒏
𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔

𝑬 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝒏 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟐

𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
Problems with Solution (Stress and Strain)
The diameter of a brass rod is 6 mm. What A wire length 2.50 m has a percentage strain of 0.012%
force will stretch it by 0.2% of its length. when loaded with tensile force. Determine the extension of
𝑬𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝒂 the wire.

𝑭𝑳 𝜹
𝜹= 𝜺=
𝑨𝑬 𝑳

𝜹𝑨𝑬 𝜹 = 𝑳𝜺
𝑭=
𝑳
𝜹 = (𝟐. 𝟓)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐)
𝝅 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐 𝑵
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝑳 𝟒 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝜹 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝒎
𝑭= 𝒎𝟐
𝑳

𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎𝒎
𝑭 = 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟗. 𝟒 𝑵
Problems with Solution (Stress and Strain)
Compute the induced/compressive stress, in kPa, If the ultimate shear stress of the steel plate is
of a steel solid shafting of 50 mm diameter and 35,000 psi, what force is necessary to punch a
800 mm in length that is subjected to an increase
1.5-inch diameter hole in a 1/8-inch-thick
of temperature by 80 deg C. 𝑬 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊
plate?
𝝈 = 𝜶𝑬∆𝑻
𝐹 𝐹
𝟔℉ 𝟏
𝟗℉ 𝜏 = =
𝝈 = 𝟔. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝟖𝟎℃ 𝐴 𝜋𝑑𝑡
𝟓℃ 𝐹 = 𝜋𝑑𝑡𝜏
1
𝐹 = 𝜋(1.50) 35,000
𝝈 = 𝟐𝟖, 𝟓𝟏𝟐 psi 8

𝑭 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝟔𝟏𝟕 𝒍𝒃𝒔

Problems with Solution (Stress and Strain)
Find the shear load required to punch a 0.60 A structural support must be incorporated into the steel
inches’ diameter in a 0.750 inches’ plate when rod to ensure it can withstand a pulling force of 3000
steel plate has an ultimate strength of 55,000 pounds. Find the diameter of the rod assuming a factor
psi. of safety of 5 and ultimate stress of 𝟔𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃./𝒊𝒏𝟐 .

𝐹 𝐹
𝜏 = 𝜎 = (𝐹. 𝑆. )
𝜋𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑑
4
𝐹
55,000 = 3,000
𝜋(0.75)(0.60)
62,000 = (5)
𝜋𝑑
4
𝑭 = 𝟕𝟕, 𝟕𝟓𝟒. 𝟒𝟐 𝒍𝒃𝒔
𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟑 𝒊𝒏
Problems with Solution (Stress and Strain)
Find the number of 3/4 inch holes that can be
simultaneously punched in a 5/16-inch-thick
steel plate using a force of 35 tons, with a
shear ultimate strength of 60 ksi and a safety
factor of 4?

𝐹
𝜏 =
𝜋𝑑𝑡𝑛

35 × 2000
60,000 =
3 5
𝜋 4 16 𝑛

𝑛 = 1.584

𝒏 = 𝟏 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆

Punching don’t need a factor of safety

Deformation in a Circular Shaft
Torsional Deformation Stress in Elastic Range
𝝆 𝑻𝒄
𝝉= 𝝉 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝝆𝝓 𝒄𝝓 𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑱
𝜸= 𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝑳 𝑳 𝑻𝝆 𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉= 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝝆 𝑱 𝝅𝑫𝟑
𝜸= 𝜸
𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑱𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 (𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕)
𝑻=
Where: 𝒄
𝜸𝒎𝒂𝒙 = shearing strain on the surface of the shaft
𝝆 = radial distance from the shaft axis
𝒄 = radius of the shaft (max radius)
𝝓 = angle of twist
𝑳 = length of the shaft
𝝉 = torsional stress on the indicated radial distance
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = torsional stress at the surface of the shaft
𝑻 = torque
𝑱 = polar moment of inertia
Angle of Twist, Shaft Power and Stress Concentration Factor

Angle of Twist Shaft Power Stress Concentration Factor

𝑻𝑳 𝑷 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑻 𝑻𝒄
𝝓= 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑲
𝑱𝑮 𝑱
𝟐𝝅𝑻𝑵
𝑷= Where:
𝟔𝟎
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = shearing stress on the
Where: surface of the shaft
𝑷= shaft power 𝑲 = stress concentration factor
𝑵 = revolution per minute (rpm) 𝑻 = torque
𝑻 = torque 𝑱 = polar moment of inertia
𝑓 = frequency

Where:
𝝓 = angle of twist
𝑳 = length of the shaft Rupture due to Torsion Where:
𝑻 = torque 𝑹𝝉 = rupture due to torsion
𝑻𝑼 𝒄 𝒄 = shaft radius
𝑱 = polar moment of inertia 𝑹𝝉 =
𝐺 = modulus of rigidity 𝑱 𝑻𝒖 = ultimate torque load
𝑱 = polar moment of inertia
Non-Circular and Thin Hollowed Shafts
Rectangular Bars in Torsion Thin Hollowed Shafts in Torsion

𝑻
𝝉=
𝟐𝒕𝓖

𝑻𝑳 𝒅𝒔
𝝓=
𝟒𝓖𝟐 𝑮 𝒕
𝑻
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒄𝟏 𝒂𝒃𝟐
Where:
𝑻𝑳
𝝓= 𝝓 = angle of twist
𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝒃𝟑 𝑮 𝓖= area bounded by the center line
Where: 𝑮 = modulus of rigidity
𝒂, 𝒃 = length and width 𝒕= thickness of the hollow shaft
𝒄𝟏 , 𝒄𝟐 = coefficients for torsion
𝑮 = modulus of rigidity
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙= maximum shear stress
Polar Moment Inertia / Polar Section Modulus (TORSION)

Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝒂𝟒 Solid Rectangle Section Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝒃𝒉(𝒉𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 )
Solid Square Section 𝑱= 𝑱=
(Torsion Application) 𝟔 (Torsion Application) 𝟏𝟐

Polar Section Modulus: 𝒂𝟑 𝒉 Polar Section Modulus: 𝑱

𝒁𝒑 = 𝒁𝒑 =
(Torsion Application) 𝟑 (Torsion Application) 𝒄

Radius of outermost fiber: 𝒂 Radius of outermost fiber: 𝒃

(Torsion Application) 𝒄 = 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (Torsion Application) 𝒄 = 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐 𝟐

Solid Round Section Pipe Section 𝝅

Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝝅𝑫𝟒 Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝑱 = 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒
(Torsion Application)
𝑱= (Torsion Application) 𝟑𝟐
𝟑𝟐 𝒅

Polar Section Modulus: 𝝅𝑫𝟑 Polar Section Modulus: 𝝅 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅 𝟒

𝒁𝒑 = (Torsion Application) 𝒁𝒑 =
(Torsion Application) 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔 𝑫

𝑫 Radius of outermost fiber: 𝑫

Radius of outermost fiber: 𝒄= 𝒄=
(Torsion Application) 𝟐 (Torsion Application) 𝟐
Polar Moment Inertia / Polar Section Modulus (TORSION)

I-Beam Section Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝑱 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

Square Tube Section 𝒃 𝟒 − 𝒂𝟒
Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝑱 = 𝒃 (Torsion Application)
(Torsion Application) 𝟔 𝟏 𝟐
𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐𝒃𝒕𝒇 𝒉 + 𝒕𝒇 + 𝒕𝒘 𝒉𝟑
𝟏𝟐
𝒃 𝟒 − 𝒂𝟒 𝟏
Polar Section Modulus: 𝒁𝒑 = 𝒉
𝒃 (Torsion Application) 𝟑𝒃 𝑰𝒚 = 𝟐𝒕𝒇 𝒃𝟑 + 𝒉𝒕𝒘 𝟑
𝒂
𝒕𝒘
𝟏𝟐
Polar Section Modulus: 𝒁𝒑 = 𝑱/𝒄
𝒕𝒇
Radius of outermost fiber: (Torsion Application)
𝟏 𝒉
(Torsion Application) 𝒄 = 𝑱⁄𝒁𝒑 = 𝒃 Radius of outermost fiber: 𝒄 = 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐 𝟐
(Torsion Application)

Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝑱 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚 Polar Moment of Inertia: 𝑱 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

Channel Bar Section (Torsion Application) Angle Bar Section (Torsion Application)
𝒃
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝒂 𝟐
𝑰𝒙 = 𝒃𝒉𝟑 − 𝒃 − 𝒕𝒘 𝒉 − 𝟐𝒕𝒇 𝑰𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕 + 𝒃𝒕
𝟏𝟐 𝟑 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒉 𝑰𝒚 = 𝒉𝒃𝟑 − 𝒉 − 𝟐𝒕𝒇 𝒃 − 𝒕𝒘 𝟑 𝒂
𝟏 𝟑 𝒃
𝟏𝟐 𝑰𝒚 = 𝒃𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟑 𝟐
𝒕
𝒕𝒇 Polar Section Modulus: 𝒁𝒑 = 𝑱/𝒄 Polar Section Modulus: 𝒁𝒑 = 𝑱/𝒄
(Torsion Application) 𝒃
𝒕𝒘 (Torsion Application)
𝒉
Radius of outermost fiber: 𝒄 = + 𝒚𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅 Radius of outermost fiber: 𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝒄 = 𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒙𝑳 − 𝒙𝒄 + 𝒚𝑳 − 𝒚𝒄
(Torsion Application) (Torsion Application)
 Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Maximum Shearing Stress and Angle of Twist of a Steel Shaft Minimum Diameter of Steel Shaft With Allowable Angle of Twist
A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 4 in. is What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that
subjected to a torque of 15 kip-ft. Determine the will not twist through more than 3° in a 6-m length
maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. when subjected to a torque of 12 KN-m? What maximum
Use 𝐺 = 12 × 10 psi. shearing stress is developed? Use G = 83 GPa.
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒍𝒃 𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏
𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑 − 𝒇𝒕 𝑻𝑳
𝟏𝒌𝒊𝒑 𝟏𝒇𝒕
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝜽=
𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝝅 𝟒𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝑱𝑮
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝒍𝒃 𝝅 𝟏𝟐 𝑲𝑵 − 𝒎 𝟔𝒎 𝟏𝑲𝑵 𝟏𝒎 𝟏𝒎
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟐𝟒 𝟐 𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝟑° =
𝟏 𝑵
𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝝅𝒅𝟒 𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑 𝒌𝒔𝒊
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝟖 𝒎𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒍𝒃 𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝒊𝒏
𝑻𝑳 𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑 − 𝒇𝒕 (𝟑𝒇𝒕)
𝟏𝒌𝒊𝒑 𝟏𝒇𝒕 𝟏𝒇𝒕
𝜽= = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝑱𝑮 𝝅 𝟒 𝟒 𝒍𝒃 𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟐𝑲𝑵 − 𝒎
𝟑𝟐 𝝅 𝟒 𝒊𝒏 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝟏𝑲𝑵 𝟏𝒎
𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝝅 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝟑
𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝑵
𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟑° 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝒎𝒎𝟐
Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Maximum Shearing Stress of Marine Propeller Shaft Power Transmitted by Solid Steel Shaft of Unknown Diameter

A steel marine propeller shaft 14 in. in diameter A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed at 80 MPa when
and 18 ft long is used to transmit 5000 hp at 189 twisted through 4°. Using G = 83 GPa, compute the
rpm. If G = 12 × 10 psi, determine the maximum shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the
shearing stress. shaft at 20 Hz?

𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝑳
𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒔 𝜽= 𝑷 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑻
𝑷 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒉𝒑 𝑱𝑮
𝟏 𝒉𝒑
𝑻= = 𝑻 𝟓𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 𝑷 = 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝟎 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟖𝑫𝟒
𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝝅 𝟏𝒎
𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝟏𝟖𝟗 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝟎𝒔 𝟒° =
𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝟏 𝑵 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑(𝑫)𝟒
𝝅𝑫𝟒 𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟑𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟐 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟏, 𝟔𝟔𝟕, 𝟑𝟑𝟕. 𝟓 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏 (𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓) 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟑(𝟏𝟑𝟖)𝟒
𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟖𝑫𝟒 𝑵 − 𝒎𝒎 (𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓) 𝒔
𝑵−𝒎
𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝟏𝟔 𝟏, 𝟔𝟔𝟕, 𝟑𝟑𝟕. 𝟓 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏 𝑷 = 𝟓, 𝟏𝟖𝟔, 𝟐𝟑𝟕. 𝟑
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝒔
𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝝅 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝟏𝟔(𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟖𝑫𝟒 )
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝑷 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟗 𝑴𝑾
𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝝅𝑫𝟑
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝟎𝟗𝟒. 𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒎𝒎 (𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓)
Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Determine the polar section modulus, Zp (in3 ) of a Find the polar section modulus of a hollow shaft with
shaft delivering 10 hp at 150 rpm. The diameter of OD = 6 in and ID = 3 in.
the shaft is 3 in dia. and an allowable shear stress
of 6,000 psi.

𝝅𝑫
𝑱=
𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝟏𝟔(𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )
𝒁=
𝟏𝟔
𝝅(𝟔)
𝑱=
𝝅(𝟑)𝟑 𝟏𝟔(𝟔𝟒 − 𝟑𝟒 )
𝒁=
𝟏𝟔
𝑱 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝟐
𝒁 = 𝟓. 𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟐
 Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Maximum Horsepower That Can be Transmitted by Steel Shaft Finding the Diameter of a Propeller Shaft Transmitting a Power

A 2-in-diameter steel shaft rotates at 240 rpm. If A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz
the shearing stress is limited to 12 ksi, determine without exceeding a shearing stress of 50 MPa or twisting
the maximum horsepower that can be transmitted. through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters.
Compute the proper diameter if G = 83 GPa.
𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝑵−𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝑷 𝟓𝟎 𝑴𝑾 𝟏 𝑴𝑾
𝟏𝟐𝒌𝒔𝒊 = 𝑻= = = 𝟐𝟑𝟖, 𝟕𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝑵 − 𝒎
𝒌𝒔𝒊 𝝅(𝟐𝟑 ) 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝟏⁄𝒔
𝟐𝝅 𝟑 𝑯𝒛 𝑯𝒛
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟖, 𝟖𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟔 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏.
Based on maximum allowable shearing stress: Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:
𝑷 𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝑻𝑳
𝑻= 𝜽=
𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑱𝑮
𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒔 𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝝅 𝟐𝟑𝟖, 𝟕𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 (𝟐𝟔𝒅)(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝑷 𝟒° =
𝟏 𝒉𝒑 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝟏 𝟒
𝟏𝟖, 𝟖𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟔 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏. = 𝟏𝟔(𝟐𝟑𝟖, 𝟕𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝑵 − 𝒎) 𝟑𝟐 𝝅𝑫 𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟎 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝝅𝑫𝟑
𝒓𝒆𝒗 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟔𝟎𝒔 𝑫 = 𝟑𝟓𝟐. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒎
𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟕𝟏 𝒎
𝑷 = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝒉𝒑 𝑫 = 𝟐𝟖𝟗. 𝟕𝟏 𝒎𝒎 Use the larger diameter, thus, D = 352 mm
 Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Strength Comparison of Hollow and Solid Steel Shafts of Equal Outside Diameters 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
Show that the hollow circular shaft whose inner diameter is 𝟏𝟓 𝝅𝑫𝟑
half the outer diameter has a torsional strength equal to
15/16 of that of a solid shaft of the same outside diameter. 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉 =
𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝝅𝑫𝟑
For Hollow Shaft:
𝟏𝟔𝑻𝑫
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 = For Solid Shaft:
𝝅(𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )
𝟏𝟔𝑻𝑫 𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅 =
𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝟏 𝟒 𝝅𝑫𝟑
𝝅 𝑫𝟒 − 𝟐 𝑫
Substitute equation above:
𝟏𝟔𝑻𝑫 𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝟏𝟓
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 = = 𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝉
𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝝅 𝟏𝟔 𝑫𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘
𝟏𝟔 𝝅𝑫
Shown and Proved!
𝟏𝟔𝟐 𝑻
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝟏𝟓𝝅𝑫𝟑
Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Aluminum Shaft Loaded by Multiple Torques Applied at Gears

An aluminum shaft with a constant diameter of 50 mm is loaded by torques applied to gears attached to it as
shown in Fig. P-311. Using G = 28 GPa, determine the relative angle of twist of gear D relative to gear A.
𝑻𝑳
𝜽=
𝑱𝑮

Rotation of D relative to A:

∑ 𝑻𝑳 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟑 + 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐

𝜽𝑫/𝑨 = =
𝑱𝑮 𝟏 𝟒
𝟑𝟐 𝝅(𝟓𝟎 ) 𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝜽𝑫/𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒓𝒂𝒅

𝜽𝑫/𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟒°
Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Deformation of Flexible Shaft Made From Steel Wire Encased in Stationary Tube

A flexible shaft consists of a 0.20-in-diameter steel wire encased in a stationary tube that fits closely enough to
impose a frictional torque of 0.50 lb·in/in. Determine the maximum length of the shaft if the shearing stress is not to
exceed 20 ksi. What will be the angular deformation of one end relative to the other end? 𝐺 = 12 × 10 psi.

Frictional Torque (𝝑): 𝑻𝑳

𝜽=
𝑱𝑮
𝑻
𝛝=
𝑳 If 𝜽 = 𝒅𝜽, 𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑳 and 𝑳 = 𝒅𝑳
𝑻 𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝝅
𝑳= = 𝒅𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑳 𝒅𝑳
𝛝 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏⁄𝒊𝒏 𝑱𝑮 𝟎
𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝝅 𝒊𝒏. 𝟐𝟎𝝅
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝝅𝑫𝟑 𝜽= = [𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟎𝝅 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝟎 𝟐 ]
𝑳 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝒊𝒏. 𝑱𝑮 𝟐 𝟎
𝑱𝑮
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝟏𝟔𝑻
𝟐𝟎𝒌𝒔𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝟐
𝟏 𝒌𝒔𝒊 𝝅(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎)𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝜽=
𝟏
𝝅(𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 ) 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟐
𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = 𝟑𝟎°
Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Deformation of Flexible Shaft Made From Steel Wire Encased in Stationary Tube

Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular steel shaft of 100-mm outside diameter and
an 80-mm inside diameter without exceeding a shearing stress of 60 MPa or a twist of 0.5 deg/m. Use G = 83 GPa.

Based on maximum allowable shearing stress: Based on maximum allowable angle of twist:
𝟏𝟔𝑻𝑫 𝑻𝑳
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝜽=
𝝅(𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒 )𝟑 𝑱𝑮
𝟏𝟔𝑻(𝟏𝟎𝟎) 𝝅 𝑻(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝟔𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓° =
𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟒 − 𝟖𝟎𝟒 ) 𝟏𝟖𝟎° 𝟏 𝟒 𝟒
𝟑𝟐 𝝅(𝟏𝟎𝟎 −𝟖𝟎 ) 𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑻 = 𝟔𝟗𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟔. 𝟏𝟒𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟐𝟖𝟐. 𝟗𝟕𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟔𝟗𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎

Use the smaller torque,

𝑻 = 𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟐𝟖𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎
 Problems with Solution (Torsion)
Maximum Shear and Relative Gear Rotation of a Compound Steel Shaft

The steel shaft shown in Fig. P-314 rotates at 4 Hz with 35 kW taken off at A,
20 kW removed at B, and 55 kW applied at C. Using G = 83 GPa, find the
maximum shearing stress and the angle of rotation of gear A relative to gear C.
𝑷
𝑻= 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑪: 𝑻𝑳
𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝜽=
𝑱𝑮
−𝟑𝟓(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) 𝟏 𝑻𝑳
𝑻𝑨 = = −𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟐. 𝟔𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎 𝜽𝑨⁄𝑪 =
𝟐𝝅(𝟒) 𝑮 𝑱

−𝟐𝟎(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) 𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟐. 𝟔 𝟒 𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟒 𝟐

𝑻𝑩 = = −𝟕𝟗𝟓. 𝟖𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎 𝜽𝑨⁄𝑪 = + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝟐𝝅(𝟒) 𝟏𝟔𝑻 𝟖𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝝅 𝟓𝟓𝟒 𝟏 𝟒
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝝅 𝟔𝟓
𝝅𝑫𝟑
𝟓𝟓(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝑻𝑪 = = 𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟒𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎 𝟏𝟔(𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟐. 𝟔)(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) 𝜽𝑨⁄𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟖𝟓𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟐𝝅(𝟒) 𝝉𝑨𝑩 = = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟔𝟑𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝝅(𝟓𝟓𝟑 )
𝟏𝟔(𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟒)(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎) 𝜽𝑨⁄𝑪 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟒°
𝝉𝑩𝑪 = = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝝅(𝟔𝟓𝟑 )

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝉𝑨𝑩 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟔𝟑 𝑴𝑷𝒂

Terms and its Definition
Transverse loads are forces applied perpendicular to the Eccentric loading occurs when a load is applied at a point Applied Load
(eccentric load)
longitudinal axis of a structural member, such as a beam, that is offset from the centroid (or central axis) of a
column, or shaft. Unlike axial loads (which act along the structural member, creating both axial and bending effects.
axis of a member), transverse loads generate bending This type of loading results in a combination of direct
and shear stresses within the member. The main effects stresses due to the axial component and bending stresses
due to the eccentricity, which is the perpendicular distance centroid
of transverse loads include: If eccentricity is zero,
from the line of action of the load to the centroidal axis. that means it is purely
axial load.
1. Bending: Transverse loads cause the member to bend, Key aspects of eccentric loading include:
leading to bending stresses. The magnitude of bending 1. Combined Stresses: Since the load is applied off-center, it creates both
stress depends on the load magnitude, position, and the axial stresses (compressive or tensile) and bending stresses. The
combined effect of these stresses must be calculated to assess the total
member’s material properties and geometry.
stress on the member.
2. Shear: Transverse loads produce shear forces within 2. Moment Generation: Eccentric loads produce a bending moment,
the cross-section of the member. These shear forces can calculated as the product of the load and its eccentricity (𝑀 = 𝑃 × 𝑒),
lead to shear stresses, especially close to the supports where 𝑃 is the load and 𝑒 e is the eccentric distance. This moment
where shear is often at its maximum. causes bending in addition to the axial load.
3. Non-uniform Stress Distribution: Due to the eccentricity, stress
Transverse Load
distribution across the cross-section is no longer uniform. The side
closer to the load experiences higher stress (either compressive or
Wall tensile), while the opposite side experiences lower stress.
Beam Longitudinal Axis 4. Structural Design Considerations: In design, eccentric loading is
critical as it can lead to unexpected failures if not properly accounted.
 Derivation of the Bending (Flexural) Stress
Bending (Flexural) Stress Assumptions:
1. The beam is of constant cross section at its initial state.
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
2. The longitudinal axis depicted as neutral axis will not change its
length during deformation.
𝑁𝐴
3. All cross-sections of the beam remain plane and perpendicular to the
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
longitudinal axis during deformation.
𝑅 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑅 4. The material is homogenous and obeys Hooke’s law and that the
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 modulus of elasticity for tension and compression are equal.
5. The plane of loading must contains the principal axis of the cross-
section and the load must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the beam.
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 6. Any deformation of the section within its own plane is neglected.
𝑪
Using Hooke’s Law 𝜽

𝝈 = 𝑬𝜺 𝜹 𝒂𝒆 𝒚𝜽 𝒚
𝜺= = = =
𝒚 𝑳 𝒂𝒃 𝝆𝜽 𝝆
𝝈𝒙 = 𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚
𝝆 𝒄
𝜽
𝒅
𝒂 𝒃
𝒆
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝝈𝒙 = 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
(𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆)
 Derivation of the Bending (Flexural) Stress
Bending (Flexural) Stress 𝒚
𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

𝝈𝒙 = 𝑬
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝝆 𝒅𝑭 𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝑴 𝒚
𝑁𝐴 𝑪
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝜽
𝑅 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑅
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒅𝑭 𝒅𝑭 𝒚
𝒚 𝝈𝒙 = → 𝝈𝒙 = =𝑬
𝒄
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒅
𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑨 𝝆
𝜽
𝒂 𝒃 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:
𝒆
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝝈𝒙 = 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝝈𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

𝒅𝑴 = 𝒚 𝒅𝑭 Integrate…
𝒚 𝑬 𝟐
𝒅𝑴 = 𝒚 𝑬 𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑴 = 𝒚 𝒅𝑨
𝝆
𝝆
𝑬 𝟐 𝑬 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝑰𝑰 …
𝒅𝑴 = 𝒚 𝒅𝑨 𝑴= 𝑰
𝝆 𝝆
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰= 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝑨
(𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆)
 Derivation of the Bending (Flexural) Stress
𝑪

Bending (Flexural) Stress 𝜽 𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝒅𝑭 𝒅𝑨
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒚 𝒅𝑴 𝒚
𝑁𝐴 𝒄 𝒅
𝜽
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝒂 𝒃
𝒆
𝑅 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑅 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Beam Curvature: 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝑰𝑰 …
𝑬 𝟏 𝑴
𝑴= 𝑰 𝒌= = 𝑰= 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝑨
𝝆 𝝆 𝑰𝑬
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
For the bending stress: Considering the maximum bending stress
(at the outermost fiber from centroid):
𝟏 𝑴 𝒚
= → 𝝈𝒙 = 𝑬 𝒄 = distance to the outermost fiber
𝝆 𝑰𝑬 𝝆
𝑴
𝝈𝒙 = 𝑬𝒚
𝑰𝑬 𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
𝑴𝒚
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝈𝒙 =
(𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆) 𝑰
 Bending Stress and Strain Analysis
Stresses and Deformations Bending Stress
in the Elastic Range Concentration
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) 𝒚 𝑴𝒚
=− 𝝐𝒙 = − 𝝈𝒙 = 𝑲
𝒚 𝒄 𝝆 𝑰

Deformations in a 𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙)
Transverse Cross Sections
𝝐𝒚 = −𝝂𝝐𝒙 = −𝝂
𝒚
𝝐𝒛 = −𝝂𝝐𝒙 = −𝝂
𝒚 Members Made of Composite Materials
𝝆 𝝆 𝑬𝟏 𝒚
𝝈𝟏 = 𝑬𝟏 𝝐𝒙 = −
𝝆
Modulus of Rupture in Bending 𝑬𝟏 𝒚
𝒅𝑭𝟏 = 𝝈𝟏 𝒅𝑨 = − 𝒅𝑨
𝝆
𝑴𝑼 𝒄 𝑬𝟐 𝒚
𝑹𝑩 = 𝝈𝟐 = 𝑬𝟐 𝝐𝒙 = −
𝑰 𝝆

Where: 𝑴𝑼 = 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝟐 𝒚

𝒅𝑭𝟐 = 𝝈𝟐 𝒅𝑨 = − 𝒅𝑨
𝝆
 Bending Stress and Strain Analysis
Members Made of Elastoplastic Material Unsymmetric
Bending
Analysis

𝑴𝒛 𝒚 𝑴𝒚 𝒚 𝑰𝒛
𝝈𝒙 = − + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝝓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜽)
𝑰𝒛 𝑰𝒚 𝑰𝒚

Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry

General Case of Curved Beams
Eccentric Axial 𝑨
𝑹=
Loading Analysis 𝒅𝑨
∫ 𝒓

𝑷 𝑴𝒛 𝒚 𝑴𝒚 𝒚 𝑴𝒚 𝑴(𝒓 − 𝑹)
𝑷 𝑴𝒚 𝝈𝒙 = − + 𝝈𝒙 = − =
𝑨 𝑰𝒛 𝑰𝒚 𝑨𝒆 𝑹 − 𝒚 𝑨𝒆𝒓
𝝈𝒆𝒙 = 𝝈𝒙 𝒆𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 + 𝝈𝒙 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = −
𝑨 𝑰
Area Moment Inertia / Section Modulus (Bending)

Area Moment of Inertia: 𝒂𝟒 Solid Rectangle Section Area Moment of Inertia:

Solid Square Section 𝑰= (Bending Application)
(Bending Application) 𝟏𝟐
𝒃𝒉𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒉
𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰𝒚 =
Section Modulus: 𝒂𝟑 𝒉 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
(Bending Application)
𝑺=
𝟔
Section Modulus: 𝒃𝒉𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒉
𝑺𝒙 = 𝑺𝒚 =
(Bending Application) 𝟔 𝟔
Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝒂
(Bending Application) 𝒄=
𝟐 Outermost Fiber Radius:
𝒉 𝒃
(Bending Application) 𝒄𝒙 = 𝒄𝒚 =
𝟐 𝟐

Solid Round Section Pipe Section 𝝅

Area Moment of Inertia: 𝝅𝑫𝟒 Area Moment of Inertia: 𝑰 = 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅𝟒
(Bending Application)
𝑰= (Bending Application) 𝟔𝟒
𝟔𝟒 𝒅

Section Modulus: 𝝅𝑫𝟑 Area Section Modulus: 𝝅 𝑫𝟒 − 𝒅 𝟒

𝑺= (Bending Application) 𝒁𝒑 =
(Bending Application) 𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝑫

Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝒄 = 𝑫 Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝑫

𝟐 (Bending Application) 𝒄=
(Bending Application) 𝟐
 Area Moment Inertia / Section Modulus (Bending)
Area Moment of Inertia: 𝒃 𝟒 − 𝒂𝟒 I-Beam Section Area Moment of Inertia: (Bending Application)
Square Tube Section (Bending Application) 𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰𝒚 =
𝟏𝟐 𝟐
𝒃
𝒃𝒕𝒇 𝟑 𝒉 𝒕𝒇 𝒕𝒘 𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝒃𝒕𝒇 − +
Area Section Modulus: 𝒃 𝟒 − 𝒂𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟐
(Bending Application) 𝑺𝒙 = 𝑺𝒚 = ;
𝒂 𝒃 𝟔𝒃 𝒉 𝒉𝒕𝒇 𝟑 𝒕𝒇 𝒃𝟑
𝑰𝒚 = +
𝒕𝒘 𝟏𝟐 𝟔 𝑰𝒙 𝑰𝒚
Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝒃 Area Section Modulus: 𝑺𝒙 = 𝒓 ; 𝑺𝒚 =
(Bending Application) 𝒄 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒚 = 𝒕𝒇 𝒙 𝒓𝒚
𝟐 (Bending Application)

Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝒄 = 𝒉 ; 𝒄𝒚 =

𝒃
𝒙
(Bending Application) 𝟐 𝟐
Area Moment of Inertia: (Bending Application) Area Moment of Inertia: (Bending Application)
Channel Bar Section 𝟐 Angle Bar Section
𝒃 𝒃𝒕𝒇 𝟑 𝒉 𝒕𝒇 𝒕𝒘 𝒉𝟑 𝒃𝒕𝟑 𝒉𝒕𝟑
𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝒃𝒕𝒇 − + 𝑰𝒙 = 𝟐 + 𝑨 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝑰𝒚 = 𝟐 + 𝑨 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐
𝟏𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝒉𝟑 𝒕𝒇 𝒕𝒇 𝒃𝟑 𝑨𝒙 = 𝒃𝒕; 𝑨𝒚 = 𝒉𝒕; 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒉; 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒃
𝒉 𝑰𝒚 = + 𝒉
𝟏𝟐 𝟔 Area Section Modulus: 𝑰𝒙 𝑰𝒚
𝑰 𝑰𝒚 𝑺𝒙 = ; 𝑺𝒚 =
𝒕𝒇
Area Section Modulus: 𝑺𝒙 = 𝒙 ; 𝑺𝒚 = 𝒕
(Bending Application) 𝒓𝒙 𝒓𝒚
(Bending Application)
𝒓𝒙 𝒓𝒚
𝒃
𝒕𝒘
Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝒄 = 𝒉 ; 𝒄𝒚 =
𝒃 Outermost Fiber Radius: 𝑰𝒙 𝑰𝒚
𝒙
𝟐 𝒄𝒙 = ; 𝒄𝒚 =
(Bending Application) 𝟐 (Bending Application) 𝑨 𝑨
Bending Stress and Strain Analysis
A rectangular steel beam has a width of 𝑏 = 50 mm and A hollow circular beam with an outer diameter of 𝐷 =
a height of ℎ = 150 mm. The beam is subjected to a 120 mm and an inner diameter of 𝑑 = 80 mm is
bending moment of 𝑀 = 10 kN-m. Calculate the subjected to a bending moment of 𝑀 = 15 kN-m. Find
maximum bending stress in the beam. the bending stress at the mean radius.

𝑀𝑐 𝑀𝑐 𝐷+𝑑
𝜎 ( ) = = 𝑀𝑦 𝑀 4
𝐼 𝑏ℎ 𝜎 = = 𝜋
12 𝐼
64 𝐷 − 𝑑
150 × 10
10,000 𝑁 − 𝑚 12
𝜎 = 0.12 + 0.08
( ) (15,000 𝑁 − 𝑚)
0.05 0.15 𝜎 = 4
12 𝜋
0.12 − 0.08
64
𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝝈𝒙 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝟖 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Bending Stress and Strain Analysis
A wooden beam with a width of 𝑏 = 100 mm needs to An I-beam has a flange width of 𝑏 = 200 mm, flange
carry a bending moment of 𝑀 = 8 kN-m. If the maximum thickness of 𝑡 = 20 𝑚𝑚, and a web height of ℎ = 300
allowable bending stress is 𝜎 ( ) = 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎 , mm with a web thickness of 𝑡 = 10 𝑚𝑚. The beam is
determine the required height ℎ of the beam. subjected to a bending moment of 𝑀 = 12 kN-m.
Calculate the maximum bending stress.
ℎ
𝑀𝑐 𝑀 2 ℎ
𝜎 ( ) = = 𝑀𝑦 𝑀
𝐼 𝑏ℎ 2
𝜎 ( ) = =
12 𝐼 𝑏𝑡 ℎ 𝑡 𝑡 ℎ
2 + 𝑏𝑡 − +
ℎ 12 2 2 12
𝑁 8,000 𝑁 − 𝑚 2
10 × 10 = 0.3
𝑚 (0.1)ℎ (12,000 𝑁 − 𝑚) 2
12 𝜎 ( ) =
(0.2)(0.02) 0.3 0.02 (0.01)(0.3)
2 + (0.2)(0.02) − +
12 2 2 12
𝒉 = 𝟑𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝟏 𝒎𝒎

𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟓𝟖𝟐. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝑷𝒂

 Bending Stress and Strain Analysis
An L-beam (angle bar) with a flange width 𝑏 = 100 mm, flange
A rectangular concrete column has a width 𝑏=300 mm
thickness of 𝑡 = 15 𝑚𝑚, leg (vertical web) height ℎ=150 mm,
and a height ℎ=600 mm. It is subjected to an axial load and leg thickness 𝑡 = 10 𝑚𝑚 is subjected to a bending
𝑃 = 200 kN applied at a point 𝑒 = 50 mm from the moment 𝑀 = 5 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑚. Due to a small notch or hole near the
centroid along the height (y-axis). Determine the corner of the L-beam, a stress concentration factor 𝐾 = 2.5 is
maximum and minimum normal stresses at the cross- introduced. Calculate the maximum bending stress, accounting
section due to this eccentric loading. for this stress concentration.
𝑰𝒙
𝑀 𝑨
𝑃 𝑀𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑒 𝑦 𝑀𝑦
𝜎 = 𝜎 ± 𝜎 = ± = ± 𝜎( ) = 𝐾 = 𝐾
𝐴 𝐼 𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ 𝐼 𝒃𝒕𝟑
12 𝟐 𝟏𝟐 + 𝑨𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝟐

200,000 200,000 0.05 (0.3)

𝜎 = ± = 1.11 ± 0.556
(0.3)(0.6) (0.3)(0.6) 𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂
12

𝜎 = 1.11 + 0.556 𝜎 = 1.11 − 0.556

𝝈𝒆𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑴𝑷𝒂 𝝈𝒆𝒙𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟒 𝑴𝑷𝒂

Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
A high strength steel band saw, 20 mm wide by 0.80 mm thick, runs over pulleys 600 mm in diameter. What
maximum flexural stress is developed? What minimum diameter pulleys can be used without exceeding a
flexural stress of 400 MPa? Assume E = 200 GPa.

Flexural stress developed: Minimum diameter of pulley:

𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝑐
𝑀= 𝜎 =
𝜌 ( )
𝜌
𝐸𝐼 0.80
𝑐 𝐸𝑐 200000
𝑀𝑐 𝜌 400 = 2
𝜎 ( ) = = = 𝜌
𝐼 𝐼 𝜌
(2000000)(0.80/2) 𝜌 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝜎 ( ) =
300
𝑫 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎
𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝑴𝑷𝒂
Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
In a laboratory test of a beam loaded by end couples, the fibers at layer AB in Fig. P-507 are found to increase 60 ×
10-3 mm whereas those at CD decrease 100 × 10-3 mm in the 200-mm-gage length. Using E = 70 GPa, determine
the flexural stress in the top and bottom fibers.
𝛿 60 × 10
=
𝑥 + 30 𝑥

60 × 10
𝛿 = (4530)
45
𝜹𝒕𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝒎 (𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔)

𝐸𝛿
𝑥 120 − 𝑥 From Hooke’s Law: 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 =
𝐿 𝛿 100 × 10
= =
60 × 10 100 × 10 195 − 𝑥 120 − 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.6(120 − 𝑥) 70000(0.1)
𝜎 ( ) = = 𝟑𝟓 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 100 × 10
200 𝛿 = (19545)
𝑥 + 0.6𝑥 = 0.6(120) 120 − 45
70000(0.2)
1.6𝑥 = 72 𝜎 ( ) = = 𝟕𝟎 𝑴𝑷𝒂 (𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝜹𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎𝒎 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔)
200
𝑥 = 45 𝑚𝑚
Transversely Loaded Beams
Concentrated Load
• A concentrated load is applied at a single, specific point on a structure or beam.
• It’s typically measured in units of force (e.g., N or lb).

Distributed Load
• A distributed load is spread out over a specific length, area, or volume rather than being
applied at a single point.
• It’s typically measured in units of force per length (e.g., N/m or lb/ft for linear distributed
loads), force per area (e.g., N/m² or lb/ft² for surface distributed loads), or force per volume
(e.g., N/m³).
• Types of Distributed Loads:
 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL): The load is consistent across the entire span
(e.g., a beam with a constant load of 50 N/m along its length).
 Uniformly Varying Load (UVL): The load varies linearly across the span, such as
starting from zero at one end and increasing to a maximum at the other end (e.g.,
triangular loading).
Aspect Distributed Load Concentrated Load
Application Spread over a length, area, or volume Applied at a single point
Units N/m (linear), N/m² (area), N/m³ (volume) N or lb (force)
Common Diagrams Bending and shear diagrams are smooth Bending and shear diagrams have abrupt changes
curves
Effect on Structure Causes distributed bending and shear forces Causes localized bending and shear forces
 Common Beam Support Configurations

1. Simply Supported Beam (a): A beam with a hinge support at one end and a roller support at the other. It can resist vertical forces but cannot resist any moments.
2. Overhanging Beam (b): Similar to a simply supported beam but extends beyond one of its supports. The overhang adds complexity to the analysis but remains
statically determinate.
3. Cantilever Beam (c): Fixed at one end and free at the other. It can resist both vertical forces and moments at the fixed end.

4. Continuous Beam (d): A beam that spans over multiple supports. Due to the additional supports, it has redundant reactions, making it statically indeterminate.
5. Beam Fixed at One End and Simply Supported at the Other (e): This type of beam has a fixed support at one end and a roller support at the other. The
fixed end provides additional resistance to rotation, making the beam statically indeterminate.
6. Fixed Beam (f): A beam fixed at both ends, resisting both vertical forces and moments. This configuration results in more constraints than a simply supported
beam, making it statically indeterminate.
Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams
The shear V and the bending moment M at a given point of a beam are positive when the internal forces and couples
acting on each portion of the beam are directed.
1. The shear at any given point of a beam is positive when the external forces (loads and reactions) acting on the
beam tend to shear off the beam at that point.
2. The bending moment at any given point of a beam is positive when the external forces acting on the beam tend to
bend the beam at that point
 Relationship Between Load, Shear and Bending Moment
Relationships between Load and Shear.

𝒅𝑽
= −𝝎
𝒅𝒙
𝑉 − 𝑉 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷

Relationships between Shear and Bending Moment.

𝒅𝑴
=𝑽
𝒅𝒙
𝑀 − 𝑀 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷
 Shear and Moment in Beams Sample Problem
Write shear and moment equations for the Segment AB: Segment CD:
𝑽𝑪𝑫 = −𝟑𝟎 + 𝟓𝟔 − 𝟓𝟎
beams in the following problems. In each 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = −𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑽𝑪𝑫 = −𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑵
problem, let x be the distance measured 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = −𝟑𝟎𝒙 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
𝑴𝑪𝑫 = −𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟓𝟔(𝒙 − 𝟏) − 𝟓𝟎(𝒙 − 𝟒)
from left end of the beam. Also, draw
Segment BC: 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = −𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟓𝟔𝒙 − 𝟓𝟔 − 𝟓𝟎𝒙 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎
shear and moment diagrams, specifying 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = −𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
𝑽𝑩𝑪 = −𝟑𝟎 + 𝟓𝟔
values at all change of loading positions
𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝑵
and at points of zero shear. Neglect the
𝑴𝑩𝑪 = −𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟓𝟔(𝒙 − 𝟏)
mass of the beam in each problem.
𝑴𝑩𝑪 = −𝟐𝟔𝒙 − 𝟓𝟔 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
To draw the Shear Diagram:
1. In segment AB, the shear is uniformly distributed over
the segment at a magnitude of -30 kN.
2. In segment BC, the shear is uniformly distributed at a
magnitude of 26 kN.
3. In segment CD, the shear is uniformly distributed at a
magnitude of -24 kN.

FROM THE LOAD DIAGRAM: To draw the Moment Diagram:

1. The equation 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = −𝟑𝟎𝒙 is linear, at x = 0, 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎 and
at x = 1 m, 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = −𝟑𝟎 kN·m.
+↺ 𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎; +↺ 𝑴𝑫 = 𝟎;
2. 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = −𝟐𝟔𝒙 − 𝟓𝟔 is also linear. At x = 1 m, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = −𝟑𝟎
kN·m; at x = 4 m, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟒𝟖 kN·m. When 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟎, x =
𝟓𝑹𝑫 + 𝟏(𝟑𝟎) = 𝟑(𝟓𝟎) 𝟓𝑹𝑩 = 𝟐 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟔(𝟑𝟎)
2.154 m, thus the moment is zero at 1.154 m from B.
𝑹𝑫 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝑹𝑩 = 𝟓𝟔 𝒌𝑵 3. 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = −𝟐𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏𝟒𝟒 is again linear. At x = 4 m, 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = 𝟒𝟖
kN·m; at x = 6 m, 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎.
 Shear and Moment in Beams Sample Problem
Write shear and moment equations for the Segment AB: Segment CD:
beams in the following problems. In each 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝑽𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
problem, let x be the distance measured 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒙 𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒕 𝑽𝑪𝑫 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
from left end of the beam. Also, draw
Segment BC: 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟑 − 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎
shear and moment diagrams, specifying 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒕
values at all change of loading positions 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑩𝑪 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
and at points of zero shear. Neglect the
𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒙 − 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟑
mass of the beam in each problem.
𝑴𝑩𝑪 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒕

To draw the Shear Diagram:

1. At segment AB, the shear is uniformly distributed at 1900 lb.
2. A shear of -100 lb is uniformly distributed over segments BC
and CD.

To draw the Moment Diagram:

FROM THE LOAD DIAGRAM: 1. 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎𝒙 is linear; at x = 0, 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎; at x = 3 ft,
𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟎 lb·ft.
+↺ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝟎; +↺ 𝑴𝑫 = 𝟎; 2. For segment BC, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 is linear; at x = 3
ft, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟎 lb·ft; at x = 9 ft, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟎 lb·ft.
𝟏𝟐𝑹𝑫 + 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑(𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎) 𝟏𝟐𝑹𝑩 = 𝟗 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝟎 3. 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 is again linear; at x = 9 ft, 𝑴𝑪𝑫 =
𝑹𝑫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝟑𝟎𝟎 lb·ft; at x = 12 ft, 𝑴𝑪𝑫 = 𝟎.
𝑹𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
 Shear and Moment in Beams Sample Problem
Write shear and moment equations for the Segment AB: Segment BC:
beams in the following problems. In each 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 𝒌𝑵 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 − 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙
𝒙 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 𝒌𝑵
problem, let x be the distance measured 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 𝒙
𝟐 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟖𝟎 𝒙 − 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙
from left end of the beam. Also, draw 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 𝟐
shear and moment diagrams, specifying 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 + 𝟑𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
values at all change of loading positions To draw the Shear Diagram:
and at points of zero shear. Neglect the 1. For segment AB, 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 is linear; at x =
0, 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟒 kN; at x = 2 m, 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟗𝟒kN.
mass of the beam in each problem. 2. 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑𝟒 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙 for segment BC is linear; at x = 2
m, 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟒 kN; at x = 10 m, 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = −𝟔𝟔 kN.
When 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟎, x = 3.4 m thus 𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟎 at 1.4 m
from B.

To draw the Moment Diagram:

1. 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 is a second degree curve for
segment AB; at x = 0, 𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎; at x = 2 m,
𝑴𝑨𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 kN·m.
FROM THE LOAD DIAGRAM: 2. The moment diagram is also a second degree
curve for segment BC given by 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 +
+↺ 𝑴𝑨 = 𝟎; +↺ 𝑴𝑪 = 𝟎; 𝟑𝟒𝒙 − 𝟓𝒙𝟐 ; at x = 2 m, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 kN·m; at x =
10 m, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 = 𝟎.
𝟏𝟎𝑹𝑪 = 𝟐 𝟖𝟎 + 𝟓[𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟎)] 𝟏𝟎𝑹𝑨 = 𝟖 𝟖𝟎 + 𝟓[𝟏𝟎(𝟏𝟎)] 3. Note that the maximum moment occurs at point
of zero shear. Thus, at x = 3.4 m, 𝑴𝑩𝑪 =
𝑹𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟖 kN·m.
𝑹𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑵
 Bending (Flexural) Stress in Beam Design Sample Problem
STRATEGY: After using statics
For the timber beam and loading shown, to find the reaction forces,
draw the shear and bending moment identify sections to be analyzed.
You should section the beam at
diagrams and determine the maximum points to the immediate left and
normal stress due to bending. right of each concentrated force
to determine values of V and M at
MODELING ANDANALYSIS: these points.
Reactions. Considering the entire beam to be a free body, The shear and bending moment at sections Maximum Normal Stress.
𝑹𝑩 = 𝟒𝟎𝒌𝑵 ↑ 𝑹𝑫 = 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑵 ↑ 3, 4, 5, and 6 are determined in a similar This occurs at B, where |M
way from the free-body diagrams shown: | is largest. Use Eq. (5.4) to
Shear and Bending-Moment Diagrams. Determine the
internal forces just to the right of the 20-kN load at A. 𝑽𝟑 = +𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝑵 𝑴𝟑 = −𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 determine the section
Considering the stub of beam to the left of section 1 as a modulus of the beam:
free body and assuming V and M to be positive 𝑽𝟒 = +𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝑵 𝑴𝟒 = +𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 𝟏
𝑺 = 𝒃𝒉𝟐
(according to the standard convention), write 𝑽𝟓 = −𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝑴𝟓 = +𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝒎 𝟔
𝑺 = 𝟖𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝒎𝟑
+↑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎; −𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑵 − 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟎 𝑽𝟏 = −𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵
𝑽𝟔 = −𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑵 𝑴𝟔 = 𝟎
Substituting this value and
+↺ 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟎; 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑵 𝟎𝒎 + 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟎 𝑴𝟏 = 𝟎 For several of the latter sections, the results
𝑀 = 𝑀 = 50 × 10 𝑁𝑚
may be obtained more easily by considering
Next consider the portion to the left of section 2 to be a the portion to the right of the section to be a 𝑀
free body and write free body. For example, for the portion of 𝜎 ( ) =
𝑆
−𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑵 − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 𝑽𝟐 = −𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵 beam to the right of section 4
+↑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎;
+↑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎; 𝑽𝟒 = +𝟐𝟔 𝒌𝑵 𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑷𝒂
+↺ 𝑴𝟐 = 𝟎; 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑵 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎 + 𝑴𝟐 = 𝟎
+↺ 𝑴𝟒 = 𝟎; 𝑴𝟒 = +𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
𝑴𝟐 = −𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝒎
Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
A cantilever beam, 50 mm wide by 150 mm high Part (a):
and 6 m long, carries a load that varies uniformly The maximum moment occurs at the
from zero at the free end to 1000 N/m at the wall. support (the wall) or at x =6 m.
(a) Compute the magnitude and location of the
250 250
maximum flexural stress. (b) Determine the type and 𝑀= 𝑥 = (6 ) = 6000 𝑁 𝑚
magnitude of the stress in a fiber 20 mm from the 9 9
top of the beam at a section 2 m from the free end. 𝑀𝑐 𝑀𝑐 6000(1000)(75)
𝜎 ( ) = = = 𝜎 ( ) = 𝟑𝟐 𝑴𝑷𝒂
𝐼 𝑏ℎ (50)(150 )
1 12 12
𝑀=𝐹 𝑥
3
Part (b):
𝑦 1000 At a section 2 m from the free end
=
𝑥 6 or at x = 2 m at fiber 20 mm from
the top of the beam:
500 1 1 500 250 250 250 2000
𝑦= 𝑥 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑀= 𝑥 = (2 ) = 𝑁 𝑚
3 2 2 3 3 9 9 9
2000
250 1 250 𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑦 (1000)(55)
9
Thus, 𝑀=
3
𝑥
3
𝑥 =
9
𝑥 𝜎 =
𝐼
=
𝑏ℎ
=
(50)(150 )
𝜎 = 𝟖𝟔𝟗. 𝟏 𝑲𝑷𝒂
12 12
Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
A simply supported beam, 2 in wide by 4 𝑀 =0
𝑀 =0
in high and 12 ft long is subjected to a
concentrated load of 2000 lb at a point 3 12𝑅 = 9(2000) 12𝑅 = 3(2000)
ft from one of the supports. Determine the
maximum fiber stress and the stress in a 𝑅 = 1500 𝑙𝑏 𝑅 = 500 𝑙𝑏
fiber located 0.5 in from the top of the
beam at midspan.
Stress in a fiber located 0.5 in from
Maximum fiber stress: the top of the beam at midspan:
𝑀 4500
=
6 9
𝑀 = 3000 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡

𝑀𝑐 𝑀𝑐 4500(12)(2) 𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑐 3000(12)(1.5)
𝜎 ( ) = = = 𝜎 = = =
𝐼 𝑏ℎ (2)(4 ) 𝐼 𝑏ℎ (2)(4 )
12 12 12 12
𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊 𝝈𝒙 = 𝟓, 𝟎𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 𝒑𝒔𝒊
 Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
Determine the minimum height h of the Solving for height of the beam:
beam shown in the figure if the flexural 𝑀𝑐
stress is not to exceed 20 MPa. 𝜎 ( ) =
𝐼
Where:
𝑁
𝜎 ( ) = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 20
𝑚𝑚
𝑀 = 5 𝑘𝑁 𝑚 = 5,000,000 𝑁 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑏ℎ (80)(ℎ )
𝑐 = ℎ; 𝐼= =
FROM THE LOAD DIAGRAM: 2 12 12
+↺ 𝑴𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎; +↺ 𝑴𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎; Thus,
1
𝟑𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐 𝟓 + 𝟐(𝟐. 𝟓)(𝟒) 𝟑𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏 𝟓 + 𝟏(𝟐. 𝟓)(𝟒) 5,000,000 2ℎ
20 =
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑵 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟓 𝒌𝑵 (80)(ℎ )
12

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟑𝟕 𝒎𝒎
 Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
A 50-mm diameter bar is used as a simply Solving for distributed load:
supported beam 3 m long. Determine the 𝑀𝑐
largest uniformly distributed load that can 𝜎 ( ) =
𝐼
be applied over the right two-thirds of the Where:
beam if the flexural stress is limited to 50 𝑁
𝜎 ( ) = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 50 × 10
MPa. 𝑚
FROM THE LOAD DIAGRAM:
8
𝑀= 𝜔 𝑁 𝑚; 𝑐 = 25𝑚𝑚 = 0.025𝑚
9
+↺ 𝑴𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎; +↺ 𝑴𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎;
𝜋𝐷 𝜋(0.05)
𝟑𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝝎(𝟐) 𝟑𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝝎(𝟏) 𝐼= = = 9765625𝜋 × 10 𝑚
64 64
𝟒 𝟐
𝑹𝟐 = 𝝎 𝑹𝟏 = 𝝎
𝟑 𝟑 Thus,
8
50 × 10 = 9 𝜔 0.025
9765625𝜋 × 10

𝑵
𝝎 = 690.29
𝒎
Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
A simply supported rectangular beam, 2 in
wide by 4 in deep, carries a uniformly
distributed load of 80 lb/ft over its entire
length. What is the maximum length of the Solve for 𝜎 ( ):
beam if the flexural stress is limited to
3000 psi? 10𝐿 (12)(2)
𝟏 3000 =
BY SYMMETRY: 𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹 𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝑳 = 𝟒𝟎𝑳 32
𝟐 3
Where:
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕
𝜎 ( ) = 3000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑀 = 10𝐿 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
ℎ
𝑐= = 2 𝑖𝑛.
2
𝑏ℎ 2 4 32
𝐼= = = 𝑖𝑛
12 12 2
Bending Stress (Flexural Stress) Sample Problem
The circular bar 1 inch in diameter shown FROM THE LOAD DIAGRAM:
in the figure is bent into a semicircle with a
+↺ 𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎;
mean radius of 2 ft. If P = 400 lb and F =
200 lb, compute the maximum flexural 𝟒𝑹𝑨 = 𝟐(𝟒𝟎𝟎 sin 𝟔𝟎°) + 𝟐(𝟐𝟎𝟎 sin 𝟑𝟎°)
stress developed in section a-a. Neglect the
deformation of the bar. 𝑹𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐𝟑. 𝟐 𝒍𝒃

𝑴 = 𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟑. 𝟐 − 𝟐(𝟒𝟎𝟎 cos 𝟔𝟎°)

𝑴 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟒 𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒕

SOLVE FOR 𝜎 ( ):

𝑀𝑐
𝜎 ( ) =
𝐼
1
46.4 (12) 2
𝜎 ( ) =
𝜋(1)
64
𝝈𝒙(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟓𝟔𝟕𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝒑𝒔𝒊