INDEX

SL.no. TOPIC .

1. INTRODUCTION

2. FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

3. MONERA
4. ARCHAEBACTERIA
5. EUBACTERIA

6. PROTISTA
7. CHRYSOPHYTES
8. DINOFLAGELLATES
9. EUGLENOIDS
10. SLIME MOULDS
11. PROTOZOANS
12. AMOEBOID PROTOZOAN
13. FLAGELLATED PROTOZOAN\
14. CILIATED PROTOZOAN
15. SPOROZOANS

16. FUNGI
17. PHYCOMYCETES
18. BASIDIOMYCETES
19. DEUTEROMYCETES

20. PLANTAE
21. THALLOPHYTA
22. BRYOPHTA
23. PTERIDOPHYTA
24. GYMNOSPERMS
25. ANGIOSPERMS

26. ANIMALIA
27. VIRUS
28. VIROIDS
29. PRIONS
30. LICHENS
31. BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
 INTRODUCTION

The process of grouping together various organisms according to their

similarities, dissimilarities and phylogenetic descent is known as
biological classification.

There have been various attempts to classify organisms. The earliest

was by Aristotle, who classified plants into herbs shrubs and trees. He
classified animals into two groups, based on the presence and absence
of red blood.

Linnaeus gave the Two Kingdom system of classification and divided

living organisms into Plantae and Animalia.

R.H. Whittaker proposed the Five Kingdom system of classification and

classified organisms, based on cellular structure, complexity, mode of
nutrition, phylogenetic relationship and ecological role performed by
them.

Whittaker divided organisms into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and

Animalia.
FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION BY WHITTAKER :
1. KINGDOM MONERA:

-The Monerans are unicellular organisms.

-They contain 70S ribosomes.
-The DNA is naked and is not bound by a nuclear membrane.

-It lacks organelles like mitochondria, lysosomes, plastids, Golgi bodies,

endoplasmic reticulum, centrosome, etc.
-They reproduce asexually by binary fission or budding.
-The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycan.
-Flagellum serves as the locomotory organ.
-These are environmental decomposers
-They show different modes of nutrition such as autotrophic, parasitic,
heterotrophic, or saprophytic
 1.1 ARCHAEBACTERIA :

-Archaebacteria are obligate or facultative anaerobes, i.e., they flourish in the

absence of oxygen and that is why only they can undergo methanogenesis.
-The cell membranes of the Archaebacteria are composed of lipids.
-The rigid cell wall provides shape and support to the Archaebacteria. It also
protects the cell from bursting under hypotonic conditions.
-These do not possess membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei, endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, lysosomes or chloroplast. Its thick cytoplasm contains
all the compounds required for nutrition and metabolism.

-They can live in a variety of environments and are hence called extremophiles.
They can survive in acidic and alkaline aquatic regions, and also in temperature
above boiling point.
-They can withstand a very high pressure of more than 200 atmospheres.
-Archaebacteria are indifferent towards major antibiotics because they contain
plasmids which have antibiotic resistance enzymes.
-The mode of reproduction is asexual, known as binary fission.
-They perform unique gene transcription.
-The differences in their ribosomal RNA suggest that they diverged from both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
 1.2 EUBACTERIA :

-Eubacteria are also known as “true bacteria”.

-The cell wall is rigid and made up of peptidoglycans.
-It moves with the help of flagella.
-A few bacteria contain short appendages on the cell surface, known as pili
which help the bacteria during sexual reproduction. Pili also helps a pathogen to
attach to the host.
-They are divided into two categories; gram-positive and gram-negative,
depending upon the nature of the cell wall and the stain they take.

-Rhizobium and Clostridium are two eubacteria.

-All bacteria are encased in a porous, but rigid cell wall that protects them from
getting ruptured in watery environments and gives different characteristic
shapes.
-Mostly bacteria are motile containing one or more flagella. The flagella are
made up of a protein called flagellin which has the ability to rotate.
-These bacteria do not possess membrane-bounded organelles such as
mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.
2 KINGDOM PROTISTA:

-These are usually aquatic, present in the soil or in areas with moisture.
-Most protist species are unicellular organisms, however, there are a few
multicellular protists such as kelp. Some species of kelp grow so large that they
exceed over 100 feet in height. (Giant Kelp).
-Just like any other eukaryote, the cells of these species have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.

-They may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in nature. An autotrophic organism

create its own food and survive. A heterotrophic organism, on the other hand,
has to derive nutrition from other organisms such as plants or animals to
survive.
-Symbiosis is observed in the members of this class. For instance, kelp (seaweed)
is a multicellular protist that provides otters, protection from predators amidst
its thick kelp. In turn, the otters eat sea urchins that tend to feed on kelp.
-Parasitism is also observed in protists. Species such as Trypanosoma protozoa
can cause sleeping sickness in humans.
-Protists exhibit locomotion through cilia and flagella. A few organisms
belonging to the kingdom Protista have pseudopodia that help them to move.
 2.1 CHRYSOPHYTES:

-Chrysophytes are a type of algae that can be found in a wide range of lakes.

-Because of the coloring of specific photosynthetic pigments, they are

commonly referred to as golden-brown algae.

- They are usually single-celled and contain a flagellum that allows them to
swim in water.

-Chrysophytes are a phylum of plants that has over 1,000 different species.
There could be hundreds of them in any given lake.

- For a variety of climatic conditions, each species has its own set of
optimums and tolerances (pH, salinity, temperature, etc.).

-A siliceous scale or plate is connected to the cell wall of some species.

Scales fall to the lake's bottom and are preserved in the sediments when
scaled-chrysophyte cells die.
2.2 DINOFLAGELLATES:

-Dinoflagellates are mostly marine but also found in freshwater. Their

distribution is related to the temperature, pH and depth

-Dinoflagellates are unicellular having a eukaryotic cell

-They can be red, blue, green, yellow or brown depending on the -
pigment present in the cell.

-Dinokaryon nucleus has chromosome attached to the nuclear

membrane and condensed throughout. They lack histones and have a
fibrillar appearance.

-The mitosis is closed type, i.e. the nuclear envelope does not break
during mitosis. The mitotic spindle is extranuclear.

-Rapid multiplication gives rise to sudden population explosions, or

blooms, which is responsible for the red colour of the sea, the famous
Red Tide. The toxins released by the blooms may kill fishes and reach
humans, who eat those fishes.

-Many dinoflagellates are bioluminescent and emit blue-green light

Dinoflagellates are mostly photosynthetic autotrophs
Reproduction in dinoflagellates is primarily asexual through binary
fission. The cells are haploid.
2.3 EUGLENOIDS:

- They are the unicellular protists.

- They are found in the freshwater.
- They have a pellicle present- which is a protein-rich membrane.
- They lack a cell wall.
- They have two flagella on the anterior of the body.
- They can prepare their food by photosynthetic pigments called
chloroplasts.
- In the absence of light, they acquire food as heterotrophs. They will
then feed on other organisms for feed.
- They are the connecting bridge between the plants and animals as
they have featured both like plants and animals.

- They have a contractile vacuole to regulate the fluid in the cytoplasm.

- They are usually red due to the presence of carotenoids.
- They attack their food and eat via phagocytosis in which the
entrapment of food takes place by an outer membrane.
- They reproduce by longitudinal cell division, a form of asexual
reproduction mode.
- They generate cyst which can withstand the drying period.

Note:
Euglena has environmental importance in the aspect that it needs
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, so it will provide us with oxygen to
breathe. They are both good and bad for humans. There also exist toxic
euglena. They have evolved.
2.4 SLIME MOULDS:

-They do not have chlorophyll.

-They are surrounded by plasma membrane only. However, the spores
have the cellulose cell walls.
-They live usually amongst decaying vegetation.
-They exhibit wide range of colouration.
-They have phagotrophic or saprotrophic nutrition.
-Diagnostic characters of zooflagellates:
-They possess flagella for locomotion.

-They may be free living, aquatics, parasites, commensals or symbionts.

-They are generally uninucleate, occasionally multinucleate.
-The body is covered by a firm pellicle.
-Nutrition is holozoic, saprobic and parasitic.
-Diagnostic characters of Sarcodine:
--They develop pseudopodia which are temporary protoplasmic
outgrowths.
-Pseudopodia are used for locomotion and engulfing food particles.
-They are mostly free living, found in fresh water, sea water and on
damp soil. Only a few are parasitic.
The body may be covered with plasmalemma or a shell.
They are generally uninucleate. Binucleate and multinucleate types also
occur but the nuclei are monomorphic.
Nutrition is commonly holozoic.
 2.5 PROTOZOANS:
• Protozoa are found in the aquatic environment. They live in freshwater or
oceans. Some are free-living and some are parasitic in plants and animals.
Mostly they are aerobic but some are anaerobic and present in the rumen or
human intestine.

• They mostly have one membrane-bound nucleus in the cell

• The nucleus has diffused appearance due to scattered chromatin, the

vesicular nucleus contains a central body called endosome or nucleoli. Nucleoli
of apicomplexans have DNA, whereas amoeboids lack DNA in their endosome

The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and other locomotory

projections like flagella, pseudopodia and cilia

• Some of the protozoa have cytostome for ingesting food. Food vacuoles
are present, where ingested food comes. Ciliates have a gullet, a body
cavity which opens outside
• The central vacuole is present for osmoregulation, that removes excess
water
-Protozoa are heterotrophic and have holozoic nutrition. They ingest their food
by phagocytosis. Some of the protozoan groups have a specialised structure
called cytostome for phagocytosis.
 2.5.1 AMOEBOID PROTOZOANS:

-Amoeboid protozoans are naked. They have no test oil shell.

-They can change their shape whenever they want.

-They use their pseudopodia to capture food.

-They are usually covered in calcareous shells.

-All the free-living amoebae are particle feeders.

-Sexual reproduction is not present in them.

Amoeboid protozoan resembles amoeba due to the presence of pseudopodia in

it. Amoeboid is a type of unicellular microorganism that has the ability to
change its shape by extending and retracting pseudopods. Amoeboids move and
capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia which are also known to be their
false feet as in Amoeba. Amoeboid protozoans lack periplast in their body so
they are usually covered in calcareous shells and have temporary pseudopodia
which help them in capturing the prey. Amoeboid protozoans cannot make their
own food so are dependent on others for food.
 2.5.2 FLAGELLATED PROTOZOANS:

-At some stage throughout their life cycle, any group of protozoans
(subphylum Mastigophora) with an excess of flagella for movement and
sensing.

-A flagellum is a hair-like structure that provides mobility through whip-like

lashing movements.

-Flagellates are protozoans that have one or a few long whip-like hairs called
flagella that help them move around.

-A flagellate is a cell or creature that has one or more flagella, which are
whip-like appendages.

-The example of protozoans with flagella.

Trichonympha and Lophomonas are two instances of flagellated Protozoans.

-Unlike cyanobacteria, its blooms are usually associated with the high levels of
dissolved oxygen and often with cold water streams and lakes.
2.5.3 CILIATED PROTOZOANS:
-Ciliates are a category of protozoans that are distinguished by the occurrence of cilia,
which are hair-like organelles that are structurally related to eukaryotic flagella but
are shorter, more numerous, and have a different oscillating pattern than flagella.

-Ciliated protozoans include Vorticella and Paramecium.

-Protozoa can be as small as 1 micrometre and as large as several centimetres or

more.

-Free-living protozoa are common and abundant in both fresh and salt water, as well as
other moist environments such as soils and mosses.

- There is a high degree of morphological and physiological specialization.

- The body is covered by a pellicle.

-Nutrition is holozoic except in the parasitic forms.

- There are definite regions for ingestion and egestion. The region of ingestion
consists of an oral groove, cytostome (mouth) and gullet.

- They have contractile vacuoles for osmoregulation.

- Asexual reproduction takes place by transverse binary fission or budding.

Cyst formation occurs under un-favourable conditions.

-Sexual reproduction is by means of conjugation.

2.5.4 SPOROZOANS :

1. Sporozoans are organisms that belong to the phylum Sporozoa.

2. It is characterized by single-celled, parasitic.
3. Those are capable of reproducing asexually and sexually in alternative
generations through spores.

Example of Sporozoan:

1. An example of Sporozoan is Plasmodium falciparum which is known to

cause malaria.
2. Human beings act as a host for these parasites and
female Anopheles mosquitoes as vectors.
3. The sporozoan classification is no longer in use.

It is a broad group of exclusively parasitic non-motile

protozoans (Sporozoa). It has a complicated life cycle that usually involves
both asexual and sexual generations in different hosts and significant
pathogens. Examples of sporozoan are Plasmodium and Eimeria.
 4. KINGDOM FUNGI :

Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts,

moulds and mushrooms. These organisms are classified under kingdom fungi.
The organisms found in Kingdom fungi contain a cell wall and are omnipresent.
They are classified as heterotrophs among the living organisms
To name a few – the appearance of black spots on bread left outside for some
days, the mushrooms and the yeast cells, which are commonly used for the
production of beer and bread are also fungi. They are also found in most skin
infections and other fungal diseases.
If we observe carefully, all the examples that we cited involve moist conditions.
Thus, we can say that fungi usually grow in places which are moist and warm
enough to support them.

1. Almost all the fungi have a filamentous structure except the yeast cells.
2. They can be either single-celled or multicellular organisms.
3. Fungi consist of long thread-like structures known as hyphae. These
hyphae together form a mesh-like structure called mycelium.
4. Fungi possess a cell wall which is made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
5. The cell wall comprises a protoplast, which is differentiated into other cell
parts such as cell membrane, cytoplasm, cell organelles and nuclei.
6. The nucleus is dense, clear, with chromatin threads. The nucleus is
surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
Characteristics of Fungi
Following are the important characteristics of fungi:

1. Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic

organisms.
2. They may be unicellular or filamentous.
3. They reproduce by means of spores.
4. Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alternation of generation.
5. Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis.
6. Fungi store their food in the form of starch.
7. Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
8. The nuclei of the fungi are very small.
9. The fungi have no embryonic stage. They develop from the spores.

10.The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.

11.Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the host.

12.Fungi produce a chemical called pheromone which leads to sexual

reproduction in fungi.

13.Examples include mushrooms, moulds and yeast.

3.1 PHYCOMYCETES:
1. It is a class of lower fungi in which mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
2. It includes the simplest members of true fungi.
3. It consists of a well-developed sexual as well as an asexual cycle of
reproduction.
4. The somatic body may directly participate in the asexual cycle or may form
sporangium which produces spores asexually.

Examples:
Rhizopus (bread mold), Mucor (dung mold), and Albugo (parasitic).

1. They include both aquatic as well as terrestrial forms.

2. They can be saprophytes as well as parasites.
3. The mycelium in Phycomycetes is coenocytic i.e., aseptate and
multinucleate.
4. The wall of hyphae is made of cellulose.
5. Asexual reproduction takes place through the formation of sporangia.
6. Sexual reproduction takes place through gametangial contact where the
male gamete is transferred from the antheridium to the oogonium.
7. The gametes are of non-flagellated type.
8. An oospore is produced at the end of sexual reproduction.
9. Hence, Phycomycetes are also called oomycetes.
10. Examples of Phycomycetes include Mucor, Rhizopus, etc.
3.2 ASCOMYCETES:
Ascomycetes typically refer to fungus whose spores develop within the
cylindrical sacs named asci.

1. They are also called sac fungi.

2. They do have chitinous cell walls.
3. They are unicellular such as yeast but most of the members of these
groups have well-developed, profusely branched septa.
4. Asexual reproduction occurs by the non-motile spores such as conidia,
and chlamydospores, and in unicellular organisms budding,
fermentation and fission are the commonest modes of asexual
reproduction.

5. Sexual reproduction occurs by the copulation of gametangia (eg. Yeast),

contact of gametangia (Aspergillus, Penicillium, Erysiphe).
6. Ascospores are the haploid sexual spores that are formed in the
cylindrical sac-like structure called an ascus.
3.3 BASIDIOMYCETES:

1. Basidiomycetes generally refer to fungus whose spore development occurs

in basidia.
2. They are commonly called club fungi.
3. They possess a well-developed, branched, and septate mycelium.
4. A long-live dikaryotic stage is seen in basidiomycetes.
5. Basidiospores are produced exogenously( in sexual reproduction).
6. Flagellate cells are not found in them.

7. They are terrestrial and aquatic.

8. The fungal group Basidiomycota, also known as the club fungi, includes some
of the most familiar fungi.
9. Basidiomycetes play a key role in the environment as decomposers of plant
litter. They are distinguished from other fungi by their production of
basidiospores, which are borne outside a club-shaped, spore-producing
structure called a basidium. These spores rarely germinate or mature.
10. For example, Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust
fungus).
3.4 DEUTEROMYCETES :

1. Deuteromycetes refer to fungi that do not have any known sexual state in
their life cycle.
2. They are also known as anamorphic fungi or fungi imperfecti.
3. The teleomorphic( meiotic) stage is absent in this class of organisms.
4. They have septate hyphae.
5. They do reproduce both sexually and asexually but mainly asexually.
6. Asexual reproduction generally occurs by conidia..
7. Deuteromycetes fungi carry some salient features that make them worth
studying.

1. Deuteromycetes occur as saprophytes on a wide range of substrates, but a

large number of these fungi are parasites on plants and animals. This causes
a variety of diseases. Leaf- spots, blights, blotch, wilts, rots, anthracnose, etc.
are the important diseases of plants, while diseases like meningitis,
candidiasis, skin diseases, nail diseases, and others are caused in animals.
2. The mycelium is made up of profusely branched and septate hyphae posing
multinucleate cells and simple pore septa.
3. The hyphae may be intracellular and their cell wall chiefly contains chitin-
glucan.
 4. KINGDOM PLANTAE:

Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic,

multicellular and autotrophic organisms. The plant cell
contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have chloroplast and
chlorophyll pigment, which is required for photosynthesis.

Characteristics of Kingdom Plantae

The plant kingdom has the following characteristic features:

1. They are non-motile.

2. They make their own food and hence are called autotrophs.
3. They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
4. These are multicellular eukaryotes. The plant cell contains the outer cell wall and a large
central vacuole.
5. Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll present in the plastids.
6. They have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and photosynthesis

Classification of Kingdom Plantae

A plant kingdom is further classified into subgroups. Classification is based on the
following criteria:

1. Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body. E.g. Root, Stem and
Leaves.
2. Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for the transportation of water
and other substances. E.g. Phloem and Xylem.
3. Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds are naked or
enclosed in a fruit.
 4.1 THALLOPHYTA:
Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body structure and the plant body is
thallus like.

Thallophyta includes plants with primitive and simple body structures. The plant
body is thallus, they may be filamentous, colonial, branched or unbranched.
Examples include green algae, red algae and brown algae. Common examples are
Volvox, Fucus, Spirogyra, Chara, Polysiphonia, Ulothrix, etc.

4.2 BRYOPHYTA:
Bryophytes do not have vascular tissues. The plant body has root-like, stem-like
and leaf-like structures. Bryophytes are terrestrial plants but are known as
“amphibians of the plant kingdom” as they require water for sexual reproduction.
They are present in moist and shady places. Bryophyta includes mosses,
hornworts and liverworts. Some of the common examples are Marchantia,
Funaria, Sphagnum, Antheoceros, etc.
4.3 PTERIDOPHYTA:
Pteridophytes have a well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves.
They have a vascular system for the conduction of water and other substances.
Some of the common examples are Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris, etc.

4.4 GYMNOSPERMS:
Gymnosperms have a well-differentiated plant body and vascular tissues. They
bear naked seeds, i.e. seeds are not enclosed within a fruit. Some of the
common examples of gymnosperms are Cycas, Pinus, Ephedra, etc.
4.5 ANGIOSPERMS:
Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants with a well-differentiated plant
body. The seeds of angiosperms are enclosed within the fruits. Angiosperms are
widely distributed and vary greatly in size, e.g. Wolffia is small measuring about
0.1 cm and Eucalyptus trees are around 100 m tall. Angiosperms are further
divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons according to the number of
cotyledons present in the seeds. Some of the common examples are mango, rose,
tomato, onion, wheat, maize, etc.

Cryptogams and Phanerogams

The plant kingdom is also classified into two groups:

Cryptogams – Non-flowering and non-seed bearing plants. E.g. Thallophyta,
Bryophyta, Pteridophyta
Phanerogams – Flowering and seed-bearing plants. E.g. Gymnosperms,
Angiosperms
• 5. KINGDOM ANIMALIA:
Animals are classified on the basis of common fundamental features like
the cellular arrangement, symmetry of the body, presence or absence of
the coelom, specific features of the digestive, circulatory and reproductive
system

• Cellular level of organisation: cells arranged as loose aggregates, present

in Porifera (sponges)
• Tissue level of organisation: cells performing the same function form
tissues, present in coelenterates
• Organ level of organisation: tissues grouped together to form an organ,
which performs particular function, e.g. Platyhelminthes
• Organ system level of organisation: afew organs coordinatively perform a
certain physiological function, e.g. Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs,
Echinoderms and Chordates
• Open circulatory system: cells and tissue directly receive the blood
pumping out of the heart
• Closed circulatory system: blood is circulated through arteries, veins and
capillaries
• Diploblastic: embryo with two germinal layers called external ectoderm
and internal endoderm, e.g. Porifera, Cnidaria
• Triploblastic: embryo with three germinal layers, mesoderm between
ectoderm and endoderm, e.g. Platyhelminthes to Chordates
• Asymmetrical: no line of symmetry in the body, e.g. sponges
• Radial symmetry: any plane passing through centre divides the body in
two symmetrical halves, e.g. coelenterates, ctenophores
• Bilateral symmetry: a plane divides the body in symmetrical left and right
halves, e.g. annelids, arthropods, etc.
• Echinoderms exhibit radial as well as bilateral symmetry at different stages
of their life
• Body cavity between the body wall and gut wall, lined by mesoderm is
called coelom
• Acoelomates: body cavity is absent, e.g. Platyhelminthes
• Pseudocoelomates: mesoderm is present as scattered pouches, e.g.
Aschelminthes
• Coelomates: having coelom (body cavity) e.g. from Annelida to Chordata
• Earthworm’s body shows metameric segmentation
• Animals with notochord are called chordates, animals without notochord
are called non-chordates, e.g. Porifera to Echinodermata
6.VIRUS:

Viruses are tiny and smaller in its size, ranging between 30-50 nm. Viruses
do not contain cells and usually lack a cell wall but are surrounded by a
protective protein coating called the capsid. It can be seen as a genetic
element and is characterized by the combined evolution of the virus and
the host. They contain either RNA or DNA as the genetic material.

Viruses mainly depend on a host to deliver the complex metabolic

machinery of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells for propagation. The main
task of the virus is to carry its DNA or RNA genome to the host cell, which
then can be transcribed by the host cell. The viral genome structure is
packed in a capsulated symmetric protein. The protein associated with
nucleic acid (also known as nucleoprotein) produces the nucleocapsid
with the genome.
Properties of Viruses
1. They are non-cellular organisms, which is enclosed in a protective
envelope.
2. The presence of spikes helps in attaching the viruses to the host cell.
3. These viruses do not grow, neither respire nor metabolize, but they
reproduce.
4. They are surrounded by a protein coat – capsid and have a nucleic acid
core comprising DNA or RNA.
5. They are considered both as living and non-living things. These viruses are
inactive when they are present outside of host cells, but become active
within host cells. These viruses cause several infections and reproduce
within the host cell by using the enzymes and raw materials.

List of Viral Diseases

Following is a list of virus diseases that have made a significant socioeconomic
impact in the last few decades.

• AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

• Ebola
• Influenza
• SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)
• Chikungunya
• Small Pox (Now eradicated)

An example of a few examples of plant viral diseases are as follows:

• Papaya leaf curl is caused by Begomovirus.
• Tobbaco mosaic virus causes mosaic in tobbaco.
• Yellow vein mosaic of okra.
 6. VIROIDS:

Viroids are the smallest pathogens known to humans. They only infect
the plant and cause diseases in them. They are not found to be infectious
in humans or animals. They have single-stranded RNA and have an
absence of the protein coat on them.

1. Viroids are infectious particles composed of circular strands of RNA

without any protein coat.
2. Viroids were discovered by T.O. Diener in 1971.
3. The size of viroids is smaller than the viruses.
4. Viroids lack protein coat.
5. They generally cause disease in higher plants.
6. Example: Avocado sunblotch viroid, Chrysanthemum stunt viroid, etc.

7. PRIONS:
The term Prion means proteinaceous infectious particles. Prions are the
infectious agents responsible for several neurodegenerative diseases in
mammals, like, Creutzfeldt Jakob disease. This happens due to the abnormal
folding of the proteins in the brain.
It refers to the hypothesis that the infectious agents causing the diseases
contain only proteins. It explained why the infectious agents are resistant to
ultraviolet radiations. They can break down the nucleic acids, but are receptive
to substances that denature proteins.
 8. LICHENS:

Lichens are a small group of plants of composite nature, consisting of two

dissimilar organisms, an alga and a fungus living in a symbiotic association.

Characteristics:

• The fungus with its root gets the water and minerals and algae using its
photosynthetic ability to produce food.
• They are sensitive to air pollution and are an indicator of air pollution.
• Thallophytic plant body with irregular shape and pigmentation.
• Pigmentation is due to the algae
• Alage belongs to the blue-green algae like Nostoc, Stigonema
• Fungus partner belongs to ascomycetes family.

Lichens are symbiotic connections between fungi and algae. The majority of the
lichen is composed of the fungus and the rest is made up of a green or blue-green
alga. Algae produce food, while the fungus provides protection and absorbs
mineral nutrients.
 SUMMARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

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