Highway Engineering 2024

1.1.[4.2.] Curves

The horizontal alignment of a highway, railway or canal is made up of series of straight lines and curves. The
straight portions are called tangents. The curves used to connect the tangents can be simple circular, multiple
(compound) circular with two different radii, reverse curves or circular curves joined to the tangents by
spirals.

The grade line on a profile of any length is made up of straight lines and curves. The curves joining the grade
lines are called vertical curves, and are generally parabolas of second degree. Their function is to provide a
smooth transition from one grade to another-in other words, to spread out the change in grade over a distance.
4.2.1. Horizontal Curves
Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition elements in
geometric design for highways. The center line of a road consists of
series of straight lines interconnected by curves that are used to change
the alignment, direction, or slope of the road.
A horizontal curve provides a transition between two tangent strips of
roadway, allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather
than a sharp cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the intended
design speed for the roadway, as well as other factors including
drainage and friction.
The change in direction would be too abrupt for the safety of modem,
high speed vehicles. It is therefore necessary to interpose a curve

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between the straight lines. The straight lines of a road are called tangents because the lines are tangent to the
curves used to change direction. These curves are circular curves; that is, curves that form circular arcs. The
smaller the radius of a circular curve then the sharper the curve.
The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the selection of the length of the radius or the
degree of curvature. This selection is based on such considerations as the design speed of the highway and
the sight distance as limited by headlights or obstructions.
Horizontal curves are further classified as circular curves and transition curves.
4.2.1.1. Designation Of A Curve
In Great Britain the sharpness of the curve is designated by the radius of the curve while in India and many
countries it is designated by the degree of curvature. There are two different definitions of degree of
curvature:
 Arc Definition
 Chord Definition
According to arc definition degree of curvature is defined as angle in degrees subtended by an arc of
standard length [Fig. 2.4(a)]. This definition is generally used in highway practice. The length of standard
arc used in SI it is taken as 30 m. Some people take it as 20 m also.

Fig. 4.2 Designation of a Curve

Relationship Between Radius And Degree Of Curve
(a) Arc Definition:
Let R be the radius, s be standard length and Da be degree of the curve

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(b) Chord Definition: Let Dc be degree of curve as per chord definition and s be the standard length of
chord. Then referring to Fig. 4.2(b).

Comparing equations (arc definition) and (chord definition), we find for flat curves, arc definition and chord
definitions give same degree of curve. As in railways flat curves are used, chord definition is preferred.
4.2.1.2. Elements Of Simple Curves

Terminologies in Simple Curve

 PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.
 PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
 The Point of Tangent Intersection (PI) is the intersection point of the two roads or Point of
intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
 Tangent Length (T) is the distance from point of intersection (PI) to the PC to PT. Tangent Length can
be calculated by finding the central angle of the curve, in degrees. This angle is equal to the supplement
of the interior angle between the two road tangents.

Where:
T = tangent length (in length units)
= central angle of the curve, in degrees
= curve radius (in length units)
 Long Chord Length, Lc is the line segment in a circle, which connects any two points on
the circumference of the circle. Long chord is the chord joining the PC and PT along a straight line. The

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chord of the circular curve T1T2 is known as long chord and is denoted by L. Point Q as shown below is
the midpoint of L. Point M in the figure is the midpoint of Lc.

 The external distance (E) is the distance from the PI to the middle of the curve measured along the
bisector of the central angle.

or
 The middle ordinate (M) is the maximum distance between a line drawn between PC and PT and the
curve. It falls along the line between the curve's vertex and the PI. In other words, the distance from the
middle of the curve to the middle of the long chord.

m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.

 Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection (I) and Central angle) of a circular curve, Δ is the
angle at the center of radius of a circular arc included between the radii, passing through the beginning
and ending of the arc. It is the angle of intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended
by PC and PT at O is also equal to I, where O is the center of the circular curve from the above figure.
 Curve length (Ɩ) can be determined using the formula for semicircle length.

 x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.

 θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
 D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to one station. In
English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is equal to 20 m.
 Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
Example 1. A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60° deflection angle. What is its degree by (a) arc definition
and (b) chord definition of standard length 30 m. Also calculate (i) length of curve, (ii) tangent
length, (iii) length of long chord, (iv) mid-ordinate and (v) apex distance.
Solution:
R = 300 m D = 60°
(a) Arc definition: s= 30 m,

(b) Chord definition:

(i) Length of the curve:

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(ii) Tangent length

(iii) Length of long chord:

(iv)Mid-ordinate

(v) Apex distance:

Setting out of circular curves

The various methods used for setting curves may be broadly classified as:
i. Linear methods ii. Angular methods
i. Linear Methods of setting out simple circular curve
The following are some of the linear methods used for setting out simple circular curves:
(i) Offsets from long chord (iii) Offsets from the tangents–perpendicular or radial
(ii) Successive bisection of chord (iv) Offsets from the chords produced
A. Offsets from long chord
In this method, long chord is divided into an even number of equal parts. Taking center of long chord as
origin, for various values of x, the perpendicular offsets are calculated to the curve and the curve is set in the
field by driving pegs at those offsets.

The above expression holds good for x-values on either side of

D, since CD is symmetric axis.

B. Successive Bisection of chords

In this method, points on a curve are located by bisecting the
chords and erecting the perpendiculars at the mid-point.
Perpendicular offset at middle of long chord (D) is

Let D1 be the middle of T1C. Then Perpendicular offset

Similarly,

Using symmetry points on either side may be set

C. Offsets from tangents

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The offsets from tangents may be calculated and set to get the required curve. The offsets can be either
radial or perpendicular to tangents.
(i) Radial offsets: if the center of curve O is accessible from the points on tangent, this method of curve
setting is possible.
Let D be a point at distance x from T1. Now it is required to find radial
ordinate Ox = DE, so that the point C on the curve is located. From Δ OT 1D,
we get

An approximate expression Ox may be obtained as explained below:

Neglecting small quantities of higher order,

D. Perpendicular Offsets from Tangent

 The perpendicular offset from tangent is a linear method used to set out
curves on a roadway.
 It involves calculating and measuring the perpendicular distances from
the tangent line to the curve at specific points.
 This method is used when the center of the circle is not visible.
 The perpendicular offset Ox can be calculated as given below:
o Drop perpendicular EE1to OT1. Then
Ox= DE=T1E1 = OT1 – OE1

Where x = the measured distance from T1 along the tangent.

E. Offset from the chord produced
This method is very much useful for setting long curves. In this method, a point on the curve is fixed by
taking offset from the tangent taken at the rear point of a chord. Thus, point A of chord T 1A1 is fixed by
taking offset O1 = AA1 where T1A1 is tangent at T1. Similarly B is fixed by taking offset O 2 = BB1 where
AB1 is tangent at A.

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Then from the property of circular curve

C1= chord T1A Arc T1A = R2δ1

Substituting the value of δ1 from equation (i) into

equation (ii), we get

Similarly,

But, C3= C2

Thus, up to last full chord i.e. n – 1 the chord,

If last sub-chord has length Cn, then,

Note that Cn– 1 is full chord.

ii. Angular Method
The following are the angular methods which can be used for setting circular curves:
(i) Rankine method of tangential (deflection) angles.
(ii) Two-theodolite method
(iii) Tacheometric method
In these methods linear as well as angular measurements are used. Hence, the surveyor needs chain/tape and
instruments to measure angles. Theodolite is the commonly used instrument.

A deflection angle to any point on the curve is the angle between the tangent at point of curve (PC) and the line
joining that point to PC (Δ). Thus, δ1 is the deflection angle of A and δ1 + δ2 is the deflection angle of B.

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In this method points on the curve are located by deflection angles and the chord lengths. The formula for
calculating deflection angles of various chords can be derived as shown below:
Let A, B, C … be points on the curve. The chord lengths T 1A, AB, BC… be C1, C2, C3… and δ1, δ2, δ3…
tangential angles, which of the successive chords make with respective tangents. Δ 1, Δ2, Δ3… be deflection
angles.

From the property of circular curve,

Example 2. A circular curve of 250 m radius is to be set out between two straights having deflection angle of
45°20 ′ right, and chainage of the point of intersection as 112 + 10. Calculate the necessary data for
setting out the curve by the method of offsets from the chords produced taking the length of one
chain as 20 m.
Solution

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∆ =45°20′ = 45.333°
'
∆ 45 ° 20
Tangent length T =tan ( ) = tan ( )
2 2

Offsets from chords produced

The chainages of the points on the curve, chord length, and offsets are given in Table 3.1.

Example 3. Two straights AB and BC are to be connected by a right-hand circular curve. The bearings of AB
and BC are 70° and 140°, respectively. The curve is to pass through a point P at a distance of 120 m
from B, and the angle ABP is 40°. Determine Radius of the curve, Chainage of the tangent points,
Total deflection angles for the first two pegs. Take the peg interval and the length of a normal chord
as 30 m. The chainage of the P.I. is 3000 m.

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Solution
From the given data, we have bearing of AB =70°, bearing of BC =140°, ∠ABP=α=40° and
BP=120 m. Thus the deflection angle ∆=140°–70°=70°

Sum and Difference Identities

 sin(α+β) = sin(α)cos(β) + cos(α)sin(β)

 sin(α-β) = sin(α)cos(β) – cos(α)sin(β)

 cos (α+β) = cos(α)cos(β) – sin(α)sin(β)
 cos (α-β) =cos(α)cos(β) + sin(α)sin(β)

Figure 4.-1 Circular curve

Special Problems in Curve Setting
The following two special problems may arise in setting curves:
(i) Passing the curve through a given point.
(ii) Setting curve tangential to three lines.
a. Passing the Curve Through a Given Point
Referring to Fig. 4.1, A is the point through which the curve has to pass. The apex point V and angle of
deflection Q are known. x and y distances can be measured.
In this case the problem is finding radius R such that curve passes through point A.
y
Let QP﬩T1B and <PBQ= α. Then, tan α = , hence, α is known.
x
From ΔPBO, <PBO= <T1BO – <PBQ=

and
Δ Δ
<OPB=180 - <PBO - <POB=180 - (90- –α) - ( - θ) = 90+α+θ
2 2
Applying sine rule to ΔPBO, we get
Δ
sin<OPB sin< PBO sin<OPB BO sin(90 +α +θ) R sec( ) Δ
= PO => = =¿ = 2 = sec ( )
BO sin< PBO PO sin¿ ¿ 2
R

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1
sin( 90+α +θ) =¿ sin(90+α +θ)
¿> = cos( Δ ) =sin ¿ ¿
sin ¿ ¿
2
Δ
cos( + α )
2
cos (α +θ)=
Δ
cos ( )
2

( )( Δ2 + α ) – α
cos
−1
θ=cos
cos ( )
Δ
2

The radius of the curve passing through P which is at a distance of x from B along the tangent BT 1, is given by
QP=DT1=OT1-DO => y=R – R cos (θ)
 BP sin(α) = R – R cos (θ)
BP sin(α ) 120 sin(40) 77.13 m
R= = = =520.79 m
1 – cos (θ) 1 – cos () 1−0.85

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Example 4. The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45° 30' and its radius is 198.17 m. PC is at Sta. 0 +
700. Compute the right angle offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on the curve to tangent through PC.
A. 2.98 m B. 3.37 m C. 3.09 m D. 3.87 m
Length of curve from PC to A: s=736.58−700=36.58 m

Angle subtended by arc s from the center of the curve:

 ,
 Length of offset x:
cos θ=(R−x)/R, x=R−R cos θ=198.17−198.17cos10.58∘
x=3.37 m=3.37 m
Example 5. The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute the radius if the external distance is
12.02 m.
A.203.74 m B.253.72 m C.226.94 m D.214.67 m

Example 6. Given the following elements of a circular curve: middle ordinate = 2 m; length of long chord = 70
m. Find its degree of curve, use arc basis.
A. 4.5° B. 5.3° C. 2.9° D. 3.7°

Example 7. Two roads having a deviation angle of 45° at apex point V are to be joined by a 200 m radius
circular curve. If the chainage of apex point is 1839.2 m, calculate necessary data to set the curve
by:

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a) ordinates from long chord at 10 m interval
b) method of bisection to get every eighth point on curve
c) radial and perpendicular offsets from every full station of 30 m along tangent.
d) offsets from chord produced.
Solution: R= 200 m Δ = 45°

Chainage of forward tangent T2 = 1756.36 + 157.08 = 1913.44 m

(a) By offsets from long chord:

Measuring ‘x’ from D,

(b) Method of bisection:

(c) Offsets from tangents:

(d) Offsets from chord produced:

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Length of first sub-chord = 13.64 m = C1
Length of normal chord = 30 m = C2
Since length of chain is 157.08 m, C3= C4 = C5 = 30 m
Chainage of forward tangent = 1913.44 m
= 63 chains + 23.44 m
Length of last chord = 23.44 m = Cn= C6

Example 8. Two tangents intersect at the chainage 1190 m, the deflection angle being 36°. Calculate all the data
necessary for setting out a circular curve with radius of 300 m by deflection angle method. The peg
interval is 30 m.
Solution:

Exercise 1. The chainage of the intersection point of two straights is 1060 m, and the angle of intersection is
120°. If radius of a circular curve to be set out is 570 m, and peg interval is 30m, determine the
tangent length, the length of the curve, the chainage at the beginning and end of the curve, the
length of the long chord, the lengths of the sub-chords, and the total number of chords.
Exercise 2. A circular curve of radius of 350 m deflecting right through 32°40 ′, is to be set out between two
straights having chainage of the point of intersection as (51 + 9.35). Calculate the necessary data to
set out the curve by the method of deflection angles. Also calculate the necessary data for setting
out the curve. The length of one chain is 20 m.
Exercise 3. A circular curve of 250 m radius is to be set out between two straights having deflection angle of
45°20 ′ right, and chainage of the point of intersection as 112 + 10. Calculate the necessary data for
setting out the curve by the method of offsets from the chords produced taking the length of one
chain as 20 m.
Exercise 4. Points A, B, C, and D lie on two straights as shown in Figure below, having coordinates given in
Table 7.3. The chainage of A is 1216.165 m. Calculate necessary data to set out a circular curve of
radius 220 m from a point P ( E 1114.626 m, N 710.012 m) at through chainage interval of 20 m.
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set out joining the two straights. The following data were collected: ∠APQ=157°22′,
Exercise 5. Two straights AP and QC meet at an inaccessible point I. A circular curve of 500 m radius is to be

∠CQP=164°38′, PQ=200 m. Calculate the necessary data for setting out the curve by the method of
offsets from long chord. The chain to be used is of 30 m length, and the chainage of P is (57+17.30)
chains.
b.
In this case the problem is apart from the curve being tangential at T 1 and T2, it has to be tangential at a
given point A as shown in Figure below. Let <T1OA = α and <T2OA = β.
Let tangential line at A intersect, the tangents T 1V and T2V at points B
and D respectively. Then from the property of circular curve,

Since α, β and d are known, the required radius R of the curve can be found. Knowing radius R and angle of
deflection Δ, the required calculations for setting curve can be made.
Compound Curves
A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main tangents joined at point of
compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1 (R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at PT is designated as 2
(R2, L2, T2, etc)
Elements of compound curve
 PC = point of curvature
 PT = point of tangency
 PI = point of intersection
 PCC = point of compound curve
 T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
 T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
 V1 = vertex of the first curve
 V2 = vertex of the second curve
 I1 = central angle of the first curve
 I2 = central angle of the second curve
 I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
 Lc1 = length of first curve
 Lc2 = length of second curve
 L1 = length of first chord
 L2 = length of second chord
 L = length of long chord from PC to PT
 T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured
from V1 to V2
 θ = 180° - I
 x and y can be found from triangle V1-V2-PI.
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PC-PCC-PT
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Finding the stationing of PT

Given the stationing of PC:
Given the stationing of PI:
Reversed Curve
Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist running at design speed. The
instant change in direction at the PRC brought some safety problems. Despite this fact, reversed curves are
being used with great success on park roads, formal paths, waterway channels, and the like.
 PC = point of curvature
 PT = point of tangency
 PRC = point of reversed curvature
 T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
 T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
 V1 = vertex of the first curve
 V2 = vertex of the second curve
 I1 = central angle of the first curve
 I2 = central angle of the second curve
 Lc1 = length of first curve
Reverse Curve  Lc2 = length of second curve
 L1 = length of first chord
Finding the stationing of PT
 L2 = length of second chord
Given the stationing of PC  T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured
Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2 from V1 to V2
Given the stationing of V1
Sta PT=Sta V1−T1+Lc1+Lc2
Reversed Curve for Nonparallel Tangents
The following figure is an example reversed curves of unequal radii connecting non-parallel tangents.

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Reversed Curve to Connect Three Traversed Lines

Example 9. A reversed curve with diverging tangent is to be designed to connect to three traversed lines for the
portion of the proposed highway. The lines AB are 185 m, BC is 122.40 m, and CD is 285 m. The
azimuth is Due East, 242°, and 302° respectively. It is necessary that the PRC (Point of Reversed
Curvature) must be one-fourth the distance BC from B.
a) Find the radius of the first curve.
A. 123 m B. 156 m C. 182 m D. 143 m
b) Find the length of road from A to D. Use arc basis.
A. 552 m B. 637 m C. 574 m D. 468 m

Design Considerations For Circular Curves And Transition Curves

1. Minimum Radius for Circular Curves
A body of mass m is moving in a circular path of radius r at a constant velocity v, the centripetal force acts on a
body in inward direction. The centripetal force is found by Newton's second law (F= m*a).

Any object moving rapidly along a curved path is subjected to an outward reactive force called the
centrifugal force. If the surface is flat, the vehicle is held in the curved path by side friction between
tires and pavement. The total of these friction forces balances the centrifugal force. Expressed in terms of the
coefficient of friction f and the normal forces between the pavement and the tires, the relationship is;
Super elevation and Friction

When velocity v (m/s) is stated

in V (Km/h), and the radius of
curve (R) in meters, the equation
reduces to;

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So that the outer edges are higher than the inner edges. This tilting, plus frictional resistance between
the tires and the pavement provides a horizontal resistance to the centrifugal forces generated by the
circular movement of the vehicle around a curve.
Analysis of the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant radius indicates that the
theoretical super elevation can be expressed as:
or
Where: e = rate of super elevation (m per m)
f = side friction factor (or coefficient of lateral friction)
V= speed (Km/hr)
R = radius of curvature (m)
Maximum Super elevation Value (emax)
If the above equation is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum super elevation that can be
permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country. According to ERA Geometric Design Manual,
2013:
 emax = 8% for rural roads and
 emax = 4% for urban roads.
Value of Coefficient of Lateral Friction (f)
The value of Side friction coefficients are dependent on vehicle speed; type, condition and texture of roadway
surface; weather conditions; and type and condition of tyres.
Table 4.4: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Paved Roads

Table 4.5: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Unpaved Roads

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The side friction is considerably less than the longitudinal friction coefficient. Its value decreases as speed
increases. According to ERA Geometric Design Manual, 2013, the recommended side friction values for all
design speeds are presented in Table 4.4, with the respective minimum radii for 4%, 6%, 8% & 10% super
elevations.
Widening of Curves
Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels follow the front
wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of the vehicle in relation to the lane
width of the roadway.
The widening required can be calculated from

Where: We = total widening

B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
V = design speed (Km/hr)
n = number of lanes
Widening on Curves and Embankments
Widening of the carriageway where the horizontal curve is tight is usually necessary to ensure that the rear
wheels of the largest vehicles remain on the road when negotiating the curve; and, on two lane roads, to ensure
that the front overhang of the vehicle does not encroach on the opposite lane. Widening is therefore also
important for safety reasons.
Table 4-6: Widening on Curves and High Fills

Switchback Curves
Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous and escarpment terrain.
Employing a radius of 20m or less, with a minimum of 10m, they are generally outside of the standards for all
road designs.
Switchback curves require careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel through the curve. They
must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design vehicles. These figures show that the minimum
outer radii for design vehicles DV2 through DV4 are 12.5m, 14.1m, and 12.5m, respectively. Minimum inner
radii are 8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.
Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:
i) Passage of two opposing DV4 vehicles. This is recommended for Design Standards DC8, DC7 and DC6
ii) Passage of a single DV4 and a DV1. This is recommended for Design Standards DS4- DC5
iii) Passage of only a single DV4. This is recommended for Design Standards DC3,DC3, DC2 and DC1.
Table 4-2: Design Vehicle Characteristics

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Table 4-3: Design Vehicle for Each Road Class

Figure 4-5: Switchback Curve for the Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle
Set-back Distance
Situations frequently exist where an object on the inside of a curve, such as vegetation, building or cut face,
obstructs the line of sight. Where it is either not feasible or economically justified to move the object, a larger
radius of curve will be required to ensure that stopping sight distance is available. The required radius of
curve is dependent on the distance of the obstruction from the centerline and the sight distance.
According to ERA Geometric Design Manual, 2013, the available sight distances on horizontal curves
need to be checked separately for both stopping and passing sight distances along each direction of
travel.

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Figure : Stopping Sight distance on horizontal curves.

For Narrow Roads: i.e, single lane road in which centerline of the road and centerline of inner lane are similar.
Case 1: S < Lc

Case 2: S > Lc

For Wide Roads: i.e, roads with two lane and above, in which centerline of the road and centerline of
inner lane are different and say the distance between the two centerlines is d.
Case 1: S < Lc

Case 2: S > Lc

Where; S – the required sight distance

Lc – the length of the curve
R – the radius of the curve
α – the angle subtended by the curve
d – the distance between the centerline of the road and the centerline of the inner lane
Example: Calculate the required set-back distance considering the required stopping sight distance at the
curve. Length of Curve (Lc) = 300m, Radius of horizontal curve = 230m, Design Speed = 80 Km/hr,
Coefficient of longitudinal friction, f = 0.35, Perception-reaction time, t = 2.5 sec, Total width of road = 7.71m.
(Ans = 10.66m)
Attainment of Super elevation
The transition from a tangent, normal crown section to a curved super elevated section must be
accompanied without any appreciable reduction in speed and in such a manner as to ensure safety and comfort
to the occupants of the traveling vehicle.
The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super elevated surface into two
stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level.
In the second stage, three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-elevation.
i. The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually lowering the inner
edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline constant.
ii. The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the center and the outer edge.
iii.The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the center and the outer edge.
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Method (i) is the most generally used.
The distance required for accomplishing the transition from a normal to a super elevated section, commonly
referred to as the transition runoff, is a function of the design speed and the rate of super elevation.

Figure 5-7: Spiral and Circular Curve Transition.

Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third
on the curve.
Transition Curves
The characteristic of a transition curve is that it has a constantly changing radius. Transition curves may be
inserted between tangents and circular curves to reduce the abrupt introduction of lateral acceleration and
therefore to enhance safety. They may also be used between two circular curves.
For large radius curves, the rate of change of lateral acceleration is small and transition curves are not normally
required. It can also be argued that transition curves are not a requirement for certain roads, particularly those of
lower classification.
Table 4-4: Transition Curve Requirements

Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third
on the curve.
Spiral Curve
Spirals are used to overcome the abrupt change in curvature and super elevation that occurs between tangent
and circular curve. The spiral curve is used to gradually change the curvature and super elevation of the road,
thus called transition curve.

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Elements of Spiral Curve

TS = Tangent to spiral X = Offset distance (right angle distance) from tangent
SC = Spiral to curve to any point on the spiral
CS = Curve to spiral Xc = Offset distance (right angle distance) from
ST = Spiral to tangent tangent to SC
LT = Long tangent Y = Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral
ST = Short tangent Yc =Distance along tangent from TS to point at right
R = Radius of simple curve angle to SC
Ts = Spiral tangent distance Es = External distance of the simple curve
Tc = Circular curve tangent θ = Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the
L = Length of spiral from TS to any point along spiral
the spiral θs = Spiral angle from tangent to SC
Ls = Length of spiral i = Deflection angle from TS to any point on the
PI = Point of intersection spiral, it is proportional to the square of its distance
I = Angle of intersection is = Deflection angle from TS to SC
Ic = Angle of intersection of the simple curve D = Degree of spiral curve at any point
p = Length of throw or the distance from tangent Dc = Degree of simple curve
that the circular curve has been offset

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Formulas for Spiral Curves

Distance along tangent to any point on the spiral:

At L = Ls, Y = Yc, thus,

Offset distance from tangent to any point on the spiral:

At L = Ls, X = Xc, thus,

Length of throw:

Spiral angle from tangent to any point on the spiral (in radian):

At L = Ls, θ = θs, thus,

Deflection angle from TS to any point on the spiral:

At L = Ls, i = is, thus,

This angle is proportional to the square of its distance

Tangent distance:

Angle of intersection of simple curve:

External distance:

Degree of spiral curve:

Some of the important properties of the spirals are given

below:

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Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment is the combination of parabolic vertical curves and tangent sections of a particular slope. The
selection of rates of grad e and lengths of vertical curves is based on assumptions about characteristics of the
driver, the vehicle and the roadway. Vertical curvature may impose limitations on sight distance, particularly
when combined with horizontal curvature.
Thus the two major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance
criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of service.
A smooth grade line with gradual changes appropriate to the class of road and the character of the topography is
preferable to an alignment with numerous short lengths of grade and vertical curves.

Vertical Curve Formula

Vertical curves are required to provide smooth transitions between consecutive gradients. The simple parabola
is specified for these because the parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature and, hence,
acceleration and visibility, along its length. Equations relating the various aspects of the vertical curve are as
follows

Where
BVC = Beginning of the vertical curve. The coordinates are normally (0, Y(0)),
EVC = End of the vertical curve. The coordinates are normally (L, Y(L)),
Y(X) = Elevation of a point on the curve (metres)

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X = Horizontal distance from the (BVC) (metres)
g1 = Starting gradient (%),
g2= Ending gradient (%),
r = Rate of change of gr ade per section (% per metre),
L = Length of curve (horizontal distance) in metres,
G = g1 - g2 (%),
K = L/G = horizontal distance require d to achieve a 1% change in grade (metres),
Z = vertical distance from the tangent to the curve (metres)
Useful relationships are;
Equation of tangent g1 is Y(X) = Y (0) + g1.X/100
Equation of tangent g2 is Y(X) = Y (L) + g2. (X-L)/100
The y coordinate of the EVC is Y (L) = (g1 +g2) L/200 + Y (0)
The Intersection Point always occurs at an x coordinate of 0.5L hence the elevation is always;
Y (IP) = (g2 +3.g1)L/800 + Y(0)

Figure : Crest Curve

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Figure : Sag Curve

Example: For the crest curve shown in Figure 9.1 the two tangent grade lines are +6% and -3%. The Beginning
of the Vertical Curve is at chainage 0.000 and its elevation 100.0m. The length of the vertical curve is 400m.
Compute the End of Vertical Curve and the coordinates of the Intersection Point.
The y coordinate of the EVC is Y(L) = (g1+g2)L/200 + Y(0)
= (6-3).400/200 + 100.0 = 106.0
The x coordinate is X (L) = 400.0
The coordinates of the IP are X (IP) = L/2 = 200.0 and Y(IP) = (g2+3.g1)L/800 + Y(0)
= (-3 + 3x6).400/800 + Y(0) = 107.5m
Crest curves
Two conditions exist when considering the minimum sight distance criteria on vertical curves. The first is
where the sight distance (S) is less than the length of the vertical curve (L), and the second is where sight
distance extends beyond the vertical curve.
Consideration of the properties of the parabola results in the following relationships for minimum curve length
to achieve the required sight distances:
For S < L (the most common situation in practice):

and therefore

where
Lm = minimum length of vertical crest curve (metres)
S = required sight distance (metres)
h1 = driver eye height (metres)
h2 = object height (metres)

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K = is a constant for given values of h1 and h2 and stopping sight distance (S)
and therefore speed and surface friction.
For S > L

Eye height (h1) has been taken as 1.05 metres, and object heights h 2 of 0.2 metres and 0.6 metres above the road
surface.
Table : Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Paved Roads)

Table : Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Unpaved Roads)

Sag Curves
It is assumed that adequate sight distance will be available on sag curves in daylight. It is therefore
recommended that, for most situations, sag curves are designed using a driver comfort criterion of vertical
acceleration. A maximum acceleration of 0.3m/sec2 is often used. This translates into

Where V is the velocity in km/hr.

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The resulting curve length values are shown in Table
Table: Minimum Values of K for Sag Curves

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