CURVE RANGING

In the geometric design of motorways, railways, pipelines, etc., the design and setting out of curves
is an important aspect of the engineer’s work.

The initial design is usually based on a series of straight sections whose positions are defined
largely by the topography of the area. The intersections of pairs of straights are then connected by
horizontal curves. In the vertical design, intersecting gradients are connected by curves in the
vertical plane.

Curves can be listed under three main headings, as follows:

(1) Circular curves of constant radius.

(2) Transition curves of varying radius (spirals).

(3) Vertical curves of parabolic form.

CIRCULAR CURVES

Are curves of constant radius

Types of Circular Curve

A compound circular curve consists of two or more circular curves of different radii. The centers
of the curves lie on the same side of the common tangent, as shown in figure 1a.

A reverse circular curve consists of two consecutive circular curves, which may or may not have
the same radii, the centers of which lie on opposite sides of the common tangent, as shown in
figure
Figure 1 (a) ( b)
Terminology of Circular Curves

Figure 2

Two straights, D1T1 and D2T2 in Figure 2, are connected by a circular curve of radius R:
(1) The straights when projected forward, meet at I: the intersection point.

(2) The angle ∆ at I is called the angle of intersection or the deflection angle, and equals the angle
T10T2 subtended at the center of the curve 0.

(3) The angle Փ at I is called the apex angle, but is little used in curve computations.

(4) The curve commences from T1 and ends at T2; these points are called the tangent points.

∆
(5) Distances T1I and T2I are the tangent lengths and are equal to. 𝑹𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟐

(6) The length of curve T1AT2 is obtained from:

Curve length = R∆ where ∆ is expressed in radians, or

∆°𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Curve length = where (D) is degree of curve
𝑫°

(7) Distance T1T2 is called the main chord (C), and from Figure 2.

1
∆ 𝑇1 𝐵 2 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 (𝐶)
sin = =
2 𝑇1 𝑂 𝑅

∆
𝑪 = 𝟐𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐

(8) IA is called the apex distance / external distance and equals

𝐼𝑂 − 𝑅 = 𝑅(sec ∆⁄2) − 𝑅

= 𝑹(𝐬𝐞𝐜 ∆⁄𝟐 − 𝟏)

(9) AB is the rise (mid-ordinate) and equals 𝑅 − 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 cos ∆⁄2

𝐴𝐵 = 𝑹(𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∆⁄𝟐)

Radius and Degree Curves

A circular curve can be referred to in one of two ways.

(1) In terms of its radius, for example, a 750 m curve. This is known as a radius curve.
(2) In terms of the angle subtended at its center by a 100 m arc, for example, a 2° curve. This is
known as a degree curve.

Figure 3

In figure 3 arc VW = 100m and subtends an angle of Do at the center of curvature 0. The curve TU
is, therefore, a D0 degree curve.

The relationship between the two types of curve is given by the formula DR = (18 000/π), in which
D is in degrees and R in meters, for example, a curve of radius 1500 m is equivalent to

18000
𝐷° = = 3.820°
1500𝜋

that is, a 1500 m radius curve = a 3.820°-degree curve.

Length of Circular Curves (Lc)

(1) For a radius curve, Lc = (R θ) m, where R is in meters and θ is in radians.

(2) For a degree curve, Lc = (100 θ/D) m, where (θ and D, are in the same units, that is, degrees or
radians.

Through Chainage
It is a measure of the length from the starting point of the scheme to the particular point in question
and is used in road, railway, pipeline and tunnel construction as a means of referencing any point
on the center line.

chainage increases along the center line and is measured from the point (Z) at which the new
construction begins. Z is known as the position of zero chainage

if the chainage of the intersection point, I, is known and the curve is then designed, the chainages
of tangent points T and U, which both lie on the center line, can be found as follows with reference
to figure above

through chainage of T = through chainage of I - IT

through chainage of U = through chainage of T + Lc

A common mistake in the calculation of through chainage is to assume that (TI + IU) = Lc. This
is not correct. Similarly, the chainage of U does not equal the chainage of I + IU.

Establishing the Centre Line on Site

The center line provides an important reference line on site. Once it has been pegged out, other
features such as channels, verges, tops and bottoms of embankments, edges of cuttings and so on,
can be fixed from it. Consequently, it is vital that

(1) the center line pegs are established to a high degree of accuracy;

(2) they are protected and marked in such a way that site traffic can clearly see them and avoid
disturbing them accidentally;
(3) in the event of them being disturbed, they can be re-located easily and quickly to the same
accuracy to which they were initially set out.

There are a number of methods by which the center line can be set out, all of which fall into one
of two categories.

(1) Traditional methods which involve working along the center line itself using the straights,
intersection points and tangent points for reference. These usually require some combination of
tapes and/or theodolites.

(2) Coordinate methods which use control points situated some distance away from the center line
as reference. These normally require theodolite/EDM systems or total stations.

Although both categories are still used, coordinate methods have virtually superseded traditional
ones for all major curve setting-out operations for a number of reasons:

(a) There is now widespread use of theodolite/EDM systems and total stations on construction
sites.

(b) The increasing adoption of highway design software packages which are invariably based on
coordinate methods has eliminated the tedious nature of the calculations involved in such methods
and enables setting out data to be produced in a form ready for immediate use by total stations.

(c) Coordinate methods have the advantage that re-locating pegs on the centerline which have been
disturbed is usually easier to carry out than by traditional methods.

However, coordinate methods are not always the most appropriate and traditional techniques are
still widely used for;

✓ less important curves, for example, housing estates, minor roads, kerb lines, boundary
walls and so on, where they are often more convenient and quicker to use than coordinate

methods.

✓ They also represent the only possibility in cases where no nearby control points are
available.

Whichever method is used, the first setting-out operation is normally to fix the position of the
intersection point on site in order that an accurate measurement of the deflection angle, θ, can be
obtained for use in the design calculations. Once the design has been finalized, the tangent points
can then be pegged out. These procedures are described in sections below.

Location of the Intersection and Tangent Points in the Field

(1) Locate the two tangent lines AC and BD and define them by means of a suitable target.

(2) Set a theodolite up on one of the lines (say AC) and sight towards the intersection of the two
tangents at I.

(3) Drive in two pegs x and y on the line AC such that BD will intersect the line xy. The exact
position of the tangent line should be marked by nails in the top of the pegs.

(4) Join pegs x and y by means of a string line.

(5) Set up the theodolite on BD pointing towards I and fix the position of I by driving in a peg
where the line of sight from BD intersects the string line.

(6) Set up the theodolite over I and measure angle AlB, hence angle θ.

(7) Calculate tangent lengths IT and IU using R tan θ/2.

(8) Measure back from I to T and U, drive in pegs and mark the exact points by nails in the tops
of the pegs.

(9) Check the setting out by measuring angle ITU, which should equal θ/2.

Location of the Tangent Points when the Intersection Point is Inaccessible

Occasionally, it is impossible to use the method described above. owing to the intersection point
falling on a very steep hillside, in marshy ground or in a lake or river and so on. In such cases, the
following procedure should be adopted to determine θ and locate the tangent points T and U.
Consider figure below.

(1) Choose points A and B somewhere on the tangents such that it is possible to sight from A to B
and B to A and also to measure AB.

(2) Measure AB.

(3) Measure angles α and β deduce 𝛾. and hence θ

(4) Use the Sine Rule to calculate l A and l B.

(5) Calculate IT and IU from R tan θ/2.

(6) AT= l A - IT and BU = IB - IU, hence set out T and U. If A and B are chosen to be on the other
side of T and U, AT and BU will have negative values.

(7) If possible, sight from T to U as a check. Measure angle ITU which should equal θ/2

𝑨𝑰 𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑰
= =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝛄 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝛃

Setting Out Circular Curves by Traditional Methods

The Tangential Angles Method

This is the most accurate of the traditional methods. It can be carried out using either one theodolite
and a tape or two theodolites if no tape is available.
The assumption made is that:

Chord length TK = Arc length TK

Chord length ≤ R/20. E.g., 10m, 20m, provided the chords are small compared with the radius.

Using ∆TOK:

C = Arc TK……………………...i

1/2𝑇𝐾 1/2𝑐
Sinα1 = =
𝑅 𝑅

𝑇𝐾 𝑐
Sinα1 =2𝑅 = 2𝑅

Therefore: Chord length TK = C = 2RSinα1

But for small angles, Sinα ≈α

TK = C = 2Rα1

𝑐
α1 = (α in radians) ……………………ii
2𝑅

𝑐 180
α1 = . (α1 in degrees)
2𝑅 𝜋

𝑐 180
similarly, α2= . (α2 in degrees)
2𝑅 𝜋

𝑐 180
In general, α = . .60 (α in minutes)
2𝑅 𝜋
 𝒄
α = 𝑹.1718.90 (minutes) …………………………...iii

(a) Using a theodolite and a tape

Calculation procedure

1. Determine the total length of the curve (Rθ).

2. Select a suitable chord length ≤ R/20, e.g., 10m or 20m. This will be the standard chords, with
two sub chords one at the beginning and one at the end of the curve.

3. A series of tangential angels is obtained from the general expression of eqn (iii) α1, α2, α3 etc.

In practice α2= α3 =α4, etc., since all the chords are equal except the first and the last. Only three
tangential angles need to be calculated.

4. All the cumulative angles are measured from the tangent point with reference to tangent line IT,
but the chord lengths swung are individual not cumulative.

5. The results are normally tabulated before setting out the curve on site.

Setting-out procedure

6. The theodolite is set up at one tangent point, preferably the one from which the curve swings
to the right.

7. The telescope is directed towards the intersection point and the horizontal angle set to read
00°00'00".

8. The tangential angle for the first chord is set off from the tangent, and the first chord set from
the tangent point T.

9. The horizontal angle is then set to read α1 + α2, to set the second chord.

With one end of the tape on the point fixed for the first chord, the second chord is fixed along the
direction at an angle (α1 + α2).

10. The procedure is repeated with (α1 + α2+α3), (α1 + α2+α3 + α4), etc. until point U is set out.

*As a check the tangential angle ITU should be equal to θ/2.

Example1:

It is required to connect two straights whose deflection angle is l3°16'00" by a circular curve of
radius 600m.

Make the necessary calculation for setting out the curve by tangential angles method, if the through
chainage of the intersection point is 2745.72m.

Use a chord length of 25m and sub chords at the beginning and end of the curve to ensure that pegs
are placed at exact 25m multiples of through chainage.

Solution:

Tangent length = R tan θ/2 = 600 tan 6°38'00" = 69.78 m.

Chainage of T = Ch I - IT = 2745.72 - 69.78 = 2675.94 m.

To round this figure to 2700 m (the next multiple of 25 m) an initial sub chord is required. Hence

Length of initial sub chord = 2700 - 2675.94 = 24.06m.

Length of circular curve (Curve Length) CL

600𝑥13.2667𝑥𝜋
= 𝑅𝜃 = ( ) = 138.96 m
180
Chainage of U = Chainage of T + Curve Length

= 2675.94 + 138.96 = 2814.90m.

Hence a final sub-chord is also required since 25 m chords can only be used up to chainage 2800
m. Therefore

The last multiple of 25m before ch U is 2800m.

Length of final sub chord = 2814.90 - 2800 = 14.90m.

Three chords which are necessary to set out a horizontal curve are:

Initial sub chord of 24.06m.

General chord of 25.00m.

Final sub chord of 14.90m.

Tangential angles for these chords are obtained from

α =C/𝑅 x1718.90 (Minutes)

Thus, we have:

For initial sub chord =24.06/600 x1718.90= 68.93' = 01°08'56``.

For general chord = 25/600 x1718.90 =71.62' = 01° 11'37".

For final sub chord =14.90/600 x1718.90 = 42.69' = 00042'41".

No of general chord = (2800−2700)/25 = 100/25 = 4.

The necessary calculation for setting out the curve is as shown in the table below
CHAINAGE (m) CHORD INDIV. TANGENTIAL CUM. TANGENTIAL. ANGLE
LENGTH (m) ANGLE

2675.94 0.00 00000`00`` 00000'00"

2700.00 24.06 O1008'56" 01°08'56"

2725.00 25.00 01011'37" 02°20'33"

2750.00 25.00 01011'37" 03°32`10"

2775.00 25.00 01011'37" 04°43'47"

2800.00 25.00 01011'37" 05°55'24"

2814.90 14.90 00°42'41" 06°38'05"

Sum = I38.93
(checks)

As a check, the final cumulative tangential angle should be equal to θ/2, in this example there is
only 5" difference which is acceptable.

Also, the sum of the chords should be equal to the total length of the circular arc

Example2:

Figure above is part of the two straights to be connected by a circular curve of radius 500.00 m.
The curve is to turn right from point T on the side of A to U on the side of B. Points A and B are
fixed on the straights with their respective coordinates as [4608.34m N, 2941.06m E] and
[4707.78m N,3013.84m E]. Given that the chainage of A = 8426.40m and that the horizontal
angles IAB & IBA are 20015`00`` & 08050`34`` respectively.

Make a suitable sketch to illustrate this information.

Calculate the:

(i). Length of AB and the tangent length.

(ii). Chainages of I, T & U.

(iii). Initial & final sub-chord lengths.

(iv). Number of standard chords.

(v). Deflection angles for initial, final & standard chords. if pegs are to be set at standard intervals
of 20 m along the center line of the road, using a theodolite and tape.

(vi). Draw up a table showing the necessary calculations for setting out the curve above.

Solution
b)-Length of AB = √[(NB-NA)2 +( EB - EA)2]

= √ [∆N2 + ∆E2]

Where: ∆N = 4707.78 - 4606.38 = 99.44 m

∆E = 3013.84 - 2941.06 = 72.78 m

Length AB =√ [99.442 +72.782] = 123.23 m

Tangent length =R tan θ/2 = 500 tan (290 05’34”)/2 = 129.74m

ii). Chainage I = Chainage of A + length AI

using sine rule:

𝐴𝐼 123.23 𝐵𝐼
= =
𝑆𝑖𝑛08`50`34`` 𝑆𝑖𝑛150`54`26`` 𝑆𝑖𝑛08`20`15``

123.23
Therefore AI = x 𝑆𝑖𝑛08`50`34`` = 38.96 m
𝑆𝑖𝑛150`54`26``

Chainage of I = 8426.40 + 38.96 = 8465.36 m

Chainage of T = chainage of I – Tangent length

= 8465.36-129.74 = 8335.62 m

Chainage of U = chainage of T + Curve length.

But curve length = 2πR θ/360
0 0
= 2πx500 x (29 05`34``)/360 = 253.88m

Chainage of U = 8335.62 + 253.88 = 8589.50 m

initial sub-chord = 8340 - 8335.62 = 4.38 m
Final sub-chord = 8589.5 – 8580 = 9.50 m

OR = curve length – initial sub-chord –total length of standard chord

 = 253.88-4.38-240 = 9.50m
No of standard chords = [8580 – 8340] /20 = 12

OR = [ Curve length –initial sub chord]/standard chord

= [253.88-4.38]/20 = 12

V) deflection /tangential angles:

C1
Initial sub chord α = x1718.90 (Minutes)
1 𝑅

4.38 0
= x1718.90 = 00 15`04``
500𝑥60
C2
Standard chord α = x1718.90 (Minutes)
2 𝑅

20 0
= x1718.90 = 01 08`45’’
500𝑥60
C3
Final -sub chord α = x1718.90 (Minutes)
3 𝑅

9.5 0
= x1718.90 = 00 32`45’’
500𝑥60

Table: Data for Setting out the curve

Chord Chainage(m) Chord Ind. tang. Angle Cum. tan. Angles

No length(m)

T 8335.62 0.00 00000`00`` 00000`00``

1 8340 4.38 00015`04`` 00015`04``

2 8360 20 01008`45`` 01023`49``

3 8380 20 01008`45`` 02032`34``

4 8400 20 01008`45`` 03041`19``

5 8420 20 01008`45`` 04050`04``

6 8440 20 01008`45`` 05058`49``

7 8460 20 01008`45`` 07007`34``

8 8480 20 01008`45`` 08016`19``

9 8500 20 01008`45`` 09025`04``

10 8520 20 01008`45`` 10033`49``

11 8540 20 01008`45`` 11042`34``

12 8560 20 01008`45`` 12051`19``

13 8580 20 01008`45`` 14000`04``

U 8589.50 9.50 00032`40`` 14032`44``

Intersection method / using two theodolites

Procedure:
Two theodolites are used, one being at each tangent point (T and U)

✓ Locate tangent points T & U on the ground.

✓ At T set a theodolite No1 & site I at 00000`00``.
✓ Calculate the tangent angle α1 for the first sub- chord T-C and set the theodolite to read
α1.
✓ Set theodolite No2 at U and site T at 00000`00`` and turn it to read α1, the intersection of
the lines of sight is a point on the curve (C) and a peg is driven into the ground by an
assistant surveyor.

Note that:

<ITC = <TUC

<ITD = <TUD

<ITE = <TUE

Set other tangential angles on the theodolites and intersection of lines of sight in all cases and
points on the curve.

Advantage of this method over the other method.

It is that, each point on the curve is set out independently.

Disadvantage.

It is that, two theodolites, two surveyors, and two assistants are needed to locate pegs on the
ground.

Linear methods for setting out simple circular curves

❖ Offsets from the tangent lengths / using tapes only

❖ Offsets from the Long Chord / using tapes only

❖ Offsets from the Chords produced / using tapes only

Offsets from the Tangent Lengths

This traditional method requires two tapes or a chain and a tape. It is suitable for short curves and
it may be used to set out additional points between those previously established by the tangential
angles’ method or by coordinate methods. This is often necessary to give a better definition of the
center line. This method is useful in setting Short and/or small-radius curves such as for kerb lines,
bay windows.

Consider figure 4 below.

Figure 4
The position of the curve (in Figure 4) is located by right-angled offsets Y set out from distances
X, measured along each tangent, thereby fixing half the curve from each side. The offsets may be
calculated as follows for a given distance X. Consider offset Y3, for example.

In ∆ABO, 𝐴𝑂2 = 𝑂𝐵 2 − 𝐴𝐵 2

Therefore (𝑅 − 𝑌3 )2 = 𝑅 2 − 𝑋3 2 and
 1
𝑌3 = 𝑅 − (𝑅 2 − 𝑋3 )2

Thus, for any offset𝑌𝑖 at a distance along 𝑋𝑖 the tangent

𝟏
𝒀𝒊 = 𝑹 − (𝑹𝟐 − 𝑿𝒊 )𝟐

❖ Offsets from the Long Chord / using tapes only

Figure 5
In the case of figure 5 above, the right-angled offsets Y are set off from the long chord C, at
distances X to each side of the center offset Y0. An examination of Figure, shows the central offset
Y0 equivalent to the distance T1A on Figure 4; thus:

𝟏
𝒀𝒐 = 𝑹 − (𝑹 − (𝑪⁄𝟐))
𝟐 𝟐

Similarly, DB is equivalent to DB on Figure 8.16, thus:

1
𝐷𝐵 = 𝑅 − (𝑅 2 − 𝑋3 )2 and offset 𝑌1 = 𝑌𝑂 − 𝐷𝐵

Therefore;
1
𝑌1 = 𝑌𝑜 − [𝑅 − (𝑅 2 − 𝑋3 )2 ]

and for any offset Yi at distance Xi each side of the mid-point of T1T2:
 1
mid-point of T1T2: 𝑌1 = 𝑌𝑜 − [𝑅 − (𝑅 2 − 𝑋3 )2 ]

Setting Out Circular Curves by Coordinate Methods

These methods are nowadays used in preference to traditional techniques. In such methods, which
are suitable for all horizontal curves, the National Grid or local coordinates of points on the curve
are calculated and these points are then fixed by either

(1) intersection using two theodolites from two of the control points in the main survey network
surrounding the proposed scheme (see figure 6);

or

(2) bearing and distance (polar rays) using EDM instruments or total stations from control points
in the main survey network (see figure 7).

To fix point A, α is turned off from direction PQ and distance PA measured and to fix point B, β
is turned off and distance PB measured.

Figure 6
Figure 7
For a complete curve, consider figure 8. Points A, B, C, D, E and F are points to be set out at
regular intervals of through chainage on the curve from control points P and Q.

Figure 8 Setting out a complete curve using coordinates

Procedure
(1) Locate T and U as discussed in the previous sections
(2) Obtain coordinates of T and U either by taking intersection observations from P and Q or by
including T and U in a traverse with P and Q.
(3) Calculate chord lengths TA, AB, BC and so on and respective tangential angles as normal.
(4) Calculate bearings TA, AB, BC and so on.
(5) Calculate the coordinates of points A to U from T, treating TABCDEFU as a closed route
traverse.
(6) Derive bearings PA and QA, PB and QB, PC and QC, and so on from their respective
coordinates.
(7) Calculate the lengths PA and QA, PB and QB, PC and QC, and so on from their respective
coordinates.
(8) Set out the curve by either
(i) intersection from P and Q using bearings PA and QA, PB and QB,
and so on; or
(ii) polar rays from P or Q, using bearings PA or QA, PB or QB, and
so on, and lengths PA or QA, PB or QB, and so on.
Summary of Circular Curves

With the current widespread use of highway design software packages, the design of circular
curves tends to be done by computer with the deflection angle and radius value being input and
amended as necessary until a suitable design is finalized.

Of all the various types of horizontal curves available, those with a constant radius are the easiest
to design and have the simplest setting-out calculations. As a result, they tend to be tried first to
see if they are suitable. However, they cannot always be used owing to limitations on their
minimum radii.

If they cannot be used in isolation, circular curves can be combined with transition curves to
form composite curves.