The

MAN & GREE

RO CIVILIZAK
TION
ANCIENT GREEK
CIVILIZATION
Mathematics
It flourished from around 600 BC to 300 AD.
The key centers are Athens, Alexandria, and Syracuse.
Influenced by earlier civilizations, including the Babylonians
and Egyptians.
 KEY FIGURES
Thales of Milatus: often considered the first mathematician; known for
geometry and deductive reasoning.
Pythagoras: Founded a school that explored numbers and
relationships, known for the Pythagorean theorem.
Euclid: Known as the "Father of Geometry"; authored Elements, which
organized and systematized geometric knowledge.
Archimedes: Made significant contributions to geometry, calculus, and
the understanding of the lever.
Apollonius: Known for his work on conic sections.
 Contributions
Geometry: Developed rigorous proofs and theorems, including
concepts of points, lines, angles, and shapes.
Number Theory: Studied properties of numbers, including prime
numbers and perfect numbers.
Trigonometry: Although not fully developed, early concepts related to
angles and circles were explored.
Calculus: Early ideas about limits and infinitesimals, mainly through the
work of Archimedes.
 ARCHITECTURE
The principle of style of Ancient Greek architecture is defined by its simplicity,
proportions, and uniformity.
Ancient Greek architecture is divided into three orders, which are the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian order.
‣ Doric order: It is the simplest style of ancient Greek architecture It features thick
columns with no fancy base and a plain, round top. The columns have vertical grooves and
hold up a structure with a basic design on top. This style is strong and straightforward, often
used in Greek buildings such as the The Parthenon in Athens, Greece, the Temple of Hera at
Olympia, and the Temple of Apollo at Corinth.
‣ Ionic order: It is more decorative than the Doric style, where its columns are thinner,
have a base, and are topped with scroll-like designs called volutes, giving it a more graceful
appearance. This style can be seen in these buildings, such as the Temple of Artemis at
Ephesus and the Temple of Athena Nike in Acropolis, Athens.
 ARCHITECTURE
‣ Corinthian order: It is the most ornate style of Ancient Greek architecture. Its columns
are tall and slender, featuring highly detailed designs on top. The capitals are designed with
leaf patterns often resembling acanthus leaves. It is known for elegance, making it used in
different buildings such as the Library of Celsus in Ephesus.
Greeks primarily used materials like limestone, marble, and terracotta. Marble, especially
from quarries like those in Paros and Pentelicus, was favored for its durability and aesthetic
qualities.
The concept of Entasis was also introduced in Greek architecture, where it is a slight
curvature in columns introduced in architecture to address visual distortion that occurs
when viewing straight columns from a distance.
 ARCHITECTURE
Doric Order Ionic Order Corinthian Order

Parthenon in Athens, Greece Temple of Artemis at Ephesus Library of Celsus in Ephesus

 PHILOSOPHY
Some Greek Philosophers and their Major contributions
Socrates
Socratic Method Plato
Foundation of Western Philosophy and Science.
Founded the Academy of Athens
Aristotle
Empirical approach in studying nature
Founded the Theory of Four Causes
Thales
Water is the only substance that was source of all things.
 PHILOSOPHY
Pythagorean
Contribute to the field of Mathematics
Pythagorean Theorem
Empedocles
Four Fundamental Elements
Democritus
Atomism
Archimedes
Law of Buoyancy
 TRADING SYSTEM
From an early stage in history, many Greeks looked to the sea for their
livelihood. The Greeks usually export goods, such as olive oil, wine, and
textiles.
They used coins as their currency and facilitated in transactions in their
trading.
The central marketplace in Greek cities that was used for trade is called
Agora.
Ancient Greek Religion
RELIGION
Polytheism: Worship of multiple gods and goddesses, each with distinct domains (e.g., Zeus - sky,
Athena - wisdom).
Mythology: Rich narratives explaining the origins and actions of gods, heroes, and the universe.
Rituals and Worship: Practices included sacrifices, festivals (e.g., Olympic Games), and temples
dedicated to deities.

Philosophical Influences
Philosophers: Thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle questioned traditional beliefs, leading to a
blend of rational thought and spirituality.
Mystery Religions: Groups like the Eleusinian Mysteries offered personal salvation and secret rituals.

Modern Greek Religion

Greek Orthodox Church: Predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christianity, influential in culture and society.
Cultural Heritage: Ancient practices and festivals still resonate in modern Greek customs and
celebrations.
 ARTS & SCULPTURES
Ancient Greek arts & sculptures are divided into various periods:
‣ Geometric period: It is characterized by simple designs of shapes and patterns in
pottery and sculptures. Some examples of this are the Krater and Protocorinthian Amphora.
‣ Archaic Period: It featured life-sized statues of men and women and the
development of black figure pottery technique. One example of this is the Peplos Kore.
‣ Classical Period: It is marked by naturalism and realism creating dynamic and
expressive works. Some of this famous sculptures are the Discobolus and the Aphrodite of
Knidos.
‣ Hellenistic Period: It emphasizes emotional expression and complex poses. Example
of this are the Venus de Milo, Laocoon and his sons, and the Dying Gaul.
 ARTS & SCULPTURES

Peplos Kore (Archaic Period) Discobolus (Classical Period) Venus de Milo (Hellenistic Period)
 Theater
It serves as a form of entertainment, education and religious
ritual.
There are three main type of Greek theater:
‣ Tragedy: deals with serious themes such as human
suffering, fate and consequences of hubris.
‣ Comedy: Often satirical, humorous and poking fun at
social and political issues.
‣ Satyr plays: - A combined element of tragedy and
comedy.
 Theater
Amphitheater was a large, open space
structure consist of seating areas
(theatron).
The place where they perform is called
orchestra.
The building located behind the
orchestra is called skene.
The Roman version of the theater was
inspired from Greek.
 Weapons
Spears
also known as dory or doru
Ranged Weapon
2-3 meters long with a leaf-shaped blade Bow: made out of wood, surrounded by
on one end and a short spike on the other. a sheath, horn or sinew.
usually made out of iron or bronze Javelin: were light spears around 1.5 m
long used to throw at opponents on the
Sword battlefield that has a bronze point.
Slings are made of cords and leather.
also known as Xiphos
a double-edged sword and a leaf shaped
blade that measures 0.5 meters long.
 Armor
Shield
An ancient Greek shield is called aspis
A large round shield made out of layers Body Armour
of wood, leather and bronze and Designed to protect soldiers from enemy
measures a meter in diameter. weapons and provide them with tactical
Pelte or wicker shield is a lighter advancements.
Ancient Greek soldiers is known for
Helmet heavy armor particularly hoplites
There are various types of helmets: Showcase social status
Corinthian helmet
Chalcidian helmet
Thracian helmet
 Government
Ancient Greek Government Modern Greek Government
Monarchy: Early city-states, like Mycenae, were Executive: The President is a ceremonial head of
ruled by kings with centralized power. state, while the Prime Minister, as head of
Oligarchy: In places like Sparta, a small group of government, leads the administration.
elites, including two kings and a council, held Legislative: The Hellenic Parliament is unicameral
power. with 300 members elected for four years,
Tyranny: Tyrants seized power by force or popular responsible for making laws and approving budgets.
support, often ruling without legal authority. Judicial: The judiciary is independent, with the
Democracy: Athens developed a direct democracy Council of State and Supreme Court as the highest
where male citizens voted in an assembly on laws courts.
and decisions. Political System: Greece has a multi-party system,
Aristocracy: Cities like Corinth were governed by with major parties like New Democracy and SYRIZA.
noble families, passing power through hereditary Local Government: Divided into Regions and
lines. Municipalities, handling local services and regional
development.
ANCIENT ROMAN
CIVILIZATION
 Mathematics
The Romans used numbers in their everyday living. Around 9th
to 8th century BC, Romans began to use a number system that
was named after them, the Roman numerals, that were
developed out of the necessity for a common method of
counting.
 ROMAN CITIES
Forum - The forum was the heart of any Roman city. It was a large public square used for
political gatherings, religious ceremonies, and as a marketplace.
Basilica - basilica was a public building used during the Roman empire. It served as a law
court, marketplace, and a space for public business and administration.
Law Courts - Law courts were specifically designated for legal proceedings and judicial
matters. They were often housed within basilicas or nearby public buildings.
Markets - Roman cities had organized markets where goods like food, clothing, and crafts
were sold. These markets were often located near the forum and basilica, making trade easy
and accessible for citizens.
Latrines - Latrines in Roman cities were public restrooms, widely used and highly advanced for
their time. They were designed to accommodate multiple people at once, often in a
communal setting, with rows of seats over a flowing water system that carried waste away.
 ROMAN CITIES
Public baths - Roman public baths, or thermae, were more than places to bathe—they were
social and cultural hubs. Citizens gathered here to relax, exercise, and socialize.
Colonnades - Colonnades were rows of columns creating covered walkways, protecting
pedestrians from sun and rain. They were common along streets and in public spaces.
Fountains - Fountains were not just decorative; they also provided fresh drinking water from the
city’s aqueducts. They were often found in public squares.
 ROMAN CITIES

Roman Forum Basilica Corte Suprema di Cassazione

 Language
The influence of the ancient Roman language extends far beyond
popular phrases and into the fields of health and science. Latin is the
foundation of scientific and medical terminology, serving as a
universal language for researchers and professionals worldwide.
Many English words are derived from Latin, especially those used in
fields like science, medicine, law, and literature.
 ROMAN
ACQUEDUCTS
Ancient Roman aqueducts were built to convey water from far away springs and
mountains into cities and towns through gravity.
The water through the aqueducts supplied the city’s fountains, gardens, baths, and
houses of wealthy Romans as well as agricultural lands.
Romans first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia.
Other ancient civilizations also used aqueducts, but due to extensive use of water in the
city, the Roman aqueducts system was considered to be the most remarkable due to
high efficiency of transporting water.
AQUEDUCTS
 ARCHITECTURE
Roman Architecture continued the legacy left by Greek architects and the established
architectural orders, which are the Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian.
The Romans perfected the use of the arch, which allowed for the construction of larger and
more stable structures.
Romans were pioneers in the construction of domes, exemplified by the Pantheon with its
massive coffered dome.
Building Materials:
‣ Long before the use of concrete, the Romans made use of native volcanic stone called tufa
to construct buildings.
‣ Travertine white limestone was utilized in the late 2nd century BCE because of its durability;
also, its off-white color look made it an acceptable substitute for marble.
‣ Sun-dried and fire-dried mud bricks were also used but those dried in fire had the advantage
of durability and could be carved just like stone to resemble standard architectural features.
 NEW ORDERS
Ancient Rome architectural orders were influenced by the Greeks, The Romans introduced 2
more orders. The creation of the Tuscan and Composite orders was a significant development in
ancient Roman architecture, driven by their desire for innovation, expression of power, aesthetic
appeal, design versatility, and the socio-political context of the time.
‣ Tuscan Order: is one of the five classical orders of architecture, primarily associated with
the Roman interpretation of the Doric order. Its features are typically shorter and sturdier than other
orders, its capital is simple and minimalistic; usually a plain slab or a slightly rounded top.
‣ Composite Order: is a later development that combines elements from both the Ionic
and Corinthian orders. Its column is taller and more slender than the Tuscan order. Its capitals
feature a blend of Ionic volutes (scroll-like ornaments) and Corinthian acanthus leaves, resulting in a
highly decorative appearance.
 TUSCAN ORDER

Colonnades
COMPOSITE ORDER

Arch of Titus
WELL KNOWN
ARCHITECTURE
 THE PANTHEON
Temple of the Roman gods, The Pantheon has one of the most perfect interior
spaces ever constructed. The most fascinating part of the Pantheon is its giant
dome, with its famous hole in the top (The eye of the Pantheon, or oculus).
The dome was the largest in the world for 1300 years and to present remains
the largest unsupported dome in the world. Its diameter is 43.30 meters (or
142 ft.). Since 609 AD it became a catholic church it is called the Basilica
Santa Maria ad Martyres or Basilica of St. Mary and the Martyrs.
 THE COLOSSEUM
A giant amphitheater built in Rome under the Flavian emperors. It is an
elliptical structure made of stone, concrete, and tuff, and it stands four
stories tall at its highest point. It could hold as many as 50,000
spectators. The Colosseum was famously used for gladiatorial combat.
 RELIGION
The Roman Empire was a primarily polytheistic civilization, which meant that
people recognized and worshiped multiple gods and goddesses. These gods
included Jupiter (king of the gods), Juno (goddess of marriage), Mars (god of war),
and Venus (goddess of love).
Christianity - Christianity originated in the 1st century CE as a sect of Judaism,
centered around the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. After Jesus' crucifixion, his
followers, including the apostles, spread his teachings throughout Judea and
beyond, particularly in key cities like Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome. In 380 CE,
Emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity the official state religion of the Roman
Empire through the Edict of Thessalonica (a significant declaration that established
Christianity as the official state religion of the Roman Empire)
 WEAPONS
Weapons at the time of the roman empire were varied and sophisticated,
reflecting the military prowess and technological advancements of the time.
Caltrop - A spiked device used to slow down enemy cavalry or infantry by
puncturing their feet. Deployed on battlefields and roads to create hazards for
pursuing enemies. Here are some contributions of caltrop:
‣ Caltrop has evolved from a historical weapon of war to a multifaceted tool
with applications in military and law enforcement.
‣ Modern law enforcement agencies utilize spiked devices similar to
caltrops, known as "spike strips," to stop fleeing vehicles.
‣ Caltrops are still used in modern military strategies and tactics to impede
enemy movement, particularly in conflict zones.