Lab Manual

Applied Physics Lab (GS-102L)

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
International Islamic University, Islamabad

Name: ____________________________________________

Reg. No: __________________________________________

 Course Learning Outcomes
Pre-requisite: None
Credit Hours: 01
Contact Hours: 45
Course Learning Outcomes:

Upon successful completion of the course, the student should be able to:

Sr. CLOs Statements PLO Level

Perform experiment to find spring constant, unknown weight, coefficient
1 4 P2
of friction and other variables related to applied physics lab

2 Understand the fundamentals of different parameters of applied physics lab 4 C2

3 Contribute to experiment by working individually and in a group 9 A2

CLOS MAPPING
PLOs
Environment and Sustainability

Individual and Team Work

The Engineer and Society
Design / Development of
Engineering knowledge

Project Management
Modern Tool usage

Lifelong Learning
Problem Analysis

CLOs
Communication
Investigation
Solutions

Ethics

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CLO-1 P2
CLO-2 C2
CLO-3 A2
 Course Breakdown
Sr. Contact
Objective Hours
No

1 Introduction to Applied Physics Lab, CLOs, PLOs, Rubrics and Learning Domain 3
To Measure Length, External and Internal Diameter in Metric Units Using Vernier
2 3
Caliper
To Measure Length, External and Internal Diameter in British Units Using Vernier
3 3
Caliper

4 To Find the Diameter of a Given Object Using Screw Gauge 3

5 To Find the Unknown Weight using Rectangular Component Method 3

6 To Find the Unknown Weight using Law of Parallelogram of Vector Addition 3

7 To Verify the Hook’s Law and Find the Stiffness of Helical Spring 3

8 To Find the Modulus of Rigidity of Helical Spring 3

9 To Determine Co-efficient of Friction of Different Materials on a Straight Surface 3

10 To Determine Co-efficient of Friction of Different Materials on an Inclined Surface 3

11 To Determine the Time Period of Simple Pendulum 3

12 To Resolve Combination of Static Force Using Rectangular Component Method 3

13 To Resolve Combination of Static Force Using Law of Polygon 3

14 Relationship Between Linear and Angular Velocity 3

 Experiment No. 1

Objective: To Measure Length, External and Internal Diameter in Metric Units Using
Vernier Caliper

Theory:
Vernier calipers is a device which is used to measure the internal and external diameter of a
tube, the external diameter of a sphere, depth of a vessel, the diameter of thick wires and
cylinders. Typical Vernier calipers consist of a steel strip which is generally marked in
centimeter and millimeter along its lower edge this is a fixed scale called the main scale. The
end of the main scale is provided with a fixed jaw forming external jaw on the lower side and
internal jaw on the upper side. A sliding frame with graduation on the lower side slides over
the main scale. This sliding scale is called the Vernier scale. The inside end of a Vernier scale
is provided with a fixed jaw forming external jaw on the lower side and internal jaw on the
upper side. Generally, the Vernier scale is provided with N divisions matching with (N – 1)
divisions of the main scale.

Internal / Lower jaws= used to measure external diameter/ width

External / Upper jaws= used to measure internal gaps/ internal diameters
Depth probe= extendable, used to measure depths
Metric scale= gives measurements of up to one decimal place (millimeters).
Inch scale= gives measurements in fraction (Inches).
Vernier scale= gives measurements up to two decimal places (millimeters).
Vernier scale= gives measurements in fractions. (Inches)
Knob= Used to allow the easy movement of the jaws.
Screw clamp= used to lock the position of the Vernier scale.
Least Count of Vernier Scale (L.C):

The minimum length that can be measured using the Vernier calipers is called its least count.
Least count is mostly represented as L.C.

Zero Errors of Vernier Caliper:

When the two jaws of Vernier calipers are made to touch each other, then the zero on the main
scale should match with a zero on the Vernier scale. If both zeroes coincide each other than it
has No Zero Error.

However due to wear and tear or manufacturing defect the two zeroes usually do not coincide
with each other, then the Vernier is said to have zero error. There are two types of zero errors.

Positive Zero Error:

If on bringing both the jaws together, the zero mark of the Vernier scale is on the right side of
a zero mark of the main scale, then the zero error is said to be positive.
Positive Zero Error Correction:

To find positive zero error, note the division on the Vernier scale (V.S.R.) coinciding with the
division on the main scale. Then the positive error is equal to the product of the number of
division on Vernier scale matching with main scale division and the least count of the Vernier.
To get correct reading this error is to be subtracted from the overall reading.

Negative Zero Error:

If on bringing both the jaws together, the zero mark of the Vernier scale is on the left side of a
zero mark of the main scale, then the zero error is said to be negative.

Negative Zero Error Correction:

To find a negative zero error, note the division on the Vernier scale (V.S.R.) coinciding with
the division on the main scale. Subtract this number from a total number of divisions on the
Vernier scale to obtain V.S.R. Then the negative error is equal to the product of V.S.R. and the
least count of the Vernier. To get correct reading this error is to be added to the overall reading.

Procedure:
As we are directed to measure Length, External and Internal diameter in Metric Units.
Therefore first we have to define Metric units.

Metric Unit:

The metric system is a system of measurement that succeeded the decimalized system based
on the meter introduced in France in the 1790s. The historical development of these systems
culminated in the definition of the International System of Units, under the oversight of an
international standards body. The SI system, also called the metric system, is used around the
world. There are seven basic units in the SI system: the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), the second
(s), the kelvin (K), the ampere (A), the mole (mol), and the candela (cd). In the metric system
of measurement of Length, the most common units of distance are millimeters, centimeters,
meters, and kilometers.

Measuring Length of an Object by Using Vernier Caliper in Metric Units:

1- Before taking any measurement check for Zero error by closing the jaws.
2- Hold the object whose length is to be measured in the external jaws of the calipers with
gentle pressure.
3- Now tighten the locking screw with gentle force.
4- Note the reading on the main scale that lies just to the left of the Vernier scale zero
mark. This is the Main Scale Reading (M.S.R.).
5- Now look for the mark on the Vernier scale which lines up with a mark on the main
scale. Count the number of divisions up to that mark. This is known as the Vernier
Coincidence which is denoted by n.
6- Multiply the Vernier coincidence (n) with the least count (L.C.) to get the Vernier Scale
Reading (V.S.R.) i.e. (V.S.R =n*L.C.)
7- Now find the Total reading (T.R) by adding the Vernier Scale reading to the Main Scale
Reading.
8- Subtract the zero error with a proper sign from above reading to get the correct reading
if there is a Zero Error in Vernier Caliper.
9- Calculation of the Length of the cylinder.
To eliminate any possible sources of error we must repeat our measurements holding the
cylinder from a slightly different point between the jaws. Note down the values of Main Scale
Reading, Vernier Coincidence and Vernier Scale Reading. Repeat all steps 3 times and then
find out the average value of the Length of given object by adding 3 final readings and then
divide it by 3.
Measuring External Diameter of an Object by Using Vernier Caliper in Metric Units:
The procedure for measuring the diameter of object is almost similar to finding the length of
an object. Both are measured using outer / lower jaws. Let’s discuss the procedure of finding
internal diameter using Vernier caliper.
 Measuring Internal Diameter of an Object by Using Vernier Caliper in Metric Units:

Measuring the internal diameter follows the same procedure but this time the smaller jaws are
used by putting them inside. Insert the upper/Internal jaws inside the object whose internal
diameter has to be measured. Now tighten the locking screw with gentle force.

Measuring Depth Using Vernier Caliper in Metric Units:

1- Turn thumb screw to extend depth rod.
2- Move the thumb screw gradually until the end of the end of the beam scale makes
contact with the top of the hole.
3- Position the rod so that it is flat against both the bottom of the hole and an internal
side of the hole.
4- Turn the lock screw to tighten the jaws so that you can remove your object and take
your reading.
5- Read the measured value according to the procedure explained.

Readings:
No. of Corrected
Smallest Main
Divisions Least Vernier Total (Adjustm
Division Scale Average
Parameter on Count Scale Reading ent for
on Main Reading (mm)
Vernier (mm) Reading (mm) Zero
Scale (mm)
Scale Error)

External
Diameter

Length

Internal
Diameter

Depth
Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 2

Objective: To Measure Length, External and Internal Diameter in British Units Using
Vernier Caliper

Theory:
Explanation of Vernier Caliper’s construction, its usage and other important points has been
provided in experiment no. 1. The procedure of taking readings in imperial units is similar to
metric units but we will look into the details about how to take readings in imperial units to
guide you in more detail about this system of units.

Procedure:
Measurement Using Vernier Caliper in Imperial Units:
1- When taking a measurement, you should first read the value on the main scale. On an
imperial Vernier caliper, this will be given in inches and tenths of an inch. The smallest

value that can read from the main scale is 0.025 inches (indicated by a single
increment).

2- The value on the main scale is the number immediately to the left of the 0 marker of
the Vernier scale. In this instance, this value is 0.4 inches. As the zero is half way
 between 0.4 and 0.425, we know that the distance between the jaws is somewhere
between these two values.

3- Next, look at the Vernier scale. The Vernier scale of an imperial caliper has a measuring
range of 0.025 inches, and is graduated in 25 increments. Each increment represents
0.001 inches (a thousandth of an inch).

4- When reading the Vernier scale, identify the increment that lines up most accurately
with an increment on the main scale. This value will make up the second part of your

measurement. In the example, the increments of both scales coincide at 17 thousandths

of an inch (0.017).

5- To get your total reading, add both the value from the main scale and the value from
the Vernier scale together e.g. 0.4 + 0.017 = 0.417. So, the distance between the jaws
of the Vernier caliper is 0.417 inches.

Rest of the procedure for measuring length, external diameter, internal diameter and
depth are same and have been explained in the preceding experiment.
 Readings:
No. of Corrected
Smallest Main
Divisions Least Vernier Total (Adjustm
Division Scale Average
Parameter on Count Scale Reading ent for
on Main Reading (mm)
Vernier (mm) Reading (mm) Zero
Scale (mm)
Scale Error)

External
Diameter

Length

Internal
Diameter

Depth

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 3

Objective: To Find the Diameter of a Given Object Using Screw Gauge

Theory:
Screw gauge has more precision than the Vernier caliper. There are two types of motions that
occur in a screw gauge; one is circular and the other is a linear motion of the screw along its
axis. The distance moved by the screw in one complete rotation of the screw equals the distance
between the two consecutive threads of the screw gauge. This distance is called ‘Pitch’ and it
is always a constant value. Since the linear motion (the small distances) made by the screw
gauge is hard to be measured so these linear distances are amplified into larger distances by the
rotational motion of the screw. These rotations are easily measurable.

In the above figure, we can see a U-shaped frame. On the right side of this frame, we have a
net that is called a sleeve. The readings on the sleeve measure the linear distance moved by the
screw; this scale is called the ‘linear scale’ or the ‘pitch scale’. On the left side of the U-shape,
there is a metal projection called ‘stud’. When this screw is moved forward, the stud and the
screw together hold the object firmly (whose diameter is being measured). The screw is moved
back and forth using ratchet.
Pitch:
We can determine the pitch by rotating the circular scale to reach the zero mark on the reference
line. Hence, pitch is the linear distance moved by the spindle when the screw is given one full
rotation.
Least Count of the Screw Gauge (L.C):
Least count of screw gauge can be found using the following expression.
 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Zero Error of a Screw Gauge:
If the zero of the circular scale coincides with the main scale axis when the plane surface of the
screw and stud are brought into contact then there is no zero error. If No, then there is a zero
error which can be of two types.
Positive Zero Error:
When the zero of circular scale lies below the zero or axis of main scale, the zero error will be
positive. This reading must be subtracted from total reading to get the correct reading.

Negative Zero Error:

When the zero of circular scale lies above the zero or axis of main scale, the zero error will be
negative. This reading must be added to total reading to get the correct reading.

Procedure:
1- Find the value of one linear/main scale division (L.S.D).
2- Determine and record the pitch and least count of the screw gauge.
3- To find the zero error, bring the plane face of screw and stud in contact with each other.
Record zero error as nil if there is no error.
4- Now hold the work piece, whose dimension is being measured, between the plane face
of screw and stud using the ratchet head and stop when ratchet turns without moving
the screw.
5- Linear scale reading (L.S.R) is recorded by noting down the no. of visible and
uncovered divisions of linear scale.
6- Let n be the no. of divisions of the circular scale lying on the reference line.
 7- Find the total reading using formula
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 × 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
And also zero correction.
8- Repeat the same procedure thrice for the same work piece to eliminate error. Take
average of for final reading

Readings:
No. of Corrected
Main
Pitch of Divisions Least Circular Total (Adjustm
Scale Average
Parameter Screw on Count Scale Reading ent for
Reading (mm)
Gauge Circular (mm) Reading (mm) Zero
(mm)
Scale Error)

Dimension

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 4

Objective: To Find the Unknown Weight Using Rectangular Components Method

Theory:
All measurable quantities can be classified as either a scalar or a vector. A scalar has only
magnitude while a vector has both magnitude and direction. Examples of scalar quantities are
the number of students in a class, the mass of an object, or the speed of an object, to name a
few. Velocity, force, and acceleration are examples of vector quantities. The statement "a car
is traveling at 60 mph" tells us how fast the car is traveling but not the direction in which it is
traveling. In this case, we know the speed of the car to be 60 mph. On the other hand, the
statement "a car traveling at 60 mph due east" gives us not only the speed of the car but also
the direction. In this case the velocity of the car is 60 mph due east and this is a vector quantity.
Unlike scalar quantities that are added arithmetically, addition of vector quantities involves
both magnitude and direction. In this lab we will use a force table to determine the resultant of
two or more force vectors and learn to add vectors using graphical as well as analytical
methods.
As mentioned above, a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction. A vector is usually
represented by an arrow, where the direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector,
and the length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector. In mathematical equations
a vector is represented as⃗⃗⃗𝐴. In some textbooks a vector is represented
by a bold face letter A. The negative of a vector A is a vector of the
same length but with a direction opposite to that of A as shown.

The Cartesian coordinate system is used for graphical representation of vectors. The tail of the
vector is placed on the origin and the direction of the vector is defined by an angle, θ (theta),
between the positive x-axis and the vector as shown.
Components of Vectors:
An important technique when working with vectors mathematically is to break them down into
their x and y components. In this example, we will consider the position vector A directed at
an angle of 30° from the positive x-axis and having a magnitude of 8.0 miles. From the head
of the vector draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis and a second line perpendicular to the y-
axis. We refer to these lines as the projections of the vector on to the x- and y-axes. The
projection of the vector on to the y-axis gives the magnitude of the x-component of the vector
and the projection of the vector on the x-axis gives the magnitude of the y-component.

Note that Ax and Ay form two sides of a rectangle with the vector as the diagonal of the
rectangle.
In the figure below we have a right triangle in which the vector is the hypotenuse, the side
parallel to the x-axis is the x-component of the vector, and the side parallel to the y-axis is the
y-component of the vector. Note that both (a & b) are equivalent.

Finding components given the magnitude and direction of the vector:

We know the direction of the Ax and Ay vectors, but to find their magnitudes we need to use
some trigonometric identities. In the figure below, hypotenuse represents the magnitude of the
vector ⃗⃗⃗𝐴 and the other two sides of the right triangle represent the x and y components of the
vector⃗⃗⃗𝐴.

Finding unknown weight using Gravesand’s apparatus:

The picture of the apparatus is given below. First of all, the weight R (unknown weight) at the

center O is applied which is balanced with the help of weight P and Q. The condition of static
equilibrium (∑Fx=0, ∑Fy=0, ∑Fz=0) are then used to find the unknown weight as given.

∑Fx=0 Qx - Px = 0

∑Fy=0 Py + Qy = R where Qx=Q cos (angle) and Qy=Q sin (angle)

Procedure:
1- Set the apparatus and make sure that the center of ring at point O lies on the point
marked on the apparatus.
2- Apply the unknown weight
3- Balance the unknown weight using other two weights
4- Note down the angles of both weights using the compass mounted on apparatus.
5- Resolve vector P and Q into rectangular components.
6- Apply the condition of static equilibrium to find the unknown weight.
Readings:
Calculated Applied
Sr. No F1 (N) Θ1 F2 (N) Θ2 Error
Weight (N) Weight (N)
1

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 5

Objective: To Find the Unknown Weight using Law of Parallelogram of Vector Addition

Theory:
Law of Parallelogram:

The Law of Parallelogram states that “If two vectors acting simultaneously on a particle are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn
from a point, then their resultant is completely represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of that parallelogram drawn from that point.”
Parallelogram Law of Vectors explained:
Let two vectors P and Q act simultaneously on a particle o at an angle θ. They are represented
in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides OA and OB of a parallelogram OACB drawn
from a point O. Then the diagonal OC passing through O will represent the resultant R in
magnitude and direction.
On Gravesand’s apparatus, if the body of unknown weight (R) is suspended from the middle
hanger and balancing weights P and Q are suspended from other two hangers then,
R=P+Q

OR
R = [P2 + Q2 +2PQcos θ] 1/2 ∴ Equation 1
The unknown weight can be calculated by addition of rectangular components using conditions
of static equilibrium (done in preceding experiment) or from Equation 1 or using graphical
method.

Procedure (Graphical Method):

1- Set the apparatus and make sure that the center of ring at point O lies on the point
marked on the apparatus.
2- Apply the unknown weight R.
3- Balance the unknown weight using other two weights i.e. P and Q.
4- Note down the angles of both weights using the compass mounted on apparatus.
5- Now construct a parallelogram (do proper scaling such as 1N=1cm) corresponding to
weights P and Q. The diagonal of parallelogram will give the resultant vector (weight
of the unknown body)

Readings:

Calculated Applied
Sr. No F1 (N) Θ1 F2 (N) Θ2 Error
Weight (N) Weight (N)

3
Draw parallelogram here:

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 6

Objective: To Verify the Hook’s Law and Find the stiffness of helical spring

Theory:
Helical spring is the most commonly used mechanical spring in which a wire is wrapped in a
coil that resembles a screw thread. It can be designed to carry, pull, or push loads. Twisted
helical (torsion) springs are used in engine starters and hinges.
Let’s study how we can use the helical spring to do our experiment. The helical spring is
suspended vertically from a rigid support. The pointer is attached horizontally to the free end
of spring. A meter scale is kept vertically in such a way that the tip of the pointer is over the
divisions of the scale; but does not touch the scale.

Helical spring works on the principle of Hooke’s Law. Hooke’s Law states that within the limit
of elasticity, stress applied is directly proportional to the strain produced.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
When a load ‘F’ is attached to the free end of a spring, then the spring elongates through a
distance ‘x’ .Here ‘x’ is known as the extension produced. According to Hooke’s Law “the
restoring force is a linear function of the displacement from equilibrium”.
𝐹∝𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Where ‘k’ is constant of proportionality. It is called the force constant or the spring constant of
the spring.
Procedure:
1- Suspend mass on a spring hung vertically.
2- Spring will deform due to force (weight) applied on the spring.
3- Note down the initial reading of a pointer on linear scale before applying the load and
take it zero or keep subtracting it from all the values.
4- Note down the reading of spring displacement after applying loads.
5- Keep increasing the load and record the position of pointer attached to the spring.
6- Repeat the process in loading and unloading of spring.
7- Plot the relationship between force and displacement.
8- Connect the data points and see the results whether they are following the linear
relationship.
9- Please discuss the reasons if some non-linearity exists in the data.

Readings:

X in Loading X in Unloading Average X

Sr No. Force (N) K (N/mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 7

Objective: To Verify the Hook’s Law and Find the stiffness of helical spring

Theory:
Springs are elastic, which means after they are deformed (when they are being stressed or
compressed), they return to their original shape. Springs are in many objects we use on a daily
basis. They in ball point pens, mattresses, trampolines, and absorb shock in our bikes and cars.
Springs obey Hooke’s Law, discovered by Robert Hooke in the 17th century. Hook’s law can
be described as:
𝐹∝𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥

Where F is the force exerted on the spring in Newton’s (N), 𝑘 is the spring constant (N/m) and
x is the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position. The spring constant, k, is
representative of how stiff the spring is. Stiffer (more difficult to stretch) springs have higher
spring constants.

Modulus of Rigidity:
The modulus of rigidity, also known as shear modulus, is defined as a material property with a
value equal to the shear stress divided by the shear strain.
Modulus of rigidity is the ability of body to withstand or bear shear stress. When a load in
applied on a spring, both compressive and shear stresses are generated in the material of the
spring.
Modulus of rigidity of spring can be given as
G=64 k R3 N/d4
Where
G = Modulus of rigidity
K = Spring constant
R = Mean radius of the spring
N = No. of turns of the spring
D = Diameter of spring’s coil

Procedure:
1- If you know the value of spring constant, please go to point no. 2. And if the value of k
is not known, repeat the procedure of experiment no. 6 to find it out using Hook’s law.
2- Use Vernier Caliper to find the mean radius of the spring which can be given as
Mean Radius = Outer Radius of Spring - Radius of Spring’s Coil
3- Count the no. of turns of the spring.
4- Use the formula given above to find the modulus of rigidity of the spring.

Readings:

Spring no. N R (m) d(m) k (N/m) G=64kR3N/d4

Spring-1

Spring-2

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 8

Objective: To Determine co-efficient of friction of different materials on a straight surface

Theory:
Friction is the force that resist the sliding or rolling of a solid object over another. The major
causes of friction between different surfaces appears to be the force of attraction known as
adhesion, between the contact regions of the surfaces, which are always microscopically
irregular. When friction act between two surfaces that are moving over each other, some kinetic
energy is transformed into heat energy .Friction can sometimes be useful.
SI Unit:
Friction is also a type of force that the surface applies on the body. As the unit of force is
Newton (N), the SI unit of friction is also Newton (N).
Formula:
F=μ*N
Friction depends upon the materials that are in contact i.e. the two materials and the nature of
their surfaces
Examples:
1- When a football is moving on a flat ground and there is no external force acting on it,
it eventually comes to rest this is because of friction.
2- When we are holding a bottle in our hands it does not slip through our hands because
of friction.
3- When you are walking on a plane surface and it is wet there a chance that you can might
slip the answer is that the friction becomes less on the surface because the surface is
wet and it offers less friction.
Role of Friction:
Friction can be a useful force because it plays an important role in our daily life. We can’t walk
on a frictionless surface, bricks will not work if there is no friction, holding things, writing,
grinding, igniting a match stick all these are possible in the presence of friction.
Applications:
1- While walking friction gives the required reaction so we can move forward or
backward.
2- Packing, tightening, bandaging, is possible due to friction.
 3- It is also the friction between the tires and the road that allows the car to stop while
applying the brakes etc.
Principle:
The limiting friction is the least force required to move the body from the rest. If ‘F’ be the
limiting friction and ‘N’ be the normal reaction than ‘F’ is directly proportional to ‘N’.
F∝N
Therefore;
F=μ*N
μ=F/N

Where μ = coefficient of friction

Co-efficient of friction (μ) is the measure of friction on the types of material that are in contact.

Procedure:
Here we are stating the relationship between the force of limiting friction (F) and the normal
reaction (N) and finding the co-efficient of friction (μ) when two different materials are in
contact on the horizontal plane.
1- Set the slider and the pulley of the apparatus. Make sure that the level gauge shows the
surface to be plane i.e. angle with horizontal axis is zero.
2- Fix a material in the slider.
3- Note the weight of slider, material and weight hanger.
4- Put the weight in the hanger and increase the weight until the slider starts to move i.e.
applied force become equal to frictional force.
5- Note the weight on which it starts sliding.
6- Find the co-efficient of friction for that material and take at least three readings for same
material to eliminate the error.
 7- Repeat the process for different material in order to find their co-efficient of friction.

Readings:
Material 1: Material 1:
Average Average
S. No _______________________ _________________________
μ μ
F N μ F N μ

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 9

Objective: To Determine the Co-efficient of Friction of Different Materials on an Inclined

Surface

Theory:
There are two methods to find the coefficient of friction.
1- Method of Straight Surface
2- Method of Inclined Surface
Method of straight surface has been discussed in experiment no. 8. Let’s discuss the second
method.
Coefficient of Friction on Inclined Plane:
Consider a mass “m” lying on an inclined plane. If the direction of motion of the mass is down
the plane, then the frictional force F will act up the plane as shown.

Where;

N = Normal force exerted on the body by the plane due to the force of gravity i.e. mg cos θ

F = Frictional force

mg = mass . gravity
The weight of the mass is mg and this will cause another two forces to act on itself, these being
N and mg sin θ.
Forces up the plane = Forces down the plane
F = mg sin θ
Forces up = Forces down
N = mg cos θ
If we divide the above two equations, we get;
F/N= tan θ
Hence; μ=tan θ
Procedure:
1- Set the slider in the apparatus.
2- Fix a material in the slides.
3- Now incline the surface at an angle and start increasing the angle.
4- Note the angle on which the material tends to move.
5- Take at least three readings to eliminate the error.
6- Change the material and repeat the procedure.

Readings:
Material 1: Material 1:
Average Average
S. No _______________________ _________________________
μ μ
θ μ=tan θ θ μ=tan θ

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 10

Objective: To Determine the Time Period of a Simple Pendulum

Theory:
A simple pendulum may be described ideally as a point mass suspended by a massless string
from some point about which it is allowed to swing back and forth in a place. A simple
pendulum can be approximated by a small metal sphere which has a small radius and a large
mass when compared relatively to the length and mass of the light string from which it is
suspended. If a pendulum is set in motion so that is swings back and forth, its motion will be
periodic.

The time that it takes to make one complete oscillation is defined as the time period T of the
pendulum. Another useful quantity used to describe periodic motion is the frequency of
oscillation. The frequency f of the oscillations is the number of oscillations that occur per unit
time and is the inverse of the period, f = 1/T. Similarly, the time period is the inverse of the
frequency, T = l/f. The maximum distance that the mass is displaced from its equilibrium
position is defined as the amplitude of the oscillation.
Theoretically, the period of a pendulum is independent of its mass, and depends on length
according to the power-law relationship where T is the period of oscillation and L is the length.
𝑇 ∝ √𝐿

Hence formula for the time period of simple pendulum can be given as;

𝐿
𝑇 = 2π√
𝑔
Keep in mind that the length of the simple pendulum is the distance from the point of
suspension to the center of the ball.

Procedure:
1- The simple pendulum is composed of a small spherical ball suspended by a long, light
string which is attached to a support stand by a string clamp. The string should be
approximately 125 cm long for larger length.
2- Use a Vernier caliper to measure the diameter d of the spherical ball and from this
calculate its radius r. Record the values of the diameter and radius in meters.
3- Note the length of pendulum by adding radius of the bob (spherical ball) to the length
of string.
4- Displace the pendulum and start the stopwatch when you release it.
5- Count for ten oscillations and stop the stopwatch.
6- Divide the time by 10 to get the time period of simple pendulum.
7- For the next reading, decrease the length by 15-20 cm and repeat the same process to
find the time period of simple pendulum.

Readings:

Sr. No Length (m) Theoretic T Experimental T Error (%)

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 11

Objective: To Resolve Combination of Static Force Using Rectangular Component Method

(Analytical Method)

Theory:
The purpose of this part of the experiment is to show how a single force may be resolved into
two mutually perpendicular components which together may be regarded as equivalent to the
given force.
As shown in figure, a force vector v can be resolved along mutually perpendicular x- and y-
axes. By drawing perpendicular lines from the tip of the force vector v to the axes, the
projections vx and vy along the x- and y-axes are the rectangular components of the vector v.

The combined effect of vx along x-axis and vy along y-axis is the same as that of v.

If there is more than one force acting on an object, all the forces can be resolved in rectangular
components. The sum of all the x-components will be the x-component of the resultant force
and the sum of the y-components will be the y-component of the resultant.
The apparatus contain circular table stand, labeled in degrees, ring and pin for centering five
pulleys and five weight-hangers.

Procedure:
Rectangular resolution and equilibrium of coplanar forces:
1- First of all, make sure that the disc is properly centralized around the rod.
2- Now, apply the first weight on any of the weight hanger
3- Balance the applied weight the help of other four weights.
4- Note all the angles and weights applied.
5- Draw a free body diagram showing all the forces and their respective angles as shown
6- Resolve each force into its rectangular components
7- Use condition of static equilibrium (∑Fx=0, ∑Fy=0) to find the sum of forces in X and
Y direction to find the resultant.
 8- If the forces are in static equilibrium, the sum of forces must be zero. If not, please state
the errors that caused a non-zero answer.

Readings:

Sr. Force 1 Force 2 Force 3 Force 4 Force 5

No
Value Angle Value Angle Value Angle Value Angle Value Angle

∑Fx = ___________________________

∑Fy = ___________________________

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 12

Objective: To Resolve Combination of Static Force Using Law of Polygon (Graphical

Method)

Theory:
The apparatus contain circular table stand, labeled in degrees, ring and pin for centering five
pulleys and five weight-hangers.

Law of Polygon:
The Law of Polygon of Forces states that –“If number of coplanar concurrent forces acting
simultaneously on a body be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of polygon
taken in same order, then their resultant may be represented in magnitude and direction by the
closing side of the polygon, taken in opposite direction.”
Example:
Consider four forces F1 = AB, F2 = BC, F3 = CD, and F4 = DE acting at a point “O” as shown
in diagram (a). Considering suitable scale for vector diagram and find vector length for
different forces.

Two find the result of all the forces using law of polygon, draw vector ab ∥ AB, bc ∥ BC, cd ∥
CD, and de ∥ DE as shown in the diagram (b) to represent the forces F1, F2, F3, and F4
respectively. Hence; abcde is an open polygon. Join the first point “a” and last point “e”. The
closing side “ae” of the polygon represents the resultant of all the forces in magnitude and
direction. In space diagram, through “O” draw line parallel to “ae” to locate the position of the
resultant.

Procedure:
Rectangular resolution and equilibrium of coplanar forces:
1- First of all, make sure that the disc is properly centralized around the rod.
2- Now, apply the first weight on any of the weight hanger
3- Balance the applied weight the help of other four weights.
4- Note all the angles and weights applied.
5- Use law of polygon by choosing a suitable scale to solve for resultant.
6- If the forces are in static equilibrium, the length of resultant must be zero (forces should
make a closed polygon). If not, please state the errors that caused a non-zero answer.

Readings:

Sr. Force 1 Force 2 Force 3 Force 4 Force 5

No
Value Angle Value Angle Value Angle Value Angle Value Angle

Draw polygon here:

Sources of Errors:
 Experiment No. 13

Objective: To verify relationship between angular and linear velocity (rigidly attached
pulleys of different diameter)

Theory:
The apparatus contain three pulleys of different diameters which are rigidly connected to each
other. The purpose of this experiment is to study the relationship between linear and angular
velocity.
Linear velocity is defined as the rate of change of linear displacement i.e.
∆𝑠
𝑣=
∆𝑡
Angular velocity can be defined as the rate of change of angular displacement i.e.
∆θ
𝜔=
∆𝑡

In rotation, the angular velocity does not change with change in distance from the center of
rotation. On the other hand, linear or tangential velocity changes with the change in distance
from the center of rotation and is always directed toward tangent.

Procedure:
1- Note the initial distance of the pulleys from the ground.
2- Open the lock of the apparatus and let the masses move downwards by noting their time
using stop watch.
3- Find the distance of all the pulleys from the ground again.
4- Divide the distance by time to find the linear velocity all the pulleys.
5- Find the angular velocity of the pulleys using the formula; ω=v/r and fill the given
table.
Readings:

Pulley-1 Pulley-2 Pulley-3

Time
Sr. No
(sec)
Distance v ω Distance v ω Distance v ω

Sources of Errors: