MODELING OF LITHIUM-ION

BATTERY PACK

This project report is submitted as a

part of
SUMMER RESEARCH INTERNSHIP
on

MODELING OF LITHIUM-ION
BATTERY PACK

by

HANUMANTHU LAKSHMANA RAO

at

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY)
VARANASI- 221 005

ROLL NO DATE OF SUBMISSION

A21126514151 July 4, 2024
Anil Neerukonda Institute of technology and Sciences
Visakhapatnam - 532163
 DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I, Hanumanthu Lakshmana Rao, certify that the work embodied in this thesis is my own
bona fide work and carried out by me under the supervision of Asst. Prof. Ganesh
Madabattula from May 22, 2024, to July 5, 2024, at the Department of Chemical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi. I declare
that I have faithfully acknowledged and given credit to the research workers wherever their
works have been cited in my work in this thesis. I further declare that I have not willfully
copied any other’s work, paragraphs, text, data, results, etc., reported in journals, books,
magazines, reports dissertations, thesis’s, etc., or available at websites and have not included
them in this report and have not cited as my own work.

Date: July 5, 2024 Signature of the Student:

Place: Varanasi, India

CERTIFICATE BY THE SUPERVISOR

It is certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of my/our
knowledge.

Supervisor
Asst. Prof. Ganesh Madabattula
Department of Chemical
Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
(Banaras Hindu University)
Varanasi - 221 005
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

During this summer research internship, I have experienced a significant transition from academics to
practical learning through hands-on research. I am immensely grateful to the individuals who provided
me with timely guidance, support, and encouragement to navigate new challenges and make
meaningful progress.

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ganesh
Madabattula, for his unwavering support and mentorship. His insights and constructive feedback have
been invaluable throughout my internship.

Special thanks to my HOD, Dr. Vjay Bhaskar Somu, and my class teacher, Dr. Ravi Kumar Majji,
for their guidance and encouragement.

Lastly, I am grateful to my mentors, parents, and friends for their unwavering support and
encouragement.

Thank you all for making this learning experience both enriching and rewarding.
Contents

1 Introduction

2 Basics of Lithium Ion Cell

2.1 Working of Lithium-Ion Batteries
2.2 What make lithium-ion batteries good for Mobile technologies?
2.3 Factors affecting lithium-ion battery life

3 Basics of Battery Management system

3.1 Working of Battery Management System
3.2 Battery Management System State Estimations
3.3 CC-CV charging method of a Battery
3.4 Cell Balancing

4 Equivalent Circuit Modeling

4.1 Background of Equivalent Circuit modeling
4.2 Tests to find Equivalent Circuit Parameters

5 Modeling and Simulation of Single Cell

5.1 Introduction to Matlab Simscape Battery
5.2 Project 1: Simulation of single cell characteristics in MATLAB Simscape Battery

6 Designing and Simulation of Battery Packs:

6.1 Introduction to Battery Builder application in MATLAB
6.2 Project 2: Design and Simulation of Battery pack (Part - 1)
6.3 Project 2: Design and Simulation of Battery pack (Part - 2)

7 Conclusion and Future Scope

Chapter 1

Introduction

The tremendous growth of the global battery sector is illustrated in Fig. 1(a), which projects a
peak of 2500 GWh within the next ten years [1]. Figure 1(b) illustrates the growing need for
batteries in various applications and geographical areas, with electric mobility serving as a
primary catalyst for the expansion of the contemporary battery market. Research and
development of automotive technology and battery materials is accelerating due to the growing
popularity of electric and alternative fuel vehicles, thereby facilitating smart mobility. China has
committed to reaching its peak emissions before 2030 in order to contribute to the global effort
to become

Figure 1 (a) Global battery demand

carbon neutral.[1]

In order for electric vehicles to be on par with fossil fuel vehicles, Li-ion batteries (LIBs) need to
reach an energy density target of roughly 500 Wh kg1 for electric vehicle applications. The use
of nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) and lithium-ion batteries has been widespread in a number of
electric vehicle types[2].
Li-ion batteries are becoming more and more popular due to their increased efficiency, power
density, reliability, and energy density [3].
Furthermore, the declining costs of Li-ion battery production have made a substantial
contribution to the technology's broad commercialization and industry adoption.

Moreover, because the battery is an electrochemical system, its high nonlinearity and time-
varying characteristics make state determination extremely difficult [4]. Thus, developing
accurate and trustworthy BMS technologies remains a difficult task to ensure that batteries and
related energy systems operate securely and as efficiently as possible.

Battery systems in electric vehicles not only power the electric motor but also different electrical
components. Human charging behavior can be unpredictable, and these vehicles frequently
operate in complex environments with frequent acceleration and deceleration. As a result, careful
attention must be paid to the battery system's monitoring. For this reason, in order to get accurate
and consistent behavior in simulation and a real-world implementation, we need to work on
several approaches to modeling the battery system and developing and simulating battery packs.
In this case, the battery management system's correct operation greatly depends on the
application of battery modeling methodologies. The goal of this project is to model and design
the desired battery pack with the desired cell layout and implementation in the Battery
Management System.

Figure 1(b) Demand by application

Chapter 2: Basics of Lithium-ion Batteries

2.1 Working of Lithium-ion Batteries:

Rechargeable batteries that employ lithium ions to store and release energy are known as
lithium-ion batteries. Their high energy density, long cycle life, and low maintenance needs
make them popular choices for use in energy storage systems, electric cars, and portable gadgets.
A positive electrode (cathode), a negative electrode (anode), and an electrolyte that facilitates the
transfer of lithium ions between the two electrodes make up the fundamental components of a
lithium-ion battery. Lithium ions are taken out of the cathode material—such as lithium cobalt
oxide (LiCoO2)—and intercalated into the anode material—usually graphite—during the
charging process. During discharge, this process is reversed, with lithium ions traveling from the
anode to the cathode and producing an electric current.

The materials chosen for the electrodes and electrolyte can affect the performance and properties
of lithium-ion batteries. There are several trade-offs between different chemistries, such as
lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12) and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), with regard to cost, safety,
power density, and energy density.

The chemistry involved in lithium-ion batteries [5]

Inside a lithium ion battery, reduction and oxidation (redox) reactions take place:
Reduction takes place at the cathode. There, cobalt oxide combines with lithium ions to form
lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2). The half-reaction is:
CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2
oxidation takes place at the anode. There, the graphite intercalation compound LiC6 forms
graphite (C6) and lithium ions. The half-reaction is:
LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-
Here is the full reaction (left to right = discharging, right to left = charging):
LiC6 + CoO2 ⇄ C6 + LiCoO2

DISCHARGING :
Positively charged lithium ions (Li+) travel from the negative anode to the positive cathode
during the charging process. By passing through the electrolyte and arriving at the positive
electrode, they do this. They are placed there. Conversely, the electrons travel from the anode to
the cathode [5].

Figure 2.1 Charging and Discharging in Li-ion Cell

CHARGING :
The mechanism that occurs when a lithium-ion battery is charged is the exact opposite. From the
cathode to the anode, the lithium ions return. From the anode to the cathode, electrons flow [5]
.
2.2 What makes lithium-ion batteries good for mobile
technologies?
Lithium-ion batteries are well-suited for mobile technologies due to several key advantages:

Lithium-ion batteries have a high energy density, meaning they can store a large amount of
energy in a relatively small and lightweight package. This makes them ideal for powering
portable devices like smartphones, laptops, and power tools [6].

They also exhibit a limited rate of charge loss when not in use, allowing them to maintain their
charge for long periods. [6] This is crucial for mobile devices that may sit idle for extended
periods of time.

Lithium-ion batteries can withstand many charge and discharge cycles without significant
degradation, giving them a longer lifespan compared to other battery types. [6] This is important
for frequently used mobile devices.

Additionally, lithium-ion batteries operate at a higher voltage than other rechargeable batteries,
allowing them to power devices more efficiently. [6] This contributes to their widespread
adoption in mobile electronics.

However, lithium-ion batteries do have some drawbacks, such as the risk of overheating and
bursting, high cost, and limited lifespan.[6] Ongoing research aims to address these issues and
further improve the performance of lithium-ion batteries for mobile applications.[6] [7]
2.3 Factors Affecting Lithium Ion Battery Life
Charge Cycles
Lithium-ion batteries have a finite number of charge cycles, which refer to the process of
discharging and recharging the battery. Each complete charge cycle leads to a gradual
deterioration of the battery's capacity. Drone users should know that a charge cycle does not
necessarily deplete the battery from 100% to 0% and back to 100%.
It can, for example, using 50% of the battery's capacity twice, constituting one complete charge
cycle. Once a lithium-ion battery reaches the end of its charge cycle life, it will retain
significantly less capacity than when it was new.[8]

Temperature
Temperature plays a vital role in the performance and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries. High
temperatures can accelerate the chemical reactions within the battery, leading to faster
degradation. On the other hand, extremely low temperatures can increase internal resistance,
making it difficult for the battery to deliver power effectively. For drone enthusiasts, it is crucial
to avoid exposing their batteries to extreme temperatures and store them in a cool, dry place
when not in use.[8]

Storage Conditions
How you store your lithium-ion drone batteries can significantly impact their overall lifespan. If
you plan to store your drone for an extended period of time, following proper storage guidelines
is essential. Ideally, the battery should be charged to40–60nd 40-60% before storage in a cool
and dry environment. Storing the battery fully charged or depleted for extended periods can lead
to capacity loss and potentially render the battery useless.[8]

Quality of the Battery

The quality of the lithium-ion battery itself can significantly influence its lifespan. As the
demand for drone batteries has increased, so has the number of lithium drone battery
manufacturers. Unfortunately, not all manufacturers maintain the same level of quality. Opting
for batteries from reputable and reliable manufacturers can ensure that you receive a product
made with high-quality materials and manufacturing processes, leading to a longer-lasting
battery.[8]
Usage Patterns
How you use your drone and battery can also affect the battery's life. If you consistently drain
the battery to its lowest capacity or push it to the extreme limits of its performance, it may lead to
premature degradation. It's best to avoid over-discharging the battery and maintain a moderate
and consistent usage pattern. Additionally, avoid subjecting the battery to heavy mechanical
stress or physical impacts that could damage the cells.[8]
Chapter 3: Basics of Battery Management System

3.1 Working of Battery Management System

Modern battery technology relies heavily on the Battery Management System (BMS) to maintain
the safety and best possible performance of battery packs. The many functional parts of a BMS
are depicted in a general block diagram. For the battery system to remain effective and long-
lasting, each of these parts is essential.

In Fig. 3.1, a BMS's general block diagram is shown. The battery management system is made
up of several functional parts, such as interfaces for communication, temperature monitoring,
current sensing, and cell voltage balancing. The process of voltage balancing maximizes the
performance of each battery pack as a whole and lengthens its lifespan by ensuring that each
individual cell is kept at a constant voltage level.[1]

Monitoring the battery's temperature is essential for controlling internal thermal conditions and
avoiding overheating. Accurate measurement and monitoring of the electric current entering and
leaving batteries are made possible by current sensing. Interfaces for communication make it
easier for data to go between the BMS and external devices, like a battery management network
or the car's control system.[1]

The BMS additionally has safety features, including under-voltage, over-current, and over-
voltage protection, to shield the battery from potentially dangerous situations. Moreover, the
BMS is in charge of overseeing the charging and discharging processes and making sure they are
completed within ideal and safe bounds.[1]
 Figure 3.1 BMS's general block diagram

Cell Voltage Balancing

One of the primary functions of a BMS is voltage balancing, which maximizes the performance
of each battery pack. Voltage balancing ensures that each individual cell within the battery pack
maintains a constant voltage level. This process is vital because it prevents any single cell from
becoming overcharged or discharged, thereby extending the overall lifespan of the battery.

Temperature Monitoring
Temperature monitoring is another critical function of the BMS. By continuously tracking the
battery's temperature, the BMS can manage internal thermal conditions and prevent overheating.
This monitoring helps maintain the battery within its optimal temperature range, enhancing
safety and performance.

Current Sensing
Accurate measurement and monitoring of the electric current entering and leaving the battery are
made possible by current sensing. This function is essential for assessing the state of charge
(SOC) and state of health (SOH) of the battery, ensuring that it operates within safe and efficient
parameters.
Communication Interfaces
The BMS includes interfaces for communication that facilitate data exchange between the BMS
and external devices, such as a battery management network or a vehicle's control system. These
communication interfaces are crucial for real-time monitoring and control, enabling the
integration of the BMS with other systems for comprehensive battery management.

Safety Features
Safety is a paramount concern in battery management. The BMS incorporates various safety
features, including under-voltage, over-current, and over-voltage protection. These features
protect the battery from potentially hazardous situations, such as short circuits or excessive
charging and discharging.

Charging and Discharging Management

The BMS is responsible for overseeing the charging and discharging processes of the battery. It
ensures that these processes occur within ideal and safe bounds, preventing damage to the battery
and optimizing its performance. Proper management of charging and discharging cycles is
crucial for maintaining the health and efficiency of the battery over time.

In conclusion, the BMS is a sophisticated system that plays a vital role in battery technology.
Through its various functions—voltage balancing, temperature monitoring, current sensing,
communication, and safety features—it ensures that the battery operates safely, efficiently, and
reliably. This comprehensive management system is essential for the longevity and optimal
performance of modern battery packs.
3.2 Battery Management System State Estimations
State estimation in a Battery Management System (BMS) refers to the process of determining
key parameters that describe the state of a battery, such as State of Charge (SOC), State of
Health (SOH), and State of Power (SOP). These parameters are crucial for ensuring safe and
efficient operation of batteries in applications like electric vehicles.

The main state quantities estimated in a BMS are:

1. State of Charge (SOC)

The state of charge represents the available capacity of a battery as a percentage of its maximum
capacity. Estimating SOC accurately is essential for determining the remaining runtime and
preventing over-discharge. One common method for SOC estimation is the coulomb counting
technique, which involves integrating the current flowing in and out of the battery.

Example: Consider a lithium-ion battery with a nominal capacity of 100 Ah. If the battery is
charged to 80% of its capacity, the SOC would be 80%. This means that the battery has 80 Ah of
available capacity (0.8 × 100 Ah).

2. State of Health (SOH)

The state of health reflects the overall condition of a battery compared to its ideal state when
new. SOH estimation helps determine the remaining useful life of a battery and is influenced by
factors such as aging, temperature, and usage patterns. SOH can be estimated by comparing the
current capacity of the battery to its initial rated capacity.

Example: Suppose a lithium-ion battery has an initial rated capacity of 100 Ah. After several
years of use, its current capacity has decreased to 80 Ah due to aging. The SOH of the battery
can be calculated as:
SOH = ( Current capacity ÷Initial Rated Capacity) × 100%
SOH = (80Ah ÷ 100Ah) × 100%

This indicates that the battery has retained 80% of its original capacity and has a remaining
useful life of 80%.
3.3 CC-CV charging Method of a Battery

The battery is an electric cell in which reversible electrochemical reactions occur. As a result, the
battery has two distinct processes: the charging reaction and the discharging reaction. In order to
enhance the performance in battery-charge systems, several battery-charge strategies have been
proposed, such as the constant trickle current (CTC) charge strategy, the constant current (CC)
charge strategy, and the constant-current and constant-voltage (CC-CV) charge strategy [9].
Constant-current and constant-voltage (CC-CV) charging is the most commonly used charging
method

The CTC charge approach is the least expensive of the aforementioned methods and features a
straightforward circuit design without any power components. The CTC charge approach is often
referred to as the ”overnight charger” due to its significant charging time disadvantage, which is
greater than 10 hours [9]. To shorten the charging period, a considerably larger current than the
trickle current is typically employed in the charge system, known as CC charge strategy.
However, in the CC charge system, situations of undercharge and overcharge are very likely to
occur [9].

The CC-CV charge strategy was presented as a solution to this issue and is now commonly
employed. In the CC-CV approach, a constant current (CC) is initially applied until the battery
voltage reaches a predetermined level (usually the battery's final voltage). When the battery
reaches the preset voltage, the constant voltage is maintained, the charging current automatically
declines to zero, and the battery is entirely charged.
 Figure 3.3 (a) CCCV charging method

The CC-CV process is depicted in Fig. 3.3 (a) This charging method can efficiently speed up
battery charging, prevent overcharging, and get the battery almost completely charged.

The CC-CV charging process can be basically described as a switching control procedure,
illustrated in Fig. 2, whereby input switches from a constant current source, Ib0, to a constant
voltage source, Vb0, when the nominal value of battery voltage is reached. The resistance, R, in
Fig. 3.3 (b) refers to the resistances of contacts and connecting wires; rs is the internal resistance
of the voltage source and rp is the shunt resistance of the current source[9].

Figure 3.3 (b) CCCV charging circuit

3.4 Active and Passive Cell Balancing
Passive Cell Balancing
Passive cell balancing is a simpler and lower-cost approach to balancing the charge levels of
individual battery cells in a battery pack. In passive balancing, excess charge from higher state-
of-charge (SoC) cells is dissipated through a resistor, bringing all cells to a similar voltage level.
The main advantages of passive cell balancing are:
● Simplicity: Passive balancing circuits are relatively straightforward to implement.
● Lower Cost: Passive balancing does not require the complex power electronics of active
balancing.
However, passive balancing also has some key disadvantages:
● Energy Waste: The excess charge from higher SoC cells is simply dissipated as heat,
reducing the overall battery pack efficiency and runtime.
● Slower Balancing: Passive balancing is generally slower at equalizing cell voltages
compared to active methods [10].
● Suitability: Passive balancing is not suitable for lithium-ion batteries, as it can lead to cell
damage and safety issues [11].

Active Cell Balancing

Active cell balancing is a more complex but efficient technique for balancing the charge levels of
individual battery cells. It involves actively transferring charge from cells with a higher SoC to
cells with a lower SoC, rather than simply dissipating the excess charge.
Some key advantages of active cell balancing include:
● Increased Runtime: By redistributing charge from stronger to weaker cells, active
balancing can utilize a higher percentage of the total battery capacity, leading to longer
runtimes [11].
● Faster Charging: Active balancing can help bring all cells to a full charge state more
quickly compared to passive balancing [11].
● Reduced Heat Generation: Since excess charge is transferred rather than dissipated,
active balancing generates less heat [11].
● Improved Battery Life: By preventing overcharging and deep discharging of individual
cells, active balancing can extend the overall battery pack lifetime [11].
Active cell balancing techniques can use various topologies, such as:
● Cell Bypass: Excess charge from high SoC cells is shunted around to other cells [10].
● Cell-to-cell: Charge is directly transferred from high SoC cells to adjacent low SoC cells
[10].
● Cell-to-Pack: Charge is drawn from the highest SoC cell and distributed to the rest of the
packs [10].
● Pack-to-Cell: Charge is taken from the entire pack and directed to the lowest SoC cell [9].
Chapter 4: Equivalent Circuit Modeling

4.1 Background of Equivalent Circuit Modeling

For the purposes of defect detection, temperature management, controller design, status
monitoring, and battery behavior analysis, an accurate battery model is essential. A battery
model is crucial for estimating internal temperature, state of charge (SOC), and state of health
(SOH) because certain internal battery states cannot be detected directly [12].
The nonlinear dynamics of lithium ion batteries have been accurately described by a variety of
battery models. The pseudo-two-dimensional model created by Doyle [12[13] is the most well-
known electrochemical model and it accurately predicts the intricate dynamics of LIBs. The high
computational cost of these electrochemical models is a downside. The voltage response
dynamics are described using the data-driven modeling approach [14]. The comparable electrical
models are best suited for real-time applications and system-level design .
In comparable circuit models, the resistances, capacitances, and voltage sources that go into
creating the battery model define the charging and discharging operations. There are two built-in
domains for this ECM: frequency and time. A voltage source connected in series with a resistor
is the most basic and straightforward battery ECM to parameterize. The charge/discharge process
that takes place in a battery is beyond the scope of this basic model. The first-order RC battery
model is created by adding a parallel RC circuit to the single resistor model for a more accurate
representation. A discharge pulse can be used to measure the RC properties of the battery. The
ECM has parallel RC circuits added to it to increase model accuracy. The model's accuracy
increases with the number of RC-networks, but the cost of calculation and design also rises.
Equivalent circuits fitting functions are utilized for parametrization of these battery kinds [12].
This study examines the first-order RC model.

Let's look at a first order equivalent circuit model in this report. The model is shown in Fig. 1
and is made up of one parallel RC group that represents the capacitance and polarization
resistance and one series resistor, Rs, which materializes the battery's ohmic resistance. The
lithium-ion battery's open circuit voltage is shown by the voltage source, Voc.
 Figure 4.1 First order ECM of a li-ion cell

Once the cell's analytical model has been described, it is necessary to carry out an identification
process for every parameter in the cell.
4.2 Tests to find Equivalent Circuit Parameters
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is a powerful technique used to analyze the
dynamic behavior of batteries over a range of frequencies. In this test, a small AC signal is
superimposed on a DC bias, and the resulting impedance is measured across a wide frequency
spectrum [15] [16].

Procedure
1. Preparation: The battery is brought to a stable temperature and SOC.
2. Signal Application: A small AC voltage (typically 5-10 mV) is applied over a wide
frequency range (from mHz to kHz).
3. Measurement: The resultant current is measured, and the impedance is calculated.

Analysis
The impedance data is plotted in a Nyquist plot, where the real part of the impedance is plotted
against the imaginary part. This plot reveals information about the resistive and capacitive
elements within the battery. Typically, a semi-circle represents charge transfer resistance and
double-layer capacitance, while the high-frequency intercept provides information about the
series resistance [15] [16].

Significance
EIS helps in identifying various parameters such as:
● Series resistance (Rs): Represents the ohmic resistance of the battery.
● Charge transfer resistance (Rct): Associated with the electrochemical reactions.
● Double-layer capacitance (Cdl): Reflects the capacitance at the electrode-electrolyte
interface.

Pulse Current Tests

Pulse current tests are straightforward methods for determining the transient response of the
battery to current pulses. These tests are useful for identifying resistive and capacitive parameters
of the ECM [17] [18].
Procedure
1. Pulse Application: A current pulse (either charge or discharge) is applied to the battery
for a short duration.
2. Voltage Response Measurement: The voltage response is measured immediately after the
pulse.

Analysis
The voltage response to a current pulse can be divided into three regions:
1. Instantaneous voltage drop: Indicates the series resistance (Rs).
2. Rapid voltage change: Corresponds to the charge transfer resistance (Rct) and double-
layer capacitance (Cdl).
3. Slow voltage recovery: Reflects the diffusion processes within the battery.

Significance
Pulse current tests are valuable for their simplicity and ability to provide quick estimates of the
battery's resistive and capacitive characteristics. This method is particularly useful in real-time
battery management systems for SOC and state-of-health (SOH) estimation [17] [18] .

Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) Test

The HPPC test is a comprehensive method that combines aspects of both EIS and pulse current
tests. It is designed to characterize the battery's power capability and to derive parameters for
dynamic modeling [19] [20].

Procedure
1. SOC Variation: The battery is tested at different SOC levels.
2. Pulse Sequence: A sequence of charge and discharge pulses is applied, with periods of
rest in between.
3. Measurement: Voltage and current are recorded during the entire test sequence.

Analysis
The voltage response is analyzed to determine the resistive and capacitive parameters at various
SOC levels. This data is then used to create a detailed dynamic model of the battery.
Significance
The HPPC test provides a comprehensive set of data that is crucial for accurate modeling and
simulation of battery performance under various operating conditions. It also aids in optimizing
battery management systems by providing insights into the battery's power and energy
capabilities [19] [20].
Chapter 5: Modeling and Simulation of Single Cell

5.1 Introduction to Simscape Battery

MATLAB Simscape Battery provides accurate modeling with its Battery (Table-Based) block, advanced
thermal management features, and seamless integration via the PS-Simulink Converter. It is essential for
optimizing design, performance, and safety in electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and battery
management systems through comprehensive multi-domain simulations.

1. Battery (Table-Based) Modeling

The Battery (Table-Based) block in MATLAB Simscape is a crucial tool for accurately modeling battery
behavior using empirical data. This method relies on lookup tables derived from experimental
measurements, allowing for a high-fidelity representation of the battery's characteristics. Here’s a closer
look at its importance and features:

a. High Fidelity Modeling

● Empirical Data Usage: The Battery (Table-Based) block uses voltage, state of charge (SOC),
and temperature data directly from experimental tests. This approach captures the real-world non-
linearities and complexities of battery behavior that analytical models might miss.
● Interdependence Representation: By utilizing multi-dimensional lookup tables, the block can
account for the interdependencies between SOC, temperature, and voltage. This ensures that the
model accurately reflects the battery's performance under varying conditions.

b. Customizability and Precision

● Custom Lookup Tables: Users can input custom lookup tables based on their specific battery
cells, which enhances the precision of the simulations. This is particularly useful for proprietary
or novel battery chemistries.
● Temperature Effects: The block allows users to input temperature-dependent data, enabling
simulations that can predict performance changes due to thermal variations.

c. Applications in System Design

● Electric Vehicle (EV) Simulations: Accurate battery models are critical for predicting vehicle
range and performance. The Table-Based approach ensures that simulations reflect real-world
driving conditions.
● Energy Storage Systems: For grid applications, the model helps in designing systems that can
handle fluctuations in demand and supply with high accuracy.
2. Thermal Monitoring Features

Thermal management is a vital aspect of battery system design, as temperature significantly affects
battery performance, safety, and longevity. Simscape Battery includes robust thermal modeling
capabilities:

a. Heat Generation and Dissipation

● Thermal Mass Blocks: These blocks represent the heat capacity of various components within
the battery system, allowing the model to simulate how heat is absorbed and released.
● Convective and Conductive Heat Transfer: The blocks model how heat is transferred within
the battery pack and to the surrounding environment, which is crucial for designing effective
cooling systems.

b. Impact on Performance and Safety

● Temperature-Dependent Behavior: By simulating how temperature affects resistance, capacity,

and other parameters, engineers can predict performance under different thermal conditions. This
is essential for avoiding thermal runaway and ensuring safe operation.
● Degradation Modeling: High temperatures accelerate battery degradation. Simscape Battery’s
thermal features help in predicting the lifespan of the battery by simulating the effects of thermal
cycling and prolonged exposure to high temperatures.

c. Integration with BMS

● Thermal Management Systems: The thermal models can be integrated with Battery
Management Systems (BMS) to optimize cooling strategies and prevent overheating.
● Real-Time Monitoring: Thermal sensors can be simulated to provide real-time data for BMS
algorithms, ensuring the battery operates within safe temperature ranges.

3. PS-Simulink Converter

The PS-Simulink Converter is an essential component for integrating physical models created in
Simscape with control algorithms and other models developed in Simulink. Here’s why it’s
indispensable:

a. Seamless Integration

● Multi-Domain Modeling: Batteries are part of larger systems that include electrical, mechanical,
and thermal domains. The PS-Simulink Converter facilitates the integration of these domains,
enabling comprehensive system-level simulations.
● Control System Design: It allows control engineers to design and test algorithms in Simulink
while using detailed physical models from Simscape. This is critical for developing robust BMS,
including SOC estimation, cell balancing, and fault detection algorithms.
b. Data Exchange

● Signal Conversion: The converter translates physical signals from Simscape models into
Simulink signals and vice versa. This ensures that data flows seamlessly between different parts
of the simulation, maintaining the integrity and accuracy of the results.
● Real-Time Simulation: For hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing and real-time simulations, the
PS-Simulink Converter ensures that physical models can interact with real-time systems without
latency issues.

c. Flexibility and Customization

● Custom Signal Processing: Users can implement custom signal processing algorithms in
Simulink, leveraging the detailed physical models from Simscape for more advanced and tailored
simulations.
● Scalability: The converter allows for scaling simulations from individual cells to large battery
packs and systems, making it adaptable for different stages of the design and testing process.
5.2 Project 1: Simulation of Single Cell Characteristics in
MATLAB Simscape Battery
1. Introduction

This project involves the simulation of a single cell battery using MATLAB Simscape Battery.
The primary objective is to understand and analyze the characteristics of a single battery cell,
including its voltage, current, state of charge (SOC), and temperature under various conditions.
The simulation results will help in optimizing battery performance and ensuring safe operation in
practical applications.

2. Objectives

● To model a single cell battery using MATLAB Simscape Battery.

● To simulate and analyze the battery characteristics under charging and discharging
conditions.
● To monitor thermal behavior and ensure safe operation.

3. Methodology

The methodology includes the following steps:

1. Setting up the Simulink Environment: Initialize MATLAB and open Simulink.

2. Building the Circuit: Use the Simscape Battery library to create the battery model,
including necessary blocks for electrical and thermal simulation.
3. Configuring Simulation Parameters: Set thesimulation parameters, such as time step,
solver options, and initial conditions.
4. Running the Simulation: Execute the simulation to obtain results.
5. Analyzing the Results: Interpret the output graphs and data to evaluate battery
performance.

4. Circuit Description

The circuit for simulating single cell characteristics is illustrated in the Figure 5.2 (a). The key
components and their functions are as follows:

Battery Block: This represents the battery cell (Molicel: INR 21700 P45B).

Current and Voltage Sensors: Measure the current flowing through and the voltage across the
battery.

Temperature Monitoring: Simulates the thermal behavior of the cell.

Control Logic: Manages charging and discharging cycles.

Figure 5.2 (a) Single cell simulation circuit

5. Simulation Steps

1. Model Initialization:
○ Open MATLAB and navigate to Simulink.
○ Create a new model and save it.
2. Building the Battery Model:
○ Drag and drop the necessary blocks from the Simscape > Electrical > Specialized
Power Systems library.
○ Connect the blocks as shown in the circuit diagram.
○ Configure the battery block with appropriate parameters (e.g., cell type, capacity).
3. Setting up sensors and measurements:
○ Add voltage and current sensors to the circuit.
○ Connect the sensors to scopes for real-time monitoring.
 4. Thermal Management:
○ Include thermal blocks to simulate heat generation and dissipation.
○ Connect thermal sensors to monitor cell temperature.
5. Control Logic Implementation:
○ Implement control logic for managing the charging and discharging cycles.
○ Use MATLAB functions or Simulink blocks for control algorithms.
6. Configuring simulation parameters:
○ Set the simulation stop time (e.g., 1000 seconds).
○ Choose a solver (e.g., ode45) and configure solver options.
○ Define initial conditions for SOC and temperature.
7. Running the simulation:
○ Start the simulation by clicking the Run button.
○ Monitor the simulation progress and ensure it completes without errors.
8. Result Analysis:
○ Analyze the output graphs for voltage, current, SOC, and temperature.
○ Interpret the results to understand battery performance under different conditions.

Figure 5.2 (b) Single Cell Simulation results

6. Results and Discussion

The simulation results, as shown in the Figure 5.2 (b), include the following observations:

● Voltage: The voltage graph shows the variation in cell voltage during charging and
discharging cycles.
● Current: The current graph indicates the current flow through the cell.
● State of Charge (SOC): The SOC graph demonstrates the charge level of the battery
over time.
● Temperature: The temperature graph reflects the thermal behavior of the cell, indicating
safe operational limits.

These results provide insights into the battery's performance and help in optimizing its operation
for real-world applications.

7. Conclusion

This project successfully demonstrates the simulation of single cell characteristics using
MATLAB Simscape Battery. The methodology outlined provides a comprehensive approach to
modeling, simulating, and analyzing battery performance. The insights gained from this
simulation are invaluable for optimizing battery systems in various applications, ensuring both
efficiency and safety.
Chapter 6: Designing and Simulation of Battery Pack

6.1 Introduction to battery Builder App in MATLAB

The MATLAB Battery Builder app is a powerful tool for designing and simulating battery packs.
Here is the step-by-step process to build a cylindrical battery pack using the Battery (Table-
Based) block. This method ensures accurate modeling based on empirical data, capturing the
real-world performance of the battery cells.

Step-by-Step Process

Step 1: Initialize MATLAB and Open Battery Builder App

1. Start MATLAB:
○ Open MATLAB on your computer.
○ Navigate to the MATLAB command window.
2. Open Battery Builder App:
○ In the MATLAB command window, type batteryBuilder and press Enter.
○ The Battery Builder app interface will open.

Step 2: Configure Cell Properties

1. Select cell type:
○ Choose table-based cells from the options provided.
○ This allows you to use empirical data for cell modeling.
2. Define thermal properties:
○ Enter the thermal properties such as specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity,
and ambient temperature.
○ These properties are critical for accurate thermal management simulation.

Step 3: Create a New Battery Pack

1. Create NewPack:
○ Set the basic parameters, such as pack name, number of cells in series and
parallel, and overall pack voltage and capacity.
○ In the Battery builder app add required number of parallel assembly, Modules and
module assemblies to get desired configuration
Step 7: Create Custom Library
1. Generate Subsystem:
○ Once the battery pack design is complete, generate a subsystem from the model.
○ Right-click on the battery pack model and select Create Subsystem.
2. Save Subsystem as Library:
○ Save the subsystem as a custom library block.
○ Go to File > Save As and save it in the appropriate library directory.
3. Add to Library:
○ Add the newly created subsystem to your Simulink library.
○ Open the Simulink library browser and drag the subsystem to your custom library
folder.

Step 8: Use Library in Simscape

1. Open Simscape Model:
○ Create or open an existing Simscape model where you want to use the battery
pack.
2. Import Custom Library:
○ Drag the custom library block (battery pack) into your Simscape model.
3. Connect to Simscape Components:
○ Connect the battery pack to other Simscape components such as loads, power
sources, and control systems.
○ Ensure proper connections for electrical and thermal interfaces.

Step 5: Set Up Thermal Management

1. Add Cooling System:
○ Include cooling plates or channels as needed based on your design.
○ Specify the coolant type and flow rate if applicable.
2. Thermal Monitoring:
○ Place thermal sensors at critical points in the pack to monitor temperature during
simulations.
○ These sensors provide data for thermal management and safety analysis.

Step 6: Integrate Control Systems

1. Battery Management System (BMS):
○ Integrate BMS components such as SOC estimation, cell balancing, and fault
detection.
○ Use Simulink blocks to design and test control algorithms.
2. Define control strategies:
 ○ Implement control strategies for charging, discharging, and thermal management.
○ Configure safety limits and emergency shutdown procedures.

Step 9: Implement BMS Circuits

1. Add BMS components:
○ Add BMS components like voltage and current sensors, thermal sensors, and
control logic blocks.
○ Use Simulink blocks to implement these components.
2. SOC Estimation:
○ Implement an algorithm for SOC estimation using MATLAB functions or
Simulink blocks.
○ Use sensor data for accurate SOC calculations.
3. Cell Balancing:
○ Design and implement cell-balancing circuits to ensure uniform charge
distribution.
○ Include balancing resistors or active balancing circuits as needed.
4. Fault Detection:
○ Integrate fault detection algorithms to identify and respond to issues like over-
voltage, under-voltage, over-temperature, and short circuits.

Step 10: Configure Simulation Parameters

1. Simulation Settings:
○ Set the simulation's start and stop times.
○ Choose the appropriate solver and configure its settings.
2. Initial Conditions:
○ Define the initial SOC and temperature of the cells.
○ Set up any external loads or charging sources.

Step 11: Run the Simulation

1. Start Simulation:
○ Click the Run button to start the simulation.
○ Monitor the progress and ensure there are no errors.
2. Monitor real-time data:
○ Use scopes and data displays to observe real-time voltage, current, SOC, and
temperature data.
○ Identify any anomalies or unexpected behaviour
6.2 Project 2: Design and Simulation of Battery pack (Part
- 1)

Cyclic Charge-Discharge with 1C rating

Initially, create a battery pack using the battery builder application, following the steps outlined
above. The battery pack details are given in Table 1.
This project focuses on simulating the cyclic charge-discharge process of a battery pack with a
1C rating. The goal is to analyze the behavior of the battery cells under cyclic charging and
discharging conditions and to observe key parameters such as state of charge (SOC) and voltage
variations.

Figure 6.2 (a) Cyclic Charge-discharge circuit

Cell used Panasonic NCR18650BD

Cell Capacity 3.03 A*h

Cell Energy 10.908W*h

Number of series cells 16

Number of Parallel cells 9

Cumulative Pack Capacity 27.27 A*h

Cumulative Pack Energy 1570.752 W*h

Table 6.2 Battery pack specifications

Circuit Description

The circuit designed for the cyclic charge-discharge simulation is depicted in Figure 6.1 (a). The
core component of the circuit is a battery pack consisting of multiple cells arranged in series and
parallel configurations to meet the desired voltage and capacity requirements. The simulation is
performed using a 1C rating, meaning that the current used for charging and discharging is equal
to the battery's nominal capacity.

Key Components:

1. Battery Pack: The battery pack is modeled with multiple cells arranged in series and
parallel. Each cell's voltage, SOC, and temperature are monitored.
2. Charge-Discharge Controller: This controller regulates the charging and discharging
cycles based on the defined current rate. It ensures that the battery is charged and
discharged at a 1C rate.
3. Current and Voltage Sensors: These sensors are used to measure the current and
voltage across the battery pack during the simulation. The data collected from these
sensors is crucial for analyzing the battery's behavior.
4. Balancing Circuit: The balancing circuit ensures that all cells within the battery pack
maintain equal SOC. It prevents overcharging or deep discharging of individual cells,
thereby enhancing the overall lifespan of the battery pack.
5. Data Acquisition System: The system records various parameters such as SOC, voltage,
and temperature, throughout the simulation. This data is later used for analysis and
plotting the simulation results.

The cyclic charge-discharge process involves repeated charging and discharging cycles. The
battery pack is charged at a 1C rate until it reaches its maximum voltage. It is then discharged at
the same rate until it reaches its minimum voltage. This cycle is repeated several times to
observe the battery's performance and behavior over time.
 Figure 6.2 (b) Cyclic Charge-discharge Simulation results

Simulation Results
The simulation results are shown in Figure 6.1 (b). The plots display key parameters such as
voltage, SOC, and current over multiple charge-discharge cycles.

Key Observations:

1. Voltage Variation: The voltage plot demonstrates the periodic charging and discharging
of the battery pack. The voltage rises during charging and drops during discharging,
following a consistent pattern over the cycles.
2. State of Charge (SOC): The SOC plot shows the variation in the SOC of the battery
pack over time. During the charging phase, the SOC increases, reaching close to 100%.
During discharging, the SOC decreases, approaching 0%. The SOC variation is crucial
for understanding the battery's capacity and efficiency.
3. Coulomb Counting: This plot indicates the integration of current over time, providing a
measure of the total charge transferred during the cycles. It helps in verifying the
accuracy of the SOC estimation and the overall energy throughput of the battery pack.

The results confirm that the battery pack can undergo multiple charge-discharge cycles with a 1C
rating, maintaining consistent performance. The balancing circuit effectively ensures that all
cells within the pack remain balanced, preventing any cell from being overcharged or deeply
discharged.
6.3. Project 2: Design and Simulation of Battery pack
(Part - 2)

Circuit to Implement CCCV charging

Constant Current Constant Voltage (CCCV) charging is a widely used method for charging
lithium-ion batteries. It ensures efficient charging while maintaining the longevity and safety of
the battery. This project focuses on simulating the CCCV charging process for a battery pack.
The goal is to analyze the charging behavior and observe key parameters such as state of charge
(SOC), voltage, and current.

Figure 6.3 (a) Implementing CCCV charging method

Circuit Description

The circuit designed for implementing CCCV charging is depicted in Figure 6.3 (a). The primary
components of the circuit include the battery pack, charge controller, sensors, and a data
acquisition system. The simulation is performed to achieve the desired charging profile and
analyze the results.
Key Components:

1. Battery Pack: The battery pack consists of multiple cells arranged in series and parallel
to meet the required voltage and capacity specifications. The parameters such as voltage,
SOC, and temperature of each cell are monitored.
2. Charge Controller: The charge controller regulates the charging process. It operates in
two stages: constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV). During the CC stage, the
battery is charged at a constant current until the voltage reaches the predefined threshold.
During the CV stage, the voltage is held constant while the current gradually decreases.
3. Current and Voltage Sensors: These sensors measure the current flowing into the
battery pack and the voltage across it. The data collected from these sensors is crucial for
analyzing the charging behavior.
4. Balancing Circuit: The balancing circuit ensures that all cells within the battery pack
maintain equal SOC. It prevents overcharging or undercharging of individual cells,
thereby enhancing the overall lifespan of the battery pack.
5. Data Acquisition System: The system records various parameters such as SOC, voltage,
and current throughout the simulation. This data is later used for analysis and plotting the
simulation results.

The CCCV charging process starts with the constant current stage, where the battery pack is
charged at a constant current rate. Once the voltage reaches the predefined threshold, the process
transitions to the constant voltage stage. During this stage, the voltage is held constant, and the
current gradually decreases as the battery approaches full charge.
Simulation Results

Figure 6.3 (b) CCCV Charging and discharging Simulation results

The simulation results, assuming the desired response was achieved, are shown in Figure 6.3 (b).
The plots display key parameters such as voltage, SOC, and current over the charging period.

Key Observations:

1. Voltage Profile: The voltage plot demonstrates the transition from the constant current
stage to the constant voltage stage. Initially, the voltage increases steadily as the battery is
charged at a constant current. Once the voltage reaches the threshold, it remains constant
while the current decreases.
2. State of Charge (SOC): The SOC plot shows the increase in the SOC of the battery pack
during the charging process. During the constant current stage, the SOC increases
linearly. In the constant voltage stage, the SOC continues to increase but at a slower rate
as the current decreases.
3. Current Profile: The current plot indicates the constant current during the initial stage of
charging. Once the voltage threshold is reached, the current begins to decrease gradually,
demonstrating the constant voltage charging phase.
Chapter 7: Conclusion and Future Scope
Conclusion
During this summer research internship, I gained a comprehensive understanding of lithium-ion
batteries, their management systems, and effective simulation techniques. I began by studying
the fundamental workings of lithium-ion cells and their suitability for mobile technologies,
which provided a solid foundation for understanding battery performance and lifespan factors.

I explored Equivalent Circuit Modeling, which is essential for accurate battery simulation and
performance prediction. Furthermore, I delved deeply into Battery Management Systems (BMS),
mastering their operational principles, state estimations, CC-CV charging methods, and cell
balancing techniques. These concepts are crucial for ensuring the safety, efficiency, and
longevity of battery packs, directly impacting the overall performance and reliability of battery-
powered devices.

In the practical phase, I utilized MATLAB Simscape Battery to simulate single-cell

characteristics and the Battery Builder application to design and simulate battery packs. These
projects allowed me to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios, enhancing my skills
in battery behavior analysis and battery pack design. Overall, this internship has equipped me
with valuable skills in battery technology, management, and simulation, laying a strong
foundation for future research and development in electrical engineering and energy storage
systems.
Future Scope
With the completion of my summer research internship on Battery Modelling and Designing
Battery Packs, I am now capable of designing battery packs for various applications. This model
provides a strong foundation for future work, including experimenting with different algorithms
and integrating the battery pack model with embedded systems. The future scope of this project
focuses on enhancing the efficiency, safety, and reliability of Battery Management Systems
(BMS).

One promising direction is implementing this model as a hardware prototype. Moving from
simulation to hardware will allow for real-world testing and validation, helping to understand
practical challenges and performance metrics. A hardware prototype will also enable the
integration of advanced control algorithms and real-time monitoring systems, improving the
overall functionality and reliability of the BMS.

Another potential area of development is combining Machine Learning (ML) with conventional
control logic to optimize battery pack performance. By processing data at the edge, ML can
predict and adapt to various operational scenarios, enhancing decision-making within the BMS.
For example, ML algorithms can predict battery life, optimize charging cycles, and detect
anomalies in real time. These capabilities, combined with traditional control methods, can
significantly improve the safety and reliability of the battery pack.

Integrating embedded systems into the BMS is also crucial. Embedded systems provide real-time
data processing and control, ensuring efficient and safe battery pack operation. Embedding the
control logic directly within the hardware allows for faster response times and more precise
control, essential for managing the complexities of modern battery technologies.

In conclusion, the future scope of this project includes implementing the battery pack model as
hardware, integrating advanced ML algorithms and embedded systems, and leveraging edge
computing to develop a state-of-the-art BMS. This approach will enhance safety, reliability, and
performance, contributing to more efficient and sustainable energy storage solutions.
References

[1] R. R. Kumar, C. Bharatiraja, K. Udhayakumar, S. Devakirubakaran, K. S. Sekar, and L.

Mihet-Popa, “Advances in Batteries, Battery Modeling, Battery Management System, Battery
Thermal Management, SOC, SOH, and Charge/Discharge Characteristics in EV Applications,”
IEEE Access, vol. 11, pp. 105761–105809, 2023, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3318121.

[2] K. Liu, K. Li, Q. Peng, and C. Zhang, “A brief review on key technologies in the battery
management system of electric vehicles,” Front. Mech. Eng., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 47–64, Mar.
2019, doi: 10.1007/s11465-018-0516-8.

[3] M. A. Hannan, Md. M. Hoque, A. Hussain, Y. Yusof, and P. J. Ker, “State-of-the-Art and
Energy Management System of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicle Applications: Issues
and Recommendations,” IEEE Access, vol. 6, pp. 19362–19378, 2018, doi:
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2817655.

[4] Y.-J. Ee, K.-S. Tey, K.-S. Lim, P. Shrivastava, S. B. R. S. Adnan, and H. Ahmad,
“Lithium-Ion Battery State of Charge (SoC) Estimation with Non-Electrical Parameters using
Uniform Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG),” J. Energy Storage, vol. 40, p. 102704, Aug. 2021, doi:
10.1016/j.est.2021.102704.

[5] Let’s Talk Science, “How Does a Lithium-Ion Battery Work?,” Title: Let’s Talk Science.
[Online]. Available:
https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/stem-explained/how-does-a-lithium-ion-battery-
work

[6] R. Publishers, A. M. Theodore, A. Abbas, and P. S. Dhapola, “Effect of Layered, Spinel,

and Olivine-Based Positive Electrode Materials on Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Batteries: A
Review,” J. Comput. Mech. Power Syst. Control, 2023, [Online]. Available:
https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:265112349

[7] J. Biemolt, P. Jungbacker, T. van Teijlingen, N. Yan, and G. Rothenberg, “Beyond

Lithium-Based Batteries,” Mater. Basel Switz., vol. 13, no. 2, p. 425, Jan. 2020, doi:
10.3390/ma13020425.
[8] “5 Factors That Affect the Lithium-Ion Battery Life,” mPower Lithium. Accessed: Jun.
30, 2024. [Online]. Available:
https://mpowerlithium.com/blogs/blog/5-factors-that-affect-the-lithium-ion-battery-life

[9] B. S. Bhujun, K. Khodabux, R. K. Dreepaul, D. Rughoo, and K. Busawon, “Development

of PI controller for CC-CV charging method of Li-ion battery,” in 2022 7th International
Conference on Environment Friendly Energies and Applications (EFEA), Bagatelle Moka MU,
Mauritius: IEEE, Dec. 2022, pp. 1–5. doi: 10.1109/EFEA56675.2022.10063835.

[10] Khanal, A.; Timilsina, A.; Paudyal, B.; Ghimire, S., “Comparative analysis of cell
balancing topologies in battery management systems,” presented at the Proceedings of the IOE
Graduate Conference, Lisbon, Portugal, May 2019, pp. 845–851. [Online]. Available:
http://conference.ioe.edu.np/publications/ioegc2019-summer/IOEGC-2019-Summer-040.pdf

[11] “Active cell balancing basics.” Accessed: Jun. 30, 2024. [Online]. Available:
https://www.batterypowertips.com/active-cell-balancing-basics/

[12] R. Nemes, S. Ciornei, M. Ruba, H. Hedesiu, and C. Martis, “Modeling and simulation of
first-order Li-Ion battery cell with experimental validation,” in 2019 8th International
Conference on Modern Power Systems (MPS), Cluj Napoca, Romania: IEEE, May 2019, pp. 1–
6. doi: 10.1109/MPS.2019.8759769.

[13] M. Doyle, T. F. Fuller, and J. Newman, “Modeling of Galvanostatic Charge and

Discharge of the Lithium/Polymer/Insertion Cell,” J. Electrochem. Soc., vol. 140, no. 6, pp.
1526–1533, Jun. 1993, doi: 10.1149/1.2221597.

[14] D. Cittanti, A. Ferraris, A. Airale, S. Fiorot, S. Scavuzzo, and M. Carello, “Modeling Li-
ion batteries for automotive application: A trade-off between accuracy and complexity,” in 2017
International Conference of Electrical and Electronic Technologies for Automotive, Torino,
Italy: IEEE, Jun. 2017, pp. 1–8. doi: 10.23919/EETA.2017.7993213.

[15] L. A. Middlemiss, A. J. R. Rennie, R. Sayers, and A. R. West, “Characterisation of

batteries by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy,” Energy Rep., vol. 6, pp. 232–241, May
2020, doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2020.03.029.

[16] Ghadi, M. A, “Performance Analysis and Improvement of Electrochemical Impedance

Spectroscopy for Online Estimation of Battery Parameters,” Master’s thesis, University of
Windsor (Canada), Canada, 2021. [Online]. Available:
https://www.proquest.com/openview/ae5d1f8717d0c21c154adba91c874fc9/1?pq-
origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
[17] M. Böttiger, M. Paulitschke, and T. Bocklisch, “Systematic experimental pulse test
investigation for parameter identification of an equivalent based lithium-ion battery model,”
Energy Procedia, vol. 135, pp. 337–346, Oct. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.09.525.
[18] P. Pillai, S. Sundaresan, K. R. Pattipati, and B. Balasingam, “Optimizing Current Profiles
for Efficient Online Estimation of Battery Equivalent Circuit Model Parameters Based on
Cramer–Rao Lower Bound,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 22, p. 8441, Nov. 2022, doi:
10.3390/en15228441.

[19] Agudelo, B.; Zamboni, W.; Monmasson, E.; Spagnuolo, G., “Identification of Battery
Circuit Model from EIS Data,” presented at the JCGE-Congrès,

[20] MathWorks, “Characterize Battery Cell for Electric Vehicles - MATLAB & Simulink,”
MATLAB & Simulink. [Online]. Available: https://www.mathworks.com/help/simscape-
battery/ug/battery-cell-characterization-for-ev.html