Calorimetric Methods and Thermal Management of Lit

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HEET-2022 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2454 (2023) 012006 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2454/1/012006
Calorimetric methods and thermal management of lithium-

ion batteries: A mini-review
Seyed S Madani* and Carlos Ziebert

Institute of Applied Materials-Applied Materials Physics, Karlsruhe Institute of
Technology, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
*Correspondence: [email protected], Tel.: (+49-72160828540)
Abstract. Lithium-ion batteries can be employed in various applications, including grid

integration, electric vehicles, grid support, and consumer electronics. Lithium-ion batteries are
currently one of the most important options for storing electrical energy. Therefore, modelling
lithium-ion batteries and examining their temperature distribution and heat transfer using
different calorimetric techniques is very important mostly for safety concerns. Thus, the study
of battery heat transfer helps designers to propose and develop a suitable cooling or thermal
management system. Different sources including overpotential contribute to heat generation.
Different understandings were achieved from the previous modelling and experimental studies
which involve the necessity for more accurate heat generation measurements of lithium-ion
batteries, and improved modelling of the heat generation specifically comprehended at large
discharge and charge rates for different applications including electric vehicles.
1. Introduction
Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are being used as electrochemical storage in different applications, via which
energy could be stored in the configuration of potential chemical diversity and utilized on every occasion
required. LIB have acquired much consideration from researchers worldwide. Purely electric vehicles,
hybrid electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrid vehicle advancements are currently the focus of the research
activities of almost all automotive companies. Notwithstanding, LIB could have a more significant role
in the twenty-first century, especially as an essential ingredient for advancing energy sustainability and
the energy transition to renewable energy supply.
Chemical reactions occur inside lithium-ion batteries. Battery calorimetry can be used to measure
the heat generation data during the charging and discharging process of LIB. Quantitative data on heat
generation is needed for optimum safety and performance under every condition. The heat generation
data from battery calorimetry is required for battery thermal modelling and the design of proper thermal
management systems. Many studies have been accomplished on the thermal modelling of LIB but less
attention was paid to the battery calorimetry methods for that purpose. Therefore, the main objective of
this study is to review the calorimetric methods and thermal modelling of lithium-ion batteries. The
operating temperature of LIB is one of the most notable features affecting both the lithium-ion battery
pack's performance and lifespan. The LIB designers should understand lithium-ion batteries' thermal
characteristics to sketch a thermal management system for lithium-ion battery packs. Thermal analysis
and in-depth characterisation of LIB can help to develop a precise thermal model and to design an
efficient thermal management system. Notwithstanding, there is often only partial or no knowledge of
the chemical composition of commercial lithium-ion batteries, which makes the modelling a challenging
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task. A thermal management system for lithium-ion batteries to hold the temperature at a specific ideal
range is indispensable for numerous applications of lithium-ion batteries, in particular, electric vehicles,
to assure working safety.
Liu et al. [1] overviewed the problems in the field of battery thermal management and finally
examined the existing methods for solving these problems, including thermal problems. Ling et al.[2]
reviewed the thermal management methods of photovoltaic cells and lithium-ion batteries. Rao et al.
[3], as well as El Nisilo et al.[4] accomplished an overview of research in methods and materials
employed in thermal management of power sources employed in electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles.
Wong et al. [5] published a review article on thermal management and life expectancy models for
lithium batteries in automotive applications. The paper's thermal management system strategies have
been air-cooled fluid, phase change materials, and heat pipe. Xia G et al. [6] reviewed different battery
thermal management systems in electric vehicle applications. Wang et al. [5], and Malik et al. [7],
examined the different types of batteries and electric vehicles produced by different companies. Finally,
they studied the importance of thermal management and its methods.
Diminishing the time needed to charge or discharge lithium-ion batteries is an essential goal in
expanding zero-emissions vehicles. In addition, it can assist autonomous vehicles such as electric buses
in decreasing expenses and working downtime. The lithium-ion battery produces more heat during rapid
charging and discharging conditions. This heat should be transferred rapidly to avoid a rapid increase in
temperature in the lithium-ion battery. Understanding the thermal behaviour of lithium-ion batteries,
specifically during rapid charging and discharging cases, is crucial. Unfortunately, less attention was
paid to this subject. Different approaches were demonstrated to model the non-homogeneity of the
lithium-ion battery cell temperature. By modelling and simulating heat loss and lithium-ion batteries'
thermal behaviour, temperature gradients of lithium-ion batteries at different current rates could be
determined which helps to develop a well-adapted thermal management system.
2. Calorimetric Methods
Lithium-ion batteries can help incorporate wind energy and photovoltaic in the energy combination by
supporting storage capacity. Besides, lithium-ion batteries could be used in off-grid energy supply
systems, including solar house systems, to help access electricity in growing areas. Today, with the
development of electric cars, hybrids, phones, and tablets, the use of lithium-ion batteries with high
storage volume is required. Electrified vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles, fuel cell hybrid electric
vehicles, and electric vehicles; are needed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. [8,9].
Thermal analysis of lithium-ion batteries using experimental data from battery calorimeters is
critical because these LIBs would substantially rise in the temperature and heat loss gradient throughout
charging and discharging in an actual application, mainly as a consequence of the irreversible and
reversible heat. Thermal analysis and LIB heat measurements are required for cost-effective and safe
electric vehicles with a large driving range. Several sources contribute to heat generation inside LIB
comprising different causes of overpotential as irreversible heat sources, reversible heat sources, the
heat of mixing, and the heat of phase change. These are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Different causes of overpotential and different sources contribute to heat generation [27].
The overpotential is explained as the variation between the battery cell’s theoretical open circuit
potential and operating potential. It characterizes system irreversibility and usually has the most
2
significant influence on heat losses. The overpotential between the open circuit potential and the
operating potential of the LIB results in significant polarization. While lithium ions overcome the
resistance at the interface for their deintercalation and intercalation, heat is generated. Reversible
entropic heat or entropy variation is another critical parameter. Entropic heat is heat generated in the
reversible process, which originates from the reversible entropy variation throughout electrochemical
reactions. Further irreversible processes can generate heat, comprising the ohmic heating process, active
polarization process, and heating attributable to enthalpy change and mixing. In an efficient and
homogeneous process, it is frequently challenging to relocate the heat generated throughout rapid
charging attributable to resistive heating. Temperature inhomogeneity both on cell and pack levels
causes safety concerns and accelerated degradation. Enthalpy variation is a form of an irreversible
process that produces heat. Enthalpy variation occurs due to phase changes in the cathodes. When LIB
are in the discharging or charging process, the ion distribution turns out to be inhomogeneous, which
could cause heat generation through the mixing of ions. The ohmic heating process appears in the
electrolyte and the electrode [10,11].
Calorimetry was employed by different researchers for heat generation measurements of LIB [12-
16]. Kazuo Onda et al. [17] studied experimentally the heat generation behaviour of small lithium-ion
secondary batteries. The heat source conditions to enhance a small lithium-ion battery’s temperature,
including the entropy alteration and over potential resistance, were measured through different
approaches. Besides, the lithium-ion batteries' total heat generation and temperature rise were
determined. Javad Esmaeili et al. [18] developed heat source terms containing heat loss at rest conditions
for lithium-ion battery packs by employing up-scaling information from the cell scale. Yo Kobayashi et
al. [19] carried out a combined electrochemical-calorimetric measurement on a spinel lithium
manganese oxide cathode and graphite anode lithium-ion cell. The irreversible thermal behaviour
recognized by calorimetry demonstrated the degradation of lithium manganese oxide at high
temperatures. R. Cohen [20] investigated the influence of different parameters such as storage, depth of
discharge, and current density on the Coulombic efficiency and heat generation rate of different cells.
Various commercial cells from different manufacturers were tested. It was found that the Coulombic
efficiency for the two arrangements was considered significant even at enormous temperatures and high
current density. It was concluded that the heat factor, which was the proportion between the useful
thermal energy and the electric energy produced by the cell, was approximately identical for different
cells. D. F. Untereker [21] investigated the thermal behaviour of different battery technologies. They
have employed electrochemical calorimeters to specify electrochemical reactions, electrodes, and cells'
behaviour. An uncomplicated model for comprehending calorimetric information from the lithium-ion
battery during discharging was established. Calorimetry has been recommended as an approach for
quantifying self-discharge rates. Can-Yong Jhu et al. [22] studied thermal abuse behaviour, including
thermal explosion hazards about adiabatic runaway reactions in commercial lithium-ion batteries, which
were investigated by employing an adiabatic calorimeter. It was found that charged LIB was more
hazardous compared with uncharged batteries. Hui Yang [23] determined the irreversible and reversible
heat of a cell using the electrochemical-calorimetric approach. Frank B. Tudron [24] determined the
thermal factors of a cell under different circumstances of constant load. A thermodynamic computation
was accomplished by providing a statement expressing the heat development rate produced through a
tiny battery cell under load to the current applied to the cell. Madani et al. [25] determined the heat loss
of a lithium titanate oxide battery under fast charging conditions. The working temperature of the
lithium-ion battery was assumed to be 20 °C. The general evolution of heat losses throughout charging
from 1 C to 8.5 C was a moderate growth for a working temperature of 20 °C. The increase in heat loss
turned out not to strictly follow the increase of the current level. The heat loss began from 6986 J for 1
C and then underwent an average increase from 1 C to 8.5 C showing growth by a factor of six. The
most striking alteration was from 7 C to 7.5 C charging, which grew by 13% compared to 7 C. G. Vertiz
[26] employed experimental and calculated approaches to characterize the heat generation of a
commercial large-size pouch cell. In addition, the values from the experiments were compared with the
heat generation estimated by the Newman model.
Figure 2 shows seven calorimeter types. In an isoperibolic calorimeter (s. Figure 2(a)) the
temperature of the calorimeter walls is kept constant and the sample temperature changes with time r.
3
Thermal resistance is defined by measuring the sample temperature change and temperature of the
calorimeter walls. In the contrast to isothermal calorimeters (s. Figure 2(b)) both the temperature of the
calorimeter walls and the sample temperature are kept constant. In addition, thermal resistance is very
small. The third type is an adiabatic calorimeter (s. Figure 2(c)), where both the temperature of the
calorimeter walls and the sample temperature change with time. In addition, thermal resistance is very
big, which means that the cell cannot transfer heat to the walls. In a Tian Calvet heat flux calorimeter
(s. Figure 2(d)) the difference between the temperature of the calorimeter walls and the sample
temperature is held constant and the heat flux is measured. In Figure 2(e)-(g) three subtypes of the
adiabatic calorimeter are shown, namely the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), the bomb
calorimeter and the reaction calorimeter. Both the bomb and the reaction calorimeter can be used to
investigate thermal stability and chemical reactions on the level of the materials, whereas the ARC
allows to performance of thermal abuse tests on the cell level and study the related thermal runaway
reactions.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e) (f) (g)

Figure 2. (a) Isoperibolic calorimeter [28], (b) Isothermal calorimeter, (c) adiabatic calorimeter [29],
(d) Tian-Calvet heat flux calorimeter [30], (e) Accelerating rate calorimeter, (f) Bomb calorimeter
[31], (g) Reaction calorimeter [32].
A thermal model and a thermal management system were developed for lithium-ion batteries by
using battery calorimetry. The methodology scheme is illustrated and described in Figure 3. A dual
potential multi-scale multi-dimensional battery model from ANSYS was used. A method was employed
to simulate and model a lithium-ion battery's thermal behaviour at different environmental temperatures
and current rates. The three-dimensional temperature profile of the cell was estimated. The investigated
models made it feasible to notice and display the discernible heterogeneity of the lithium-ion battery's
surface temperature distribution at different current rates. This research employed a second-order
equivalent electrical circuit LIB model. The equivalent circuit model parameters were specified from
multi-pulse discharge and charge data. Calorimetric tests were done to support the modelling approach.
By employing the heat loss, which was determined by the isothermal battery calorimeter, the obtained
model was simulated to determine the temperature distribution [33]. In the modelling, groups of
equations were developed to explain the lithium-ion battery's dynamic response and performance. In
addition, heat generation and electrical models were used to create a dynamic thermal model to analyze
the data, which were acquired through calorimetry analysis. The simulation was accomplished for a
4
complete discharge cycle. The ANSYS model employed a combination of heat transfer experiments and
simulations, including computational fluid dynamics and the results of the experiments in the isothermal
battery calorimeter. [34].
Figure 3. The integration of the ANSYS with the heat generation model and modelling results [33,34].
3. Thermal Effects and thermal modelling of lithium-ion batteries

The detailed and comprehensive impacts of temperature on lithium-ion batteries' heat loss are
indispensable to be identified. A three-dimensional heat conduction equation requires to be solved with
the intention of gaining the temperature distribution in a cell which can be described as [35]:
𝝏𝑻
𝝆𝑪 = 𝛁. (𝒌𝛁𝑻) + 𝑸
𝝏𝝉
𝝆: Density C: Specific heat capacity K: Thermal conductivities Q : Volumetric heat source
Shovon Goutam et al. [36] selected a systematic pattern to study the effect of current rates on the
thermal behaviour of LIB. In this way, it was possible to analyze and observe the temperature evolution
and variations between narrower intervals of current rates. Various parameters were determined,
including the lithium-ion battery current, voltage, surface temperature, heat flux, and maximum
temperature. Using the determined models, it was possible to determine the heat loss for all charge and
discharge cycles, with a different current. In addition, it is possible to comprehend the increasing and
decreasing trend of temperature. This research studied the development of temperature distribution,
thermal behaviour, and cell thermal performance. Furthermore, the heat generation model was computed
at various temperatures and different charging and discharging scenarios. More than that, the highest
jump in the lithium-ion battery temperature was measured. A wide range of charge and discharge current
rates were selected to determine the battery's heat generation and surface temperature evolution.
The thermal image of the battery during charging and discharging is illustrated in Figure 4. More
energy is transferred to less electrical resistance areas than areas with more significant electric resistance
attributable to the lower current density in areas with more significant resistance. Consequently,
temperature gradients appear on the surface of lithium-ion batteries. The displacement of the hot spot
location may be attributable to the electrical cell design. Besides, it could be seen for smaller
environment temperatures. The growing variation between lithium-ion battery cell temperature and the
environment causes a relocation of the hot spot approaching the lithium-ion battery cell's tab due to the
heat transmission's rising influence because of the load wires on the tabs.
5
Figure 4. Thermal image of the battery during charging and discharging [37].
Operating temperatures of LIB play essential roles in power storage systems. Investigations with
a focus on the thermal properties of LIB have been accomplished previously. One of the important
drivers for these studies was decreasing the risk of thermal runaway and improving LIB thermal stability,
which are affected by the electrode's characteristics, including the applied materials [38]. Several
researchers have investigated the influence of thermal behaviour on LIB performance. Using different
Experimental and simulation approaches. S.C. Chen et al. [39] developed a comprehensive three-
dimensional thermal model to investigate the thermal behaviour of a lithium-ion battery. The thermal
model's simulation outcomes exhibited asymmetrical temperature distribution. Hall et al. [40]
demonstrated that lithium titanate as an anode material provided exceptional stability. The capacity,
however, turned out to be strongly temperature-dependent.
Yasir Abdul-Quadir et al. [41] employed a large-capacity lithium-ion battery cell to determine
heat generation. The generated heat was quantified by entropic heat and over-potential heat. In addition,
over-potential heat was quantified by measuring dissimilar resistances. It was demonstrated that the
entropy coefficient transformed from exothermic to endothermic, which was mainly attributable to
structural rearrangements at the anode. Another study investigated the impact of a lithium-ion battery's
design parameters on heat generation. It was demonstrated that the design parameters and working
conditions significantly influence the kinetics. The outcomes exhibited that LIB with a thin layer
thickness had a minor temperature increase [42].
In the field of thermal modeling of batteries, various methods have been used, including integral
methods, enthalpy, and special heat capacity, which are shown in Figure 5. Extensive studies on
discretization methods have also been performed on the mentioned methods.
6
Figure 5. Different methods for thermal modelling of lithium-ion batteries [43].
4. Thermal management systems for lithium-ion batteries

The in-depth understanding of the thermal effects in LIB, which is enabled by the findings of the
described experiments using calorimetric methods and the thermal modelling approaches allows to
development of a well-adapted thermal management system. This ensures that the cell is kept as much
as possible under the optimum operating conditions. Various fluids such as air and water can be used in
the field of active cooling in batteries. In addition, passive methods including heat pipes and phase
change material approaches have been proposed. A simple battery thermal management system that can
be used for comparing air and liquid cooling systems is illustrated in Figure 6. In recent years, various
studies have been conducted on designing different thermal management systems for LIB. Various
innovative liquid coolant-based thermal management approaches for a pack were proposed by different
researchers. Among these methods, we can mention different methods such as heat pipe-phase change
material, air-heat pipes, air-phase change material, and air-phase change material-heat pipe.
Figure 6. Simple battery thermal management system.
A comparison between the different methods for thermal management of lithium-ion batteries through
the evolution of heat loss and studying their thermal and electrochemical behaviour was systematically
elaborated. Several simulations were carried out to calculate the lithium-ion battery's cooling by altering
the stream velocity and coolant direction in liquid cooling, fin cooling, and air cooling. studies
demonstrate the temperature distributions over the lithium-ion battery's surface at different velocities
and flow directions for air-cooling and direct liquid cooling and the temperature profile for liquid
cooling and fin cooling. Air-cooling's temperature profile was approximately identical to direct liquid
cooling, nevertheless, it has a more significant temperature impact on the battery cell. Studies displayed
the temperature profile for indirect liquid cooling, jacket, and coolant. As expected, the hottest zone
position was seen adjacent to the cooling liquid's exit, and the position of the coldest zone was seen
adjacent to the entry of the cooling liquid. The non-uniform heat distribution was found. The cycling
termination displays smaller temperatures adjacent to the cooling liquid's entry and more significant
7
temperatures at the cooling liquid's exit. The amount of heat generation was proportional to the cooling
flow velocity. The temperature of the LIB was manageable with an immense velocity of coolant fluid.
Notwithstanding, with an increase of cooling flow velocity to a value larger than a specific value for air
cooling, direct liquid cooling, and direct liquid cooling, correspondingly, a considerable cooling of the
LIB was not obtained [44].
Mahesh Suresh Patil et al. [45] studied numerically different factors influencing liquid cooling
cold plates for a lithium-ion pouch cell. It was seen that the cooling effect of the cold plate is influenced
by multiple factors, including the number of channels and the inlet mass flow rate of the coolant. By
enlarging flow velocity, the heat transfer coefficient raises, the most significant temperature increases
declines, and temperature non-homogeneity is decreased at the expense of rising pressure reduction and
energy utilization; consequently, the operational costs raise. Although the fluid heat capacity is a
significant coefficient, the costs related to pressure drop and power or fan or pump power to drive the
fluid and less complexity in design and low cost and weight should be considered. Different coolant
arrangements were selected, and the results were compared to demonstrate the effect of different flow
distributions in the coolant channel. In addition, the impacts of essential design parameters on the cold
plate's thermal performance were numerically studied. It was concluded that channel width, number of
channels, the inlet mass flow rate, and inlet temperatures have a significant influence on cold plate
temperature. They studied the thermal performance of a water-cooled lithium-ion pouch cell at a big
discharge rate using a microchannel cold plate.
In another work, Mahesh Suresh Patil et al. [46] numerically studied cooling plates accompanied
by dissimilar constructions for electric vehicle thermal management systems. The impact of channel
distribution and cooling direction on the cooling structure's thermal behaviour and performance for the
LIB was investigated. The LIB was sandwiched between two cold plates. The liquid water was assumed
to flow into the entrance channels with coolant temperature and a different mass flow rate. The pressure
distribution for different cases was described. The produced heat was transferred into the cold plate and
relocated by the coolant fluid afterwards. Different designs were considered for the direction of flow in
the cooling plate. The pressure decline demonstrates the pump energy to overcome the flow resistance
of the coolant fluid. The most significant temperature of the cooling plate could demonstrate the most
severe working condition of lithium-ion batteries. Compared to other cases, the cold plate's highest
temperature uniformity happens when the number of conduits was higher, and the inlet temperature was
lower. It was concluded that the design with ten conduits was the best.
A cold plate is an extensively used design for LIB. Different lithium-ion battery shapes and
models were investigated for different flow distributions in the coolant channel and different
conventional coolant fluids. The scope of working flow velocity for every cooling approach was
accurately and thoroughly investigated to manage the temperature increase under different working
conditions. Moreover, the fluid pressure drop in the collection and flow distribution were calculated for
each item. [47-50]. An overview of such thermal management system approaches using cold plates is
given in Table 1.
A multipurpose cooling plate was designed and investigated for the thermal management of
prismatic lithium-ion batteries throughout thermal runaway and normal working. The coolant's pressure
decline was approximately 75 Pa for the usual working mode and approximately 54 kPa for the cooling
plate's thermal runaway working condition [51]. S. Panchal et al. [52] studied the simulation and thermal
design of the mini-channel cold plate for a prismatic lithium-ion battery. A significant airflow rate
requires being distributed inside the chamber to attain efficient temperature management for dissipating
the generated heat in the lithium-ion battery. The aforementioned is not commonly accomplished
attributable to the chamber's incapability to enhance the flow rate. It was seen that operating temperature
and discharge rate has the most significant influence on the temperature of the cold plate.
The lithium-ion battery module accompanied by a water-cooling plate and phase change material
was structured and numerically investigated according to the fluid dynamics and energy conservation to
improve the operational efficiency of a LiFePO4/C LIB. In addition, the non-uniform inner heat source,
according to the 2D electrothermal model for the LIB, was employed to simulate heat loss [53].
Jianguo Wang et al. [54] studied the thermal behaviour enhancement of a LIB pack with various
cooling structures. The outcomes displayed that an arrangement that employs a short length-width
8
proportion is more advantageous to elevating the cooling arrangement's performance. The entrance and
exit arrangement of the cooling configuration, which eases fluid stream through most of the pack over
reduced lengths, is more advantageous to thermal management. The arrangement of a significant
quantity of entrances and exits could ease a more flexible arrangement of the fluid stream condition and
decrease LIB heating. Thermal management of a prismatic lithium-ion battery was investigated by using
a mini-channel cold plate. It was concluded that larger flow rates are required at higher discharge rates
to attain cooling performance [55].
Experimental facilities were established to determine the temperature impact on lithium-ion
battery performance and design different thermal management methods. The quantification of heat
generation for LIB at different charge and discharge rates and working conditions was investigated.
According to these performance outcomes, the thermal model, which was capable of predicting the
lithium-ion batteries' thermal behaviour, was improved and experimentally validated. It was concluded
that heat accumulation and heat generation are not uniform over the lithium-ion battery's surface.
Remarkably, the thermocouples seated near the tabs sensed temperature, which was more significant
than at other positions. It was observed that the experimental results are in good agreement with the data
from the model. Considerable temperature heterogeneity was observed at the lithium-ion battery cell
surfaces because of the more effective current rate. Correspondingly, a suitable thermal management
system was designed. The thermal management system could play an essential role in stopping the
lithium-ion battery cell's immense temperature growth during significant current rates of discharging
and charging. With the increase in the charge and discharge current rates, the temperature distribution
became less spatially homogeneous over the lithium-ion battery's entire surface. The most significant
area is positioned near the tab’s division of the lithium-ion battery. This finding might be inferred from
the quicker discharge of the active species adjacent to the tab area owing to the more significant current
density [56-58].
A new method for lithium-ion battery thermal management was designed by Y. Yuang et al. [59]
using mini-channel cooling plates with streamlined configurations. They found that the most significant
improvement of the heat exchanger performance accompanied by streamlined configuration design
could be as large as about 44% [59]. Madani et al. [60] studied the thermal behaviour of cold plates for
cooling lithium-ion batteries through thermal characterization. The cold plate was supposed to be
isotropic and homogenous for numerical simplicity. The influence of inlet temperature and the number
of channels on the cold plate's thermal behaviour was described. It can be seen that the most significant
decrease in maximum temperature happens when the number of channels is ten and the inlet temperature
was the lowest.
Four different multichannel cooling plates accompanied by honeycomb assembly, including
convex assembly, airfoil assembly, and U-shaped assembly, were constructed as specified by the
particular heating state of a rectangular lithium-ion battery pack [61]. T. Amalesh et al. [62] studied the
influence of different cases on the cold plate's thermal behaviour. The construction of the cooling plate
was considered comparatively complex. Furthermore, the channel configuration of the cold plate was
considered comparatively simple. Water was considered as cooling mass media in the lithium-ion
battery cooling for various typical current distributions and arrangements. It was concluded that zig-zag
and circular slots channels showed good cooling performance.
Table 1. The thermal management system of lithium-ion batteries using cold plates.
Investigation Conclusion Ref
-Influencing factors of double cold- The inlet temperature of coolant has the greatest influence on the Patil et al.
plate: Numerical study battery (contribution:99.31%)
9
- Sensitivity analysis [45]

Cooling performance The greatest pressure descend of the coolant is 227.6 Pa for 4- Patil et al.
characteristics channels and the mass flow rate of 0.001667 kg/s [46]
Study of a cooling system The cell’s temperature differences and temperature Chu et al.
could be held within an ideal scope. [47]
-Heat dissipation analysis The highest temperature variation Mei et al.
- Flat heat pipe of the average temperature for batteries moderately [48]
raise and arrive at the highest at 3 C
-Thermal analysis The generated heat by the cells collects within the module, which Zhang et
- Multi-domain modelling creates a big risk of thermal runaway for a big-scale battery pack al. [49]
framework
Optimization and analysis process The temperature decrease was greater,1.87 °C; and the temperature Chen et
deviation could be controlled within a negligible range, 0.35 °C al. [50]
-Dual-purpose cooling plate -The system could retain the battery temperature under 25 °C during Haq et al.
- Normal operation and thermal normal operation. [51]
runaway conditions - The pressure drop of coolant was 75 Pa
Thermal design and simulation -Elevated working temperature and discharge rates Panchal
leads to the elevated temperature of the cold plates et al. [52]
Effect study on thermal behaviour The optimal combining could decrease the greatest temperature Wang et
enhancement variation to 3.52 K and control the highest temperature under 302 K al. [54]
Thermal Management by Discharge rate: 2 C Shen et

mini-channel cold plate Flow rate: 0.002 kg s−1 al. [55]
Inlet coolant temperature: 30°C
Maximum temperature: 33.8°C
Temperature difference: 3.5°C
A new method for lithium-ion The utmost improvement of the heat exchanger efficiency can be as Huang et
battery thermal management big as 44.52% by using a stream-line shape design al. [59]
-Numerical analysis with different -The convex design has a better cooling performance Li et al.
structures for electric vehicle -The heat transfer performance of dissimilar systems alters a large [61]
amount with the enhancement of mass flow rate
- Novel designs of mini-channel - The zig-zag and circular slot channels provided the advantageous Amalesh
cooling performance et al. [62]
- Improved temperature homogeneity achieved with the whole of the
designs
Thermal performance of a Ambient temperature < 35 °C: the thermal performance of the system Liang et
heat pipe system could be held approximately constant by decreasing the coolant al. [63]
temperature.
Phase change materials can play a unique role in battery temperature management. Different
requirements of phase change materials are illustrated in Figure 7. The presence of these materials in
the vicinity of lithium-ion batteries can keep the temperature of the batteries at a low level and provide
a uniform temperature in the whole battery pack [64,65]. One of the unique features of phase change
material is that it can store a large amount of heat energy and transfer it to the outside in other
circumstances [66]. Also, these materials can absorb the heat from the damaged battery in case of a
thermal runaway due to their high ability to absorb and store heat and prevent from spreading of this
phenomenon [65,67]. An overview of such thermal management system approaches using phase change
materials is given in Table 1.According to a recent study, the main goal of a large amount of research is
focused on the use of different phase change materials in order to increase the heat transfer coefficient
of these phase change materials, which has been shown to be extremely effective. Increasing the heat
10
transfer coefficient in these phase change materials has been done with the aim of reducing the maximum
temperature of the batteries and distributing the appropriate temperature in the battery pack. [68-74]. It
can be concluded from the study that the methods in which phase change materials are used significantly
help to lower the battery temperature [75].
Figure 7. Different requirements of phase change materials [76].
Table 2. The thermal management system of lithium-ion batteries using phase change materials.
Investigation Material Conclusion Ref
Thermal performance of a Composite board Enlarging the latent heat of phase change material Yan et al.
composite board: Numerical could considerably enhance the thermal [65]
study performance of the composite board.
Preventing thermal runaway Phase change composite The cooling materials decrease the greatest Wilke et
propagation: an experimental temperature of cells al. [67]
study
A multiscale study for thermal Graphene or h-BN paraffin Graphite network composites produce the dominant Mortazavi
management composite structures performance in thermal management et al. [68]
A thermal management Cutting copper fiber sintered The heating rate of the battery pack lessens with Pan et al.
system: Experimental and skeleton/paraffin composite enhancement in the quantity of pores per linear inch [69]
numerical investigation
A novel method for battery nanosilica-enhanced with anti- these enhanced properties of cooling material Lv et al.
thermal management leakage and anti-volume- present better cooling durability and efficiency [71]
changes properties
Thermal management 60 wt% RT44HC/expanded The small thermal conductivity of the material Ling et al.
performance of phase change graphite (EG) composite + 60 results in bigger [72]
materials at wt% RT44HC/fumed silica temperature variation over the battery pack
low temperatures composite
Phase change materials for Graphene-enhanced hybrid Graphene incorporation causes a considerable Goli et al.
thermal decline in the temperature increase in Li-ion [73]
management of batteries batteries
A passive thermal management Nickel foam-paraffin The utilization of cooling material could Hussain
system composite substantially decrease the surface temperature inside et al. [74]
for high-powered batteries the permissible range
Thermo-mechanical Expanded graphite-phase When the mass fraction of paraffin wax enhances in Alrashdan
behaviours for thermal change material matrix the composite material, the et al. [75]
management of battery packs thermal conductivity was bettered
Effective heating approaches Phase change material The performance Lv et al.
for power battery of the forced-air convection, heating approaches [77]
could be increased by assembling a close-ended
battery pack
5. Conclusion
Lithium-ion batteries are one of the most important options for storing electrical energy. Today, with
the development of electric cars, hybrids, phones and tablets, the use of batteries with high storage
volume is required. Therefore, modelling batteries and examining their temperature distribution and heat
11
transfer for a wide range of charge and discharge current rates, including low and fast charging is very
important. Thus, the study of battery heat transfer helps designers to propose and develop a suitable
cooling system. Efficiency is a non-dimensionalized parameter produced by electrical power and heat
generation. The efficiency presents a more straightforward illustration of the heat generation
characteristics all over the experiments. This non-dimensionalized parameter is under one for all charge
and discharge rates. Notwithstanding, the efficiency of heat generation has a different quantity for
different charge and discharge rates. Generally, information about lithium-ion batteries, including
physical composition and properties, is unavailable. The aforementioned makes the thermal model and
management of lithium-ion batteries an extraordinarily challenging task for researchers.
Notwithstanding, there is insufficient comprehension regarding the practical technique to thermally
control the lithium-ion battery cells in a pack. Previous studies did comprehensively investigate lithium-
ion batteries' thermal behaviour and management during different charge/discharge cycles which
demonstrates a considerable scientific advancement and improvement in the comprehension of thermal
behaviour and management of LIB using different methods and exceptional experimental setup. In
addition, different coupled three-dimensional electrochemical and thermal models were built by
different researchers for lithium-ion batteries and packs. The models were employed to assess various
working states' impacts, including discharge current and coolant flow rate on the pack temperature. It
was concluded that thermal contact resistance significantly influenced the lithium-ion battery pack's
thermal performance. Lithium-ion batteries are continuously charged and discharged for different
applications, including electric vehicles. Accordingly, air or liquid cooling must remove the system's
heat. Interspacing should be considered to provide sufficient air or liquid cooling circulation to remove
heat. It can be concluded that the cooling effect can be significantly increased by combining both active
and passive methods. The in-depth understanding of the thermal effects in LIB, which is enabled by the
findings of the described experiments using calorimetric methods and the thermal modelling approaches
finally allows to development of a well-adapted thermal management system.
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Calorimetric methods and thermal management of lithium-

Seyed S Madani* and Carlos Ziebert

*Correspondence: [email protected], Tel.: (+49-72160828540)

Abstract. Lithium-ion batteries can be employed in various applications, including grid

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g)

3. Thermal Effects and thermal modelling of lithium-ion batteries

𝝆: Density C: Specific heat capacity K: Thermal conductivities Q : Volumetric heat source

Figure 5. Different methods for thermal modelling of lithium-ion batteries [43].

4. Thermal management systems for lithium-ion batteries

Figure 6. Simple battery thermal management system.

- Sensitivity analysis [45]

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