Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

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Energy & Buildings

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Research on the new passive optimization strategies for improving the

performance of combined solar chimney
Mengjiao Han a , Huimin Cui b, c, d, * , Zhiming Han a, c, d , Qingkuan Liu a, c, d
a
School of Civil Engineering, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang 050043, China
b
Department of Mathematics and Physics, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang 050043, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Behavior and System Safety of Traffic Engineering Structures, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang 050043, China
d
Innovation Center for Wind Engineering and Wind Energy Technology of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang 050043, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Focusing on the Combined Solar Chimney (CSC), this study introduces two innovative passive optimization
Deflector measures: deflectors and segmented heat-absorbing walls. Using numerical simulations, the impact of five
Segmented heat-absorbing wall control parameters—the angle and length of the straight deflector, the central angle of the curved deflector, the
Combined solar chimney
number of heat-absorbing wall segments, and the Rayleigh number (Ra)—on CSC performance is analyzed.
Ventilation and heat exchange performance
CFD simulation
Results indicate that air changes per hour (ACH) can be significantly improved with the implementation of
deflectors and segmented walls. Optimal deflector configurations are identified as a 25◦ angle, a 0.375 length-to-
width ratio (l/W), and a 60◦ central angle. The study recommends using two heat-absorbing wall segments for
practical applications. When both measures are applied, ventilation performance can be enhanced by up to
25.71%. Additionally, this research establishes quantitative relationships between the control parameters, ACH,
and heat exchange efficiencies, providing a theoretical foundation for practical engineering designs.

56 % in winter and cooling loads by 30 % to 100 % in summer [3].

1. Introduction The “solar heat-absorbing wall” (also known as the "Trombe Wall”)
was a notion put forth by Felix Trombe in 1967. Solar radiation is
China, the US, and the EU have proposed a long-term strategy known absorbed by the dark heat storage material in the chimney through a
as “carbon neutrality” to reduce carbon emissions and mitigate the glass plate in the Trombe wall design. The air in the channel is then
impact of frequent natural disasters resulting from global warming. The heated so that it flows upwards, and the air near the bottom is brought in
Chinese government declared, “Carbon peaking by 2030 and carbon to enhance the flow. It was the first truly SC. SCs and Trombe walls are
neutrality by 2060.” Building energy use has been rising annually in innovative designs that harness solar energy for energy conversion. The
recent years and now account for more than 30 % of total energy con- SC utilizes its unique structure to heat air through solar energy, creating
sumption of the world [1,2]. An essential challenge lies in achieving convection that facilitates air exchange between indoors and outdoors.
carbon neutrality in buildings by simultaneously reducing energy con- This not only aids ventilation but also enhances indoor temperature
sumption while ensuring a comfortable and healthy indoor during winter and reduces heat load in summer. Meanwhile, the Trombe
environment. wall, a solar collector directly attached to the south-facing exterior wall
There are two primary approaches to achieving carbon neutrality: of a building, effectively absorbs and stores solar energy through a
one is to remove greenhouse gases through specialized methods, and the combination of dark-colored walls and a glass cover. It releases heat
other is to utilize renewable energy sources to reduce carbon emissions. when needed, providing warmth indoors. Both designs exhibit unique
Passive design can be used in green building design to enhance internal features, with the solar chimney emphasizing ventilation and tempera-
ventilation, which can effectively improve indoor air quality and reduce ture regulation, while the Trombe wall focuses on solar energy collec-
energy consumption from air-conditioning. Solar chimneys (SCs) have tion and heat transfer, collectively demonstrating the wisdom and
garnered significant attention as passive architectural designs that innovation in energy utilization in green buildings [4]. SCs come in
harness solar energy to augment the efficacy of natural ventilation. many forms and are mainly classified into four types [5]: Trombe walls,
Buildings with SCs have been shown to reduce heating loads by 46 % to vertical or inclined collector roofs, and ventilating towers.

* Corresponding author at: Department of Mathematics and Physics, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang 050043, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Cui).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114578
Received 21 April 2024; Received in revised form 1 July 2024; Accepted 20 July 2024
Available online 21 July 2024
0378-7788/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Nomenclature Vroom Volume of parking or garage room(m3)

W Width of combined solar chimney(m)
A Solar chimney aspect ratio x、y Dimensional coordinates
Bo Boussinesq number X、 Y Dimensionless coordinates
Cv Constant specific heat capacity(J⋅kg− 1⋅K− 1)
G Ventilation quantity(kg) Greek symbols
h Inlet height of traditional combined solar chimney(m) α Inclination of the inclined section of the combined solar
H Height of the vertical section(m) chimney(◦ )
k Thermal conductivity coefficient(W⋅m− 1⋅K− 1) γ Straight deflector angle(◦ )
l Length of straight deflector (m) Γ Generalized diffusion coefficient
L Length of inclined section (m) ζ Curved deflector central angle(◦ )
m Mass flow rate in the fully developed stage(kg⋅s− 1) η Heat exchange efficiency
m Mass flow rate per hour(kg⋅h− 1) θ Dimensionless temperature
M Dimensionless mass flow rate in fully developed stage κ Thermal diffusion coefficient(m2⋅s− 1)
n Air change per hour(/h− 1) ν’ Sum of viscous coefficients of turbulent flow and laminar
N Number of heat-absorbing wall segments flow(m2⋅s− 1)
p Pressure(Pa) ρ Air density(kg⋅m− 3)
P Dimensionless pressure τ Dimensionless time
q Heat flux of heat-absorbing wall(W⋅m− 2) Subscript
Q0 Energy rate absorbed by the heat-absorbing wall(W⋅s) comput. Computational simulation
Qout Energy rate removed by natural ventilation(W⋅s) exp. Experiment
Ra Rayleigh number l Different lengths of straight deflector
Trad. Traditional combined solar chimney seg Different number of heat absorbing wall segments
T0 Initial temperature(K) γ Different angles of straight deflector
u、v Dimensional velocity in the x and y directions(m⋅s− 1) ζ Different central angles of curved deflector
U、V Dimensionless velocity in the X and Y directions
U* Dimensionless velocity magnitude

At present, many scholars have conducted extensive research on the to research done by Chen et al. [20], Imran et al. [21], and Hou et al.
use of SCs to enhance the natural ventilation in buildings. Currently, [12] on the distribution of temperature at various heights in the passage
most research focuses on exploring the ventilation characteristics of SCs along the width of SC. A mathematical model for the thermal boundary
under various conditions and their importance and impact on natural layer that takes into account density variations was proposed by He et al.
ventilation design in buildings. The relationship between the mass flow [22]. This mathematical model includes the thermal boundary layer
rate of SC and heat input is m ∝ Q0.572
i , between the mass flow rate and thickness formula and is more accurate than earlier models in predicting
the chimney width is m ∝ s0.712
i , and between thermal efficiency and heat flow rate and velocity [23]. This mathematical model can better explain
input is η ∝ Q0.298
i [4]. Fan shaft power requirements can be cut by the influence of the main design parameters of the chimney, including
roughly 50% annually with vertical SCs [6]. There is an optimal aspect heat, channel geometry, and environmental parameters, on the hot
ratio for ventilation performance [7–12]. The ventilation performance pressure effect and flow resistance and has been verified by experiments
of vertical SC in a confined space can be predicted using the formula m [24]. The model indicates that for the same heat, adding more boundary
= CdρUAc, wherein the ventilation volume increases with the height, layers can greatly enhance the ventilation performance of the SC. Khanal
width, and solar radiation intensity [13]. The empirical ventilation and Lei [25] have conducted a scaling analysis on the thermal boundary
performance formula for a vertical SC in a one-window room is q″in = layer and obtained the scale relationships that can characterize the flow
CR⋅[h⋅HSC⋅Ahot⋅(TSC-T0)]1/3 [14]. The ventilation performance of an in- and heat transfer characteristics of the thermal boundary layer.
clined SC is determined by the width, inclination, the solar radiation Although scholars have conducted in-depth theoretical research on the
intensity, and the velocity of the outer wind. The ventilation perfor- thermal boundary layer, the specific effect of increasing the thermal
mance increases with inclination, width, and solar radiation intensity boundary layer to enhance the ventilation and heat transfer perfor-
and decreases with the increase in outdoor wind velocity [15,16]. The mance of chimneys is still unclear.
air velocity inside an inclined SC may be predicted by v = Cd⋅[ρ(Tair)/ In recent years, several studies have been conducted to enhance the
ρ(T0)]⋅[L⋅g⋅(sin(s))2⋅(Tair-T0)/T0]1/2 [17]. Gan [18] investigated the in- ventilation performance of SCs through structural optimization. In order
fluence of cavity width on ventilation effectiveness and the enhance- to enhance the quantity of the thermal boundary layer, He and Lv [26]
ment of ventilation performance through photovoltaic integration, put transparent glass into the SC. The results indicated that the effi-
finding an optimal cavity width range of 0.55 to 0.6 m for a 6-meter high ciency of ventilation could be increased by 57% by inserting three
SC. Saifi et al. [19] studied the efficiency and application of SC systems transparent glasses. A staggered distributed heat-absorbing wall design
in the semi-arid climate of Ouargla, Algeria. The results indicate that SCs was put forth by Gong et al. [27] in an effort to improve the ventilation
can achieve indoor air velocities of up to 1.8 m/s during high wind performance of vertical rooftop SCs. With this innovative SC, the
speeds, reducing indoor temperatures by approximately 3-7℃. While ventilation volume of a vertical rooftop SC measuring 2.80 m in height,
these studies demonstrate significant potential of SCs in building 1.00 m in width, 0.84 m in depth, and 600 W/m2 of solar radiation may
ventilation, further research is necessary to enhance their effectiveness be increased by 57%. The inclined rooftop SC with a perforated heat-
and feasibility in practical engineering applications. absorbing wall was numerically simulated by Lei et al. [28]. It has
Some scholars have found through studying the temperature distri- been discovered that the ventilation volume of the optimized structure
bution inside SC passages that there exists a thermal boundary layer near exceeds that of the traditional one. This optimization is more effective
the absorptive walls. The thermal boundary layer at the heat-absorbing for rooftop SCs with inclined angles and wider airflow channels. Addi-
wall of SC can improve the ventilation performance of the SC, according tionally, altering the shape of heat-absorbing plate will alter the capacity

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

of SC for heat transfer and ventilation. For instance, the heat transfer thickness, which has a minor effect on SC ventilation when compared to
performance of an inclined SC system equipped with a concave heat- Ra and geometric parameters [10]. The model has the following di-
absorbing plate is 13.55% higher than that of a system without such a mensions: h/H=0.10, α = 45◦ , L/H=0.60, A=H/W=7.50. A 2D model is
concave panel. [29]. The heat transfer efficiency of inclined SC will also chosen because studies by Gong et al. [2], Pasut et al. [31], and Zamora
be enhanced by the attachment of phase-change material fins to the et al. [32] have all confirmed that 2D simulations can accurately
heat-absorbing plate [30]. represent the physical features of the airflow in the chimney channel
Despite the current state of research, there remains a lack of studies with essentially no variation in the final results.
focusing on improved ventilation and heat exchange strategies for Adding deflectors at the inlet is schematically shown in Fig. 2(a).
combined solar chimneys (CSC). CSCs not only enhance aesthetic appeal There are two types of deflectors: straight and curved. The angle be-
and make efficient use of space when integrated with building facades tween the straight deflector and the horizontal is γ, the length is l, and
but also combine the advantages of both vertical and inclined solar the central angle of the curved deflector is ζ. The CSC with segmented
chimneys. These include effectively reducing indoor heat loss and pre- optimization measures using heat-absorbing walls is displayed in Fig. 2
venting ventilation and heat exchange suppression caused by outlet (b). The heat-absorbing wall is evenly segmented (2 ~ 8 sections) with
reversal. the same spacing.
However, the following questions are proposed: How can the number The cases involved in the numerical calculations are illustrated in
of thermal boundary layers in a CSC be increased? Is it feasible to apply Table 2. The variable parameters are the angle and length of straight
techniques similar to those used for segmented absorption walls in deflector, the central angle of curved deflector, and the number of seg-
vertical SCs? What would the effects be? What is the airflow structure ments of heat-absorbing wall, respectively. Chen suggests breaking
within a CSC? Can ventilation efficiency be enhanced through a novel down the year of building into eight state stages, and that between April
passive vortex control method? These are crucial considerations. and June and between September and November, as much as possible,
Therefore, this paper aims to fill the research gap in the optimization natural ventilation should be employed to remove heat from the interior
measures of CSCs, aiming to enhance the applicability and extensiveness of the building [33]. Therefore, the meteorological data of Shijiazhuang,
in practical engineering. China, on June 2022 (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather
To address these issues, this study explores optimization strategies, Forecasts, 2022) is selected as the external environmental conditions for
including the addition of deflectors and segmentation of heat-absorbing numerical simulation. Based on the data survey from 2012 to 2022, the
walls in a CSC. The effects of natural ventilation and heat exchange are monthly average solar radiation intensity of the typical meteorological
numerically simulated across a range of varying parameters, including year (TMY) is 5099.531 W/m2. The monthly average solar radiation
straight deflector angles, lengths, curved deflector central angles, the intensity in June 2022 is 5137.109 W/m2, which is quite close to the
number of heat-absorbing wall segments, and Rayleigh numbers (Ra). TMY data. Therefore, the data selected for this study has a certain degree
This research establishes quantitative relationships between air changes of representativeness. In this study, Rayleigh number (Ra) is used to
per hour (ACH) and heat exchange efficiency with these parameters. The reflect different solar radiation intensities, and its range is 7.60 × 1012 ≤
impact of implementing two optimization measures simultaneously is Ra ≤ 2.98 × 1014.
assessed. Ultimately, practical guidelines are provided for real-world For this study, in order to simplify the calculation process, the
applications. following simplifications and assumptions are made:

2. Numerical simulation (1) Steady-state condition: the outdoor environment (solar radiation
intensity and outdoor air temperature) does not change with
2.1. Physical model and cases settings time;
(2) The air flow in the CSC passage is turbulent;
A two-dimensional(2D) structural model of a CSC with glass panel, (3) The air in the CSC passage is incompressible Newtonian fluid;
heat-absorbing wall, and airflow channel is depicted in Fig. 1(a). The (4) The thickness of each wall of the CSC is ignored [27];
properties of system materials are shown in Table 1. The height of the (5) Using the Boussinesq hypothesis, it is considered that the density
heat-absorbing wall in the vertical section is H, the width between the in the buoyancy term of the vertical momentum equation is a
heat-absorbing wall and the glass panel is W, the length of the chimney function of temperature, and the density in other terms is a
in the inclined section is L, the height of the chimney inlet is h, and the constant.
chimney inclination angle is α. The model does not account for wall

Fig. 1. Combined solar chimney model.

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Table 1
Material property parameters.
Name Density Specific heat Thermal conductivity Absorption Transmittance
(kg/m3) (J/(kg⋅K)) (W/(m⋅K))

Glass 2 500 840 0.75 0.06 0.84

Heat-absorbing wall 2 719 871 202.4 0.95 —
Insulation wall 1 800 879 0.814 — —

Fig. 2. Optimization measures of CSC.

2.2. Control equations and calculation methods ( ) ( )

∂V κ2 ∂V ∂V κ2 ∂P νʹ ∂2 V ∂2 V
+ 2 U +V = − 2 + + + Boθ (3)
Continuity equation, Navier-Stokes equation with Boussinesq hy- ∂τ Γ ∂X ∂Y Γ ∂Y Γ ∂X2 ∂Y 2
pothesis and energy equation are used in this study [34,35]. The basic ( )
governing equations are dimensionless with the following scales: X~x/ ∂θ κ2 ∂θ ∂θ ∂2 θ ∂2 θ
+ 2 U +V = 2+ 2 (4)
H, Y~y/H; τ~t/(H2/Γ); θ~(T-T0)/(qH/k); U~u/(κ 2/HΓ), V~v/(κ 2/HΓ); ∂τ Γ ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂Y
ρ-1∂P/∂x, ρ-1∂P/∂y~(κ2/HΓ)2; M~m/ρκ. Therefore, the dimensionless
form of the basic governing equation is as follows: Where, κ—thermal diffusion coefficient; Γ—generalized diffusion coef-
ficient; v’ = vt + v, v’—sum of viscous coefficients of turbulent flow and
∂U ∂V laminar flow, vt, v—viscous coefficients of turbulent flow and laminar
+ =0 (1)
∂X ∂Y flow; Bo—Boussinesq number, Bo = RaPr, where Ra = gβqH4/kvκ.
( ) ( ) Due to the vortex current region in the chimney, the RNG k-ε model
∂U κ 2 ∂U ∂U κ2 ∂P νʹ ∂2 U ∂2 U can better analyze the turbulent vortex current and improve the accu-
+ 2 U +V = − 2 + + (2)
∂τ Γ ∂X ∂Y Γ ∂X Γ ∂X2 ∂Y2 racy of the calculation results [36,37], so the RNG k-ε model is selected
in the simulation. Since there is also strong radiative heat exchange on
the inner surface of the glass plate facing the heat sink of the heat-

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Table 2
Setting of numerical simulation cases.

Note: i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. γ is denoted by 1, l/W is denoted by 2, ζ is denoted by 3, Nseg is denoted by 4, and N’seg is denoted by 5.

absorbing plate, the radiative model should be added to the computa- with dimensions of 1,025 mm in height, 925 mm in length, and 20 mm
tional model. The DO model is chosen here [38,39]. The enhanced wall in width. Simulation results under various solar radiation intensities are
treatment method is used in the simulation. compared with experimental data [4], as detailed in Table 3. The results
RNG k-ε model equation: clearly show that the ventilation volume increases with the intensity of
( ) solar radiation. The overall trend of the numerical simulation aligns
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = σk μeff + Gk + Gb − ρε − Ym + Sk (5) closely with the experimental outcomes, exhibiting a deviation of less
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
than 12 %, which falls within the acceptable error margin. This confirms
( ) the high reliability of the turbulence model and computational methods
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ε ε
(ρε) + (ρεui ) = σμ + C1ε (Gk implemented in this research.
∂t ∂xi ∂xj ε eff ∂xj k
ε2 2.3. Grid independence verification
+ C3ε Gb ) − C2ε ρ − R + Sε (6)
k
Grid independence verification is performed to ensure that the nu-
Where, Gk—generation term of turbulent kinetic energy caused by
merical simulation is accurate. Four sets of structured grids, 100 × 977,
average velocity gradient; Gb—turbulent kinetic energy generation term
240 × 1,450, 320 × 2,910, and 400 × 3,396, are tested under case C1-3
due to buoyancy; Ym—contribution of pulsation dissipation to the rate of
(γ = 25◦ , l = 150 mm, Ra = 3.67 × 1013). The mesh diagram for the CSC
dissipation in compressible turbulent flow; σ k, σ ε—the turbulence
is displayed in Fig. 3. The mesh is encrypted at the inlet, outlet, and
Prandtl numbers of k and ε, respectively; Sk, Sε—source entries.
walls. The grid independence verification results are shown in Fig. 4,
In the equation above:
which shows the variations in mass flow rate M and vertical wind speed
μeff = Cʹμ ρk2 /ε (7) V at P1 (0.1, 0.5) under different grid quantities. In CFD simulations, the
accuracy and reliability of the results obtained are highly dependent on
ρCʹμ η3 (1 − η/η0 ) ε3 the quality of the computational grid used. The grid should be fine
R= (8) enough to capture all essential features of the flow, while avoiding being
1 + β η3 k
overly refined to a point of high cost. This leads to the necessity of
In this study, the initial flow field is set to be isothermal and static, conducting a grid independence analysis to determine the grid density at
that is, T=T0. The boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 1(b) and are set which the results stop changing significantly with increasing resolution.
as follows: (1) Inlet: pressure inlet (P=0); (2) Outlet: pressure outlet By comparison, when the mesh quantity is more than 240 × 1,450, the
(P=0, ∂θ/∂Y=0, ∂U/∂Y=0, ∂V/∂Y=0, θ = 0); (3) Heat-absorbing wall: variation range of M and V at P1 is less than 2%. The 240 × 1,450 mesh
fixed heat flux (U=V=0, ∂θ/∂X=1); (4) Glass: adiabatic wall (U=V=0, size is chosen for calculation based on calculation accuracy and
∂θ/∂X=0); (5) Other walls: non-slip wall (U=V=0, ∂θ/∂X=0). The heat efficiency.
loss of the glass is negligible, which is consistent with the modeling
methods used in previous numerical simulations and experimental
studies of SCs [4,18,20,25].
The governing equations are discretized using the finite volume
method. The diffusion term is discretized by the second-order central Table 3
difference scheme, the convection term by the second-order upwind Validity verification of turbulence model.
scheme, and the transient term by the second-order implicit time Solar The ventilation The ventilation of Deviation
advance scheme. The coupling between pressure and velocity is calcu- radiation of numerical simulation (Mexp.-Mcomput.)/
lated using the SIMPLE algorithm. The convergence iteration residuals intensity(W/ the test [4]Mexp. Mcomput. Mexp.
m2)
are 10-6 for all equations except the energy equation, which is 10-8.
This study conducts a comparative analysis between experimental 200 0.989 0.904 8.57 %
investigations and numerical simulations to validate the accuracy of the 400 1.501 1.365 9.06 %
600 1.794 1.590 11.37 %
turbulence model and computational methods used. A three- 800 1.901 1.767 7.05 %
dimensional (3D) vertical solar chimney (SC) model is established 1000 2.161 1.914 11.39 %

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

In Eq. (10), Q0 = 3600q(H+L). Then the heat exchange efficiency is:

Qout
η= × 100% (11)
Q0

4. Optimization measures and effect analysis

4.1. Straight deflectors with various angles

The variation of the ACH (nγ) of the CSC under different Ra and
straight deflector angles (γ) is shown in Fig. 5(a), where l/W=0.375.
Fig. 5(a) shows that under different Ra, the ACH first increase and then
decrease with the increase of the straight deflector angle. When 5◦ ≤γ ≤
25◦ , the approximate relationship between the ACH (nγ) and Ra and
straight deflector angle (γ) is: nγ1 ~ Ra0.50γ0.09; when 25◦ ≤γ ≤ 45◦ , the
approximate relationship is: nγ2 ~ Ra0.36[1 + Ra-0.03γ -0.19], such as the
Eq. (12) in Table 4. The optimal effect of the straight deflector on the
ventilation performance of the CSC is achieved when γ = 25◦ . When γ ≤
35◦ , the ventilation performance of CSC is improved as opposed to
traditional. When γ ≥ 40◦ , the ventilation performance of CSC is
Fig. 3. Grid diagram in the calculation domain. reduced. When Ra = 1.31 × 1014, γ increases from 0◦ to 25◦ , and the
ACH increase from 15.22 to 16.24, an increase of 6.73 %.
The heat exchange efficiency (ηγ) of the CSC under various straight
deflector angle (γ) and Ra is depicted in Fig. 5(b). When 7.60 × 1012 ≤
Ra ≤ 7.67 × 1013, the heat exchange efficiency improves greatly with
Ra, and the approximate relationship between the heat exchange effi-
ciency ηγ and Ra and γ is as follows: ηγ1 ~ Ra0.07[1-Ra-4.05γ 0.19]. When

Fig. 4. Grid independence verification.

3. Evaluating indicator

In this study, the CSC is applied to a parking lot. In the parking lot,
two standard parking spaces [40] are selected, with one parking space
measuring 4.8 m × 2.0 m × 1.8 m. The ACH (n) and heat exchange ef-
ficiency (η) are introduced. In air-conditioning engineering, ACH is a
frequently used index to estimate the supply air volume and a crucial
indicator to assess the effectiveness of solar chimneys [41–43], which is
defined as follows [44]:
G
n= (9)
Vroom
In Eq. (9), G represents the hourly ventilation rate of the CSC, where
G=m/ρ, with unit of m3/h. Here, m is the hourly mass flow rate, with
unit of kg/h. Vroom stands for the volume of the parking or garage room,
with unit of m3.
Heat exchange efficiency is an important index to evaluate the heat
exchange performance of SCs [45,46], which represents the ability of
SCs to convert solar energy into usable heat and then discharge indoor
heat. The heat discharged by natural ventilation can be calculated as
follows [47]:
Qout = Q0 − Vroom Cv (T − T0 ) (10) Fig. 5. Influence of straight deflectors angles and Ra on the performance of CSC
(l/W=0.375).

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Table 4
Quantitative relationships of the ACH and heat exchange efficiency under
different Ra and the angles of straight deflector.
Quantitative relationships Goodness of
fit

nγ1 = 12.79 + 0.72Ra0.50γ0.09, 5◦ ≤γ ≤ 25◦ R2 = 0.9912 (12)

nγ2 = -5.55 + 32.22Ra-0.03γ-0.19 + 2.24Ra0.36, 25◦ ≤γ ≤ 45◦ R2 = 0.9762
ηγ1 = -108.65–0.62Ra-3.98γ0.19 + 179.0Ra0.07, 7.60 × 1012 R2 = 0.9316 (13)
≤ Ra ≤ 7.67 × 1013
ηγ1 = 41.56 + 48.08Ra0.05γ-4.31E-5, 7.67 × 1013 ≤ Ra ≤ 2.98 2
R = 0.9790
× 1014

7.67 × 1013 ≤ Ra ≤ 2.98 × 1014, the heat exchange efficiency decreases

slightly with the increase of the angle, and the approximate relationship
is ηγ2 ~ Ra0.05γ-4.31E-5, as shown in Eq. (13) in Table 4. When Ra = 1.31
× 1014, the heat exchange efficiency of the traditional CSC is 97.02%
and 95.82% when γ = 5◦ , which is a 1.2% drop. The heat exchange ef-
ficiency of the chimney is essentially constant with the angle.
The ACH (nγ) and heat exchange efficiency (ηγ) obtained from the
above calculations with different Ra and straight deflector angle (γ) are
fitted to the data to obtain the correlation law, as shown in Eqs. (12) and
(13) in Table 4, in which R2 is the goodness of fit, 0 ≤ R2 ≤ 1, and the
larger R2 is, the better the fit is.
The thermal boundary layer and vortex zone are key factors influ-
Fig. 7. The variation of vertical size of the vortex with the angles of straight
encing the ventilation and heat exchange performance of the combined deflector under different Ra (l/W=0.375).
solar chimney (CSC), as elucidated by the flow and heat exchange dy-
namics described in reference [48]. There is a vortex zone inside the
However, when γ ≥ 40◦ , although the vertical size remains smaller than
traditional CSC, which suppresses ventilation. Therefore, the measure of
that of traditional CSCs, the vortex zone and thermal boundary layer
adding the deflector to the inlet is proposed to reduce the vortex current
shift toward one side of the deflector (see Fig. 6(g)). Additionally, as the
area and enhance the ventilation intensity. The direction of gas flow will
deflector angle increases, the inlet size diminishes, leading to a reduc-
change, and the vertical flow velocity V=0 will be reached at the highest
tion in ACH compared to traditional CSCs. Consequently, ACH initially
point of vortex.
increases and then decreases with larger deflector angles. As the vortex
The isotherm diagram (θ = 2.2 × 10-4) for the full development stage
area reduces, air velocity near the glass plate decreases, carrying away
of CSC at various straight deflector angles is displayed in Fig. 6 at Ra =
less heat and thus lowering heat exchange efficiency.
7.67 × 1013. The thermal boundary layer thickness for a traditional CSC
is greatest near the bottom of the absorbing wall, as shown in Fig. 6(a).
After adding the deflector, the thickness of the thermal boundary layer 4.2. Straight deflectors with various lengths
close to the absorbing wall is lower than in traditional CSC.
Fig. 7 illustrates the variation in the vertical size (Y) of the vortex, The ACH (nl) of the CSC under various Ra and straight deflector
relative to the angle of the straight deflector under different Rayleigh length (l/W) is displayed in Fig. 8(a), where γ = 25◦ . As the deflector
numbers (Ra). The vertical size is defined as Y=(y-y0)/H, where y rep- length increases, the ACH at various Ra first increases and then de-
resents the highest point and y0 the lowest point within the vortex re- creases. When 0.125 ≤ l/W≤0.375, the ACH increase with the increase
gion. As demonstrated in Fig. 7, the vertical size of the vortex initially in Ra and the deflector length. The approximate relationship between
decreases and then increases with changing deflector angles. At an angle the ACH (nl) and the length of the straight deflectors (l/W) and Ra is as
of γ = 25◦ , the vortex reaches its minimum vertical size, indicating follows: nl1 ~ Ra0.51(l/W)0.07. When 0.375 ≤ l/W≤0.750, the ACH in-
optimal performance. The straight deflector significantly reduces the crease with the increase of Ra and decrease with the increase of deflector
vertical size of the vortex compared to traditional CSCs, thus decreasing length. The approximate relationship is: nl2 ~ Ra0.50(l/W)-0.18, as shown
the area of the vortex zone and increasing air changes per hour (ACH). in Eq. (14) in Table 5. When l/W=0.375, the straight deflector has the

Fig. 6. Isotherm of solar chimney under different inlet straight deflector angles under case C1-4(Ra = 7.67 × 1013, l/W=0.375, θ = 2.2 × 10-4).

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

W=0.750, the heat exchange efficiency is 96.78%. The addition of a

straight deflector is a practical way to enhance the ventilation capabil-
ities of CSC without compromising its ability to exchange heat, as
demonstrated in Fig. 8.
Data fitting of ACH (nl) and heat exchange efficiency (ηl) under
different Ra and straight deflector lengths (l/W) calculated above are
carried out, and relevant rules are obtained, as shown in Eqs. (14) and
(15) in Table 5.
The trend of the vertical size of vortex with the the straight deflector
lengths under different Ra is shown in Fig. 9. As the length of the straight
deflector increases, the vertical size of the vortex initially decreases and
then increases. The smallest vortex size and optimal performance occur
at a length-to-width ratio (l/W) of 0.375. With the addition of the
straight deflector, the vortex range is smaller compared to that of the
traditional CSC, aligning with the ACH trends shown in Fig. 8(a).
Additionally, as the deflector lengthens, the inlet size decreases,
increasing the pressure differential between the inlet and outlet,
enhancing the suction effect, and thus improving the ventilation per-
formance over the traditional CSC.
As the discussion in Sections 4.1 and 4.2, the addition of a straight
deflector can improve the ventilation performance of the CSC within the
parameters of this study without compromising heat exchange effi-
ciency. In the event that the straight deflector is used in the actual
project, γ = 25◦ and l/W=0.375 ought to be chosen.

4.3. Curved deflectors with different central angles

The ACH (nζ) of the CSC under various Ra and the curved deflector
central angle (ζ) are depicted in Fig. 10(a), where the inlet size is keep
constant, h’/H=0.079. The ventilation performance is contrasted with
that of a straight deflector with l/W=0.375, γ = 25◦ , and traditional CSC.
Fig. 5(a) shows that the ACH first increases and then decreases with the
increasing central angle for different Ra. When 30◦ ≤ζ ≤ 60◦ , the
approximate relationship between the ACH (nζ) and Ra and the central
angle (ζ) is: nζ1 ~ Ra0.50ζ0.05. When 25◦ ≤ζ ≤ 45◦ , the approximate
Fig. 8. Influence of straight deflectors lengths and Ra on the performance of relationship is: nζ2 ~ Ra0.47ζ-0.22, as shown in Eq. (16) in Table 6. When
CSC (γ = 25◦ ). ζ = 60◦ , the curved deflector has the best effect on the ventilation per-
formance of the CSC. Within the study area, the curved deflector can
enhance the ventilation compared to the traditional CSC (γ = 0◦ ). When
Table 5 Ra = 2.98 × 1014, ζ increases from 0◦ to 60◦ , the ACH increase from
Quantitative relationships of the ACH and heat exchange efficiency under
different Ra and the lengths of straight deflector.
Quantitative relationships Goodness of
fit

nl1 = 13.07 + 0.90Ra0.51(l/W)0.07, 0.125 ≤ l/W≤0.375 R2 = 0.9947 (14)

nl2 = 12.98 + 0.76Ra0.50(l/W)-0.18, 0.375 ≤ l/W≤0.750 R2 = 0.9937
ηl1 = -2146.79–1005.42Ra0.13(l/W)-1.68E-4 + 3220.41Ra0.05, R2 = 0.9988 (15)
7.60 × 1012 ≤ Ra ≤ 7.67 × 1013
ηl2 = 45.07 + 44.82Ra0.05(l/W)2.20E-3, 7.67 × 1013 ≤ Ra ≤ R2 = 0.9701
2.98 × 1014

best effect on the ventilation performance of the CSC. The length of the
deflector in this study can enhance the ventilation performance when
compared to the traditional CSC. When Ra = 8.35 × 1013, and l/W in-
crease from 0 to 0.375, the ACH increases from 14.47 to 15.58, an in-
crease of 7.70%.
The variation of heat exchange efficiency (ηl) of the CSC under
different Ra and straight deflector lengths (l/W) is shown in Fig. 8(b).
When 7.60 × 1012 ≤ Ra ≤ 7.67 × 1013, the heat exchange efficiency
increases significantly with Ra, and the approximate relationship be-
tween the heat exchange efficiency and the length and Ra is: ηl1 ~
Ra0.05[1-Ra0.08(l/W)-1.68E-4]. When 7.67 × 1013 ≤ Ra ≤ 2.98 × 1014, the
approximate relationship is: ηl2 ~ Ra0.05(l/W)2.20E-3, as shown in Eq.
(15) in Table 5. The heat exchange efficiency remains constant as the
length of the deflector increases.. When Ra = 1.98 × 1014 and l/
Fig. 9. The variation of vertical size of the vortex with the lengths of straight
W=0.125, the heat exchange efficiency is 96.77%, and when l/ deflector under different Ra (γ = 25◦ ).

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

= 60◦ , the heat exchange efficiency is 96.87%, with a reduction of

0.92%. The heat exchange efficiency of the CSC remains essentially
constant when the central angle is varied.
Data fitting of ACH (nζ) and heat exchange efficiency (ηζ) under
different Ra and curved deflector central angle (ζ) obtained above are
carried out, and relevant rules are obtained, as shown Eq. (16) and (17)
in Table 6.
The trend of the vertical size of vortex with the central angle of
curved deflector under different Ra is depicted in Fig. 11. As evident
from Fig. 11, when ζ increases from 30◦ to 60◦ , the extent of the vortex
current region decreases. The range of the vortex gradually expands
when ζ is equal to or greater than 60◦ . When ζ = 60◦ , the vertical size of
vortex is smallest, and the optimization effect is finest. Consequently, as
the central angle increases, the ventilation performance of the CSC first
rises and then falls. After a curved deflector is added, the vortex range is
reduced compared to a traditional CSC. When ζ ≥ 105◦ , the vortex
dimension of curved deflector is greater than that of the straight
deflector, which aligns with the change rule for ACH in Fig. 10(a). The
addition of both straight and curved deflectors can reduce the vortex
dimension of the traditional CSC, ultimately enhancing its ventilation
performance, as demonstrated in Fig. 11.
Taking into account the impact of both straight and curved deflectors
on ventilation performance, it is recommended to select a curved
deflector with a central angle of 60◦ for optimizing the traditional CSC in
practical engineering applications.

4.4. Segmented heat-absorbing walls

The variation of ACH (nseg) with the number of absorbing wall seg-
ments (Nseg) under various Ra is depicted in Fig. 12(a). When Ra ≤ 3.67
× 1013, the ACH is basically unchanged with the number of segments.
When Ra ≥ 7.67 × 1013, the ACH gradually increase with the increase in
the number of segments.
In contrast to the traditional CSC, when Ra ≤ 3.67 × 1013, the
ventilation volume of the CSC with segmented heat-absorbing wall re-
duces. When Ra ≥ 7.67 × 1013, the segmented heat-absorbing wall
Fig. 10. Influence of curved deflectors central angles and Ra on the perfor- enhances the ventilation performance of CSC and this optimization
mance of CSC (h’/H=0.079). impact grows as Ra rises. When Ra = 8.35 × 1013, the ACH (n) of the
traditional CSC is 14.47, and the ACH (nseg) of the CSC with Nseg = 5 is
Table 6
Quantitative relationships of the ACH and heat exchange efficiency under
different Ra and central angles of curved deflector.
Quantitative relationships Goodness of
fit

nζ1 = 13.50 + 0.70Ra0.50ζ0.05, 30◦ ≤ζ ≤ 60◦ R2 = 0.9982 (16)

nζ2 = 13.17 + 2.53Ra0.47ζ-0.22, 60◦ ≤ζ ≤ 120◦ R2 = 0.9854
ηζ1 = -98.02–28.69Ra-0.98ζ-2.30E-3 + 2.30 × 10-4Ra2.63ζ0.10, R2 = 1.0000 (17)
7.60 × 1012 ≤ Ra ≤ 7.67 × 1013
ηζ2 = -95.93 + 185.50Ra0.01ζ-3.56E-5, 7.67 × 1013 ≤ Ra ≤ R2 = 0.9815
2.98 × 1014

16.77 to 18.00, an increase of 7.30 %. In comparison to the straight

deflector, the curved deflector has a greater optimization effect on the
ventilation performance of CSC when ζ ≤ 90◦ , and the straight deflector
has a superior optimization effect when ζ ≥ 105◦ .
The heat exchange efficiency (ηζ) of the CSC under various Ra and
the curved deflector central angle (ζ) are depicted in Fig. 10(b). When
7.60 × 1012 ≤ Ra ≤ 7.67 × 1013, the heat exchange efficiency increases
obviously with the Ra, and the approximate relationship between the
heat exchange efficiency (ηζ) and the central angle (ζ) and Ra is as fol-
lows: ηζ1 ~ -Ra-0.98ζ-2.30E-3[1 + Ra3.61ζ0.10]. When 7.67 × 1013 ≤ Ra ≤
2.98 × 1014, the heat exchange efficiency decreases slightly with the
increase of the central angle, and the approximate relationship is: ηζ2 ~
Ra0.01ζ-3.56E-5, as shown in Eq. (17) in Table 6. When Ra = 1.98 × 1014,
the heat exchange efficiency of a traditional CSC is 97.16%, and when ζ Fig. 11. The variation of vertical size of the vortex with the central angles of
curved deflector under different Ra (h’/H=0.079).

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

gradually with the increase of Ra. When Ra = 2.39 × 1013, the heat
exchange efficiency (η) of the traditional CSC is 86.37%, and the heat
exchange efficiency (ηseg) of the CSC with Nseg = 2 is 80.26%, which
decreases by 7.07%. When Ra = 2.98 × 1014, the heat exchange effi-
ciency (η) of the traditional CSC is 97.82%, and the heat exchange ef-
ficiency (ηseg) of the optimized CSC (Nseg = 2) is 93.71%, which
decreases by 4.20%.
When Ra = 2.98 × 1014 and Nseg = 7, the ACH is 19.48, and the heat
exchange efficiency is 94.09%. For Nseg = 2, the ACH is 18.86, the heat
exchange efficiency is 93.71%, the ACH is increased by 3.29%, and the
heat exchange efficiency is increased by 0.40%. While segmented heat-
absorbing walls can improve the ventilation performance of the CSC,
adding more segments complicates construction and installation.
Furthermore, increasing the number of these segments yields dimin-
ishing returns in terms of ACH and heat exchange efficiency. Thus, for
practical and economic reasons, it is recommended to limit the number
of heat-absorbing wall segments to Nseg = 2.
The isothermal contour and streamline of the fully developed stage
in the CSC with different numbers of heat-absorbing wall segments are
displayed in Fig. 13, where Ra = 2.98 × 1014. The air temperature
distribution in the channel becomes more uniform as the number of
heat-absorbing wall segments increases. After the heat-absorbing wall is
segmented, the temperature in the channel is higher than in the tradi-
tional CSC (Fig. 13(a)). The increase in temperature within the passage
decreases the density of air, enhances thermal buoyancy, and thus im-
proves the ventilation of the CSC. However, this increased ventilation
does not suffice to offset the heat within the channel past the heat-
absorbing wall segments, leading to reduced heat exchange efficiency.
As buoyancy drives hot air upward, temperature contour distributions
reveal that air temperatures are higher in the inclined section than in the
vertical section.

4.5. Curved deflector & segmented heat-absorbing walls

The variation of ACH (n’seg) with the number of heat-absorbing wall

segments (N’seg) under different Ra for a CSC with a curved deflector is
shown in Fig. 14(a), where ζ = 60◦ . When Ra ≤ 3.67 × 1013, the ACH
(n’seg) first decreases and then increases with the segment number
(N’seg), and then basically remains unchanged. When Ra ≥ 7.67 × 1013,
the ACH gradually increases with the segment number.
In this range of studies, CSCs with segmented heat-absorbing walls
have better ventilation performance than traditional CSCs. When Ra =
2.98 × 1014, the ACH (n) of the traditional CSC is 18.00, and the ACH
(n’seg) of the optimized CSC (N’seg = 7) is 20.60, an increase of 14.44%.
When Ra ≤ 3.67 × 1013, the ventilation volume of CSC with the
segmented heat-absorbing walls and curved deflector is smaller than
that with curved deflector (ζ = 60◦ ). When Ra ≥ 7.67 × 1013, the
segmented heat-absorbing wall enhances the ventilation performance of
CSC and this optimization impact grows as Ra rises. When Ra = 8.35 ×
Fig. 12. Influence of the number of heat-absorbing wall segments under 1013, the ACH (nζ) of the CSC with curved deflector (ζ = 60◦ ) is 15.95,
different Ra on the performance of CSC. and the ACH (n’seg) of the CSC with segmented heat-absorbing walls
(N’seg = 2) and curved deflector is 16.04, an increase of 0.56%.
14.72, which is an increase of 1.73 %. When Ra = 2.98 × 1014, the ACH The CSC with the segmented heat-absorbing walls and a curved
(n) of the traditional CSC is 16.77, and the ACH (nseg) of the optimized deflector performed better in terms of ventilation than the CSC with the
CSC (Nseg = 5) is 19.40, an increase of 15.68%. segmented heat-absorbing walls and no deflector. When Ra = 1.31 ×
Compared with adding a curved deflector (ζ = 60◦ ), when Ra ≤ 1.98 1014, the ACH of Nseg = 7 is 16.10, and the ACH of N’seg = 7 is 17.50,
× 1014, the ACH with CSC using the segmented heat-absorbing wall which is an increase of 8.70%.
measure is reduced. The ACH increased when Ra ≥ 2.98 × 1014. The variation of heat exchange efficiency (η’seg) with the number of
Therefore, the curved deflector with ζ = 60◦ should be inserted if just heat-absorbing wall segments (N’seg) under different Ra for a CSC with a
one measure may be used. curved deflector is illustrated in Fig. 14(b), where ζ = 60◦ . For the CSC
The variation of heat exchange efficiency (ηseg) with the number of with a curved deflector, the heat exchange efficiency after the
absorbing wall segments (Nseg) under various Ra is illustrated in Fig. 12 segmented heat-absorbing wall gradually increases with the increase of
(b). The heat exchange efficiency of the CSC gradually increases with the the number of segments, and obviously increases with the increase
number of segments and increases significantly Ra. In comparison to the significantly with Ra. The optimized CSC has a smaller heat exchange
traditional CSC and the addition of a curved deflector (ζ = 60◦ ), the heat efficiency than the traditional CSC and the one with curved deflector. As
exchange efficiency decreases, and the decreasing range decreases Ra increases, the decreasing range gradually decreases. When Ra = 2.98

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M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Fig. 13. Isothermal contour and streamline under different numbers of absorbing wall segments under case C4-8 (Ra = 2.98 × 1014).

× 1014, the heat exchange efficiency (η) of traditional CSC is 97.54 %, (a).
and the heat exchange efficiency (η’seg) of optimized CSC is 94.22%, When employing only the segmented wall measure, the vortex’s
which decreases by 3.40%. When Ra = 2.39 × 1013, the heat exchange vertical size increases compared to configurations using solely curved
efficiency (ηζ) of the CSC with only a curved deflector (ζ = 60◦ ) is flow deflectors (ζ = 60◦ ). At N’seg = 2, the vortex region diminishes for
85.91%, and the heat exchange efficiency (η’seg) with N’seg = 2 is any Ra. For Ra ≥ 1.31 × 1014, the vortex area expands as N’seg increases.
81.27%, which decreased by 5.40%. The heat exchange efficiency of the Thus, if only one measure is feasible, using a curved deflector with ζ =
CSC with the segmented heat-absorbing walls and a curved deflector is 60◦ is recommended, consistent with conclusions drawn in Fig. 12(a).
slightly higher than that of the CSC with the segmented heat-absorbing Sections 3.4 and 3.5 of the study conclude that segmenting the heat-
walls and no deflector. absorbing walls effectively raises the temperature and airflow velocity
The temperature difference (Δθ) distribution along the width of the within the CSC, enhancing its ventilation capabilities. The combined use
chimney at different heights between the optimized CSC (ζ = 60◦ and of deflectors and segmented walls yields the best optimization effects.
N’seg = 7) and the traditional CSC is shown in Fig. 15. The temperature Considering the performance of ventilation and heat exchange, as well
difference is defined as: Δθ = θy-θTrad., where θy is the temperature at a as the economic and practical aspects of the CSC, it is advisable to
certain height in the chimney passage when the number of heat- optimize the CSC in practical applications by employing a curved
absorbing wall segments is 7, where ζ = 60◦ ⋅ θTrad. is the temperature deflector with a central angle of 60◦ and limiting the number of heat-
at a certain height in the traditional CSC passage. absorbing wall segments to 2.
As depicted in Fig. 15, temperatures significantly increase at the
location of the segmented heat-absorbing wall. The temperature on the 5. Conclusion
left side of the wall rises with height, while on the right side, it gradually
decreases, remaining lower than the corresponding temperatures in the This research addresses the gap in optimization strategies for the
traditional CSC. This increase in temperature at the traditional heat- design of combined solar chimneys (CSCs). In this study, the impacts of
absorbing wall is primarily due to the lateral transfer of heat released incorporating straight and curved deflectors, as well as segmented heat-
by the wall, where the velocity is low and the ventilation less effective in absorbing walls, on the ventilation and heat exchange performance of
carrying away heat. According to the temperature difference curve for traditional CSCs are explored. The characteristics of the flow field are
Y=1.0, the lowest temperature occurs at the base of the heat-absorbing simulated numerically taking into account the angle and length of the
wall, largely due to the upward air flow driven by buoyancy, which straight deflector, the central angle of the curved deflector, and the
transports heat from the bottom to the top of the wall. The optimization number of heat-absorbing wall segments. This analysis has led to
strategy involving segmented heat-absorbing walls reduces the propor- quantifiable relationships between air changes per hour (ACH), heat
tion of unheated air, enhances the uniformity of temperature distribu- exchange efficiency, and the aforementioned parameters. The key
tion across the wall, and facilitates the expulsion of more hot air. These findings include:
findings align with the conclusions presented in Fig. 13.
Fig. 16 illustrates the variation in the vertical size of the vortex as a (1) The optimal ventilation performance is obtained when the γ is
function of the number of heat-absorbing wall segments under different 25◦ , the l/W is 0.375 andthe ζ is 60◦ , respectively. The straight
Rayleigh numbers (Ra). Initially, when only the segmentation of heat- deflector can enhance the maximum ventilation capacity by
absorbing walls is implemented, the vortex size exhibits a pattern of 10.66%, and the curved deflector by 13.62%. In practical appli-
increase, followed by a decrease, and then an increase, reaching a cations, a curved deflector with a central angle of 60◦ is
minimum at Nseg = 2. When both segmentation and deflectors are used recommended.
concurrently, the vertical size of the vortex grows with an increasing (2) Increasing the number of wall segments improves ventilation
number of segments, but remains smaller compared to traditional CSC performance by 16.17%. The combination of curved deflector
and cases using only segmented walls. Consequently, the ventilation and segmented heat-absorbing wall could achieve the highest
performance of the CSC with both optimization measures surpasses that improvement of 25.71%. For practical applications, a 60◦ curved
of CSCs with only segmented walls, aligning with the findings in Fig. 14 deflector and two wall segments are optimal.

11
M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Fig. 15. Temperature difference along the width at different heights between
N’seg = 7 and traditional CSC (Ra = 1.31 × 1014).

Fig. 14. Influence of the number of heat-absorbing wall segments under Fig. 16. The variation of vertical size of the vortex with the number of heat-
different Ra on the performance of CSC with curved deflector. absorbing wall segments under different Ra.

(3) If only one optimization measure is feasible, adding a 60◦ curved CRediT authorship contribution statement
deflector is advisable.
Mengjiao Han: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
This study collates and statistically analyzes the computed data, Data curation. Huimin Cui: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
establishing quantitative relationships between air changes per hour Methodology, Conceptualization. Zhiming Han: Writing – review &
(ACH), heat exchange efficiency, and the geometric parameters of the editing, Supervision. Qingkuan Liu: Writing – review & editing.
deflectors—specifically, the angle and length of the straight deflector,
and the central angle of the curved deflector. Furthermore, we provide a Funding
quantitative description of the vertical sizes of vortices and elucidate the
impact of deflectors and segmented heat-absorbing walls on the venti- The study is financially supported by Natural Science Foundation of
lation and heat exchange performance of combined solar chimneys Hebei Province (E2022210069), Natural Science Foundation of Hebei
(CSC). The findings offer valuable insights for designing optimized Province Innovative Research Group Project (E2022210078), National
natural ventilation measures in CSCs. Natural Science Foundation of China (11802186), and Department of
Education of Hebei Province (BJ2019004). Central Leading Local

12
M. Han et al. Energy & Buildings 320 (2024) 114578

Science and Technology Development Fund Project (Grant No. [22] G.Q. He, J. Zhang, S. Hong, A new analytical model for airflow in solar chimneys
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