Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Session 1
Protistans (Kingdom Protista)

Contents
Introduction, p1
1.1 Characteristic features of Protistans, p2
1.2 Classification of Kingdom Protista, p4
1.3 Phylum Archaeprotista, p6
1.4 Phylum Rhizopoda, p8
1.5 Phylum Discomitochondria, p10
1.6 Phylum Granuloreticulosa, p11
1.7 Phylum Actinopoda, p13
1.8 Phylum Dinomastigota, p14
1.9 Phylum Ciliophora, p16
1.10 Phylum Apicomplexa, p20
Summary, p22
Learning outcomes ,p23

Introduction
Protistans which were previously described under the Kingdom Animalia
are now classified under several different phyla within Kingdom Protista.
Members of these phyla are all one celled organisms and they are called “
Unicellular organisms”.Majoratory of them feed on organic matter either
living or dead.This has led them to be known as “Animal Like Protistans”.
Some members can produce their own food and they called Autotrophs.
The Protistans that will be described in this session, includes those forms
that have been classified under 8 phyla.
In this session we will first, describe the characteristic features of Kingdom
Protista and secondly we will explain the classification of Kingdom
protista.
Finally, you will learn the main characteristic features and diversity of
eight protistan phyla namely, Phylum Archaeprotista, Rhizopoda,
Discomitochondria, Granuloreticulosa, Actinopoda, Dinomastigota,
Ciliophora and Phylum Apicomplexa.

1
 Unit I

1.1 Characteristic features of Protistans

Kingdom Protista, according to many is an “un-natural grouping” of living
organisms because it includes a variety of organisms ranging from algae,
slime molds, water molds and the protozoa. However all members have
common features and they are as follows:

• They have nuclei and other characteristic eukaryotic features. None of

them are prokaryotic organisms.

• They are not animals (which develop from a blastula) or plants (which
develop from an embryo) or fungi (which lack undulipodia and develop
from spores).

ACTIVITY 1.1

1. From your previous knowledge state why all protistans are considered as
Eukaryotic organisms.
2. List their characteristic features.
3. Using recommended readings or from previous knowledge, tabulate the differences
between prokaryoitc organisms and eukaryotic organisms.

The three important features of the ultra structure of Protistans that have been
used in classifying them are,

• Presence/absence of mitochondria in the cells and their ultra

structure.
• Photosynthetic pigment profile and
• Presence/ absence of undulipodium (cilium / flagellum).

The structure of the undulipodium

The word undulipodium refers to the flagellum / cilium referred to in older
books on Invertebrate Zoology. However recent evidence suggests that the
bacterial flagellum has a different ultras-structure to that of the eukaryotic
flagellum. Therefore the use of the same term for the bacterial flagellum and
the eukaryotic flagellum is not suitable Fig.1.1.

2
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Fig. 1.1 Ultra structure of eukaryotic undulipodium and bacterial flagellum

Consequently the term undulipodium is used in the above classification for

the eukaryotic flagellum/cilium. The undulipodia are hair-like protoplasmic
extensions from cells and is found to function as locomotor organelles
among Protistans. Electron microscope studies have shown that they are
fundamentally similar in structure to those found in higher group of
animals.
All Protistans are unicellular. Within their single cells they have organelles
that carry out all life functions which in the multicellular organisms are
carried out by specialized cells. They are basically heterotrophic, feeding
on either solid food or liquid food and as such are
referred to as animal like Protistans by some authors.

3
 Unit I

ACTIVITY 1.2

1. Looking at fig.1.1 describe in detail the ultra structure of an undulipodium.

2. Refer internet Google information or recommended text books to explain the detail
structure of bacterial flagellum.

3. Compare the differences you observe in ultra structures of undiulipodium and a

bacterial flagellum.

*****Bring your answers to the compulsory day school (CDS)****

1.2 Classification of Kingdom Protista

At present it is believed that there are approximately 250,000 species of
Protistans. The free living forms live in aquatic habitats, some in freshwater
and some in sea water. Others live in terrestrial habitats where there is
moisture. In addition to the free living forms there are parasitic and symbiotic
forms living in moist tissues of other organisms. Protistans includes
photoautotrophs and heterotrophs. Photoautotrophs synthesise their own food
by photosynthesis. Among the heterotrophs, some are capable of ingesting
solid food and others absorb liquid food through their plasma membrane.
Based on the organelle structure of Protist cells and genetic information along
with the newly acquired molecular data, one recent classification system
groups the Protistans into 30 different phyla Fig 1.2 Margulis and Schwartz
(1998).
Now you learn that all protistans are classified under several different Phyla
within the Kingdom Protista (Fig 1.2). In this session you will learn the
characteristic features and the diversity of eight phyla, namely Phylum
Archaeprotista, Phylum Rhizopoda, Phylum Discomitochondria, Phylum
Granuloreticulosa, Phylum Actinopoda, Phylum Dinomastigota, Phylum
Ciliophora and Phylum Apicomplexa.

4
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Fig. 1.2 Classification of Kingdom Protista (Margulis & Schwartz (1998))

(Protozoa are in bold font)

5
 Unit I

1.3 Phylum Archaeprotista

All Archaeprotista are anaerobes, ie they employ anaerobic respiration as their
major ATP yielding process. They live in habitats without oxygen or having
very little oxygen. Characteristically they do not have mitochondria in their
cells and hence are commonly termed as Amitochondriates. It is believed that
members of this phylum are relicts of the first eukaryotes that were present
when life first originated in our planet and like them were all adapted to live
in oxygen free or live under low concentrations of oxygen. Molecular
phylogenetic studies have shown that these Archaeprotists branched off from
all other eukaryotes that now form rest of the Protista.
Archaeprotists include several Eukaryotic genera. Among them are the free
living large amoeba, genus Pelomyxa, the symbiotic genus, Trychonympha
and the parasitic genera like Giardia and Trichomonas Some of the
archaeprotists lack undulipodia while other have varying numbers. Fig 1.3
Classification of Archaeprotists that we describe in this session is given in box
below.
Pelomyxa has been found only in one habitat, the muddy bottoms of
freshwater ponds in Europe, United States and North Africa feeding on algae
and bacteria. Pelomyxa is visible to the naked eye and grow and divide like all
other amoebae.
Pelomyxa palustris has a remarkable internal organisation different to most
other eukaryotes. This species has many nuclei and all nuclei are bounded by
nuclear membranes. The cytoplasm lacks the characteristic Eukaryotic cell
organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, chromosomes,
centrioles, etc. Interestingly, bacterial endosymbionts Fig 1.4 are found in the
cytoplasm of Pelomyxa and is believed to be functional analogues of
mitochondria providing it with low concentrations of oxygen.

Fig 1.3 Diversity of Archaeprotista

6
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Tryconympha unlike Pelomyxa, is a symbiotic archaeprotist living in the

hind gut of wood eating insects, termites and wood roaches. It has a sac
like body and on its anterior end there are thousands of undulipodia. The
posterior end extends pseudopods and ingests bits of wood. The wood
particles are digested using cellulose digesting enzymes of Tryconympha
and the digested products are utilised by the termite who also provides
shelter to Tryconympha. The termite host is found to loose its symbiotic
Tryconympha during each moult and get them back into their system by
licking each other or by rectal feeding.
Giardia has a pear shaped body bearing a total of 8 undulipodia and
appears to have bilateral symmetry in its distribution of organelles within
the cytoplasm. Fig.1.3 All species are parasitic in vertebrates. The human
parasite Giardia intestinalis lives in the upper small intestine. The
transmission from one host to another is by way of cysts ingested in food or
water that has been contaminated by faecal matter.
Trichomonas sp. are commensals or parasites. They characteristically
possess axostyles and parabasal bodies in their bodies. Trichomonas
vaginalis is a parasite of the urinogenital tract found in both men and
women and is sexually transmitted.

ACTIVITY 1.3

1. Breifly explain why termites can not servive without Trypanosoma.

2. How do the Archaeprotists you learnt about obtain nutrients.
3. Refer internet Google information and identify different types of Tricomonas
species and Giadia species.
4. Make sketches of the above identified species in the blank space below.

7
 Unit I

1.4 Phylum Rhizopoda

Phylum Rhizopoda consists of amastigote (those lacking undulipodia)
amoebae and the cellular slime molds. Of these we will only consider the
amoebae in this session since it is still debatable as to whether slime molds
are plants, animals or fungi.
These microscopic organisms, appear as a colourless masses of protoplasm
and constantly change their shape. They are distributed world wide, in both
freshwater and marine water and are especially common in the moist soil.
Many are symbiotrophic in animals.
Amoebae are among the most simplest of the Protistans. Their structure could
be visualised by considering the structure of Amoeba proteus. Fig 1.4 It shows
three characterisitic structures unique to them.

Fig 1.4 Ultra-structure of Amoeba proteus and its movement

Structural diversity of Amoebae

Different Amoebae can be recognised from their outer covering. Some of
them have only a plasmalemma surrounding their protoplasmic mass. They
are known as naked Amoebae. Yet others construct a test around themselves
just outside the plasma lemma. They glue together sand grains, bits of
carbonate particles, and other inorganic detritus, depending on what is
available. Such members are called testate amoebae.

8
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Other feature in Amoebae that have been used in classification are the
shape of the body, the shape of the pseudopods and the number of
pseudopods.
Although large number of Amoebae have been described, we will consider
only four examples in this session. They include two naked Amoebae,
Amoeba proteus and Entamoeba histolytica and two testate Amoebae,
Arcella and Difflugia Fig. 1.5.

Fig.1.5 Diversity within Phylum Rhizopoda

Of the naked Amoebas, you have already come to know the detailed
structure of the free living. Amoeba proteus. Entamoeba histolytica is also
a naked Amoeba but is a parasite of man. Unlike Ameoba proteus,
Entamoeba histolytica forms only a single pseudopod at any one time and
is known as monopodial form. Entamoeba histolytica is found in the lower
part of the small intestine and in the large intestine of man and is a
harmless commensal when the population is low. However heavy
infestations will cause a serious or fatal disease called Amoebiasis.

ACTIVITY 1.4

1. Parasitic amoebae lack contractile vacuoles. Why?

2. Looking at Fig 1.4 and Fig.1.5 list the structural differences seen in Amoeba and
Entamoeba.

Amoeba Entamoeba

9
 Unit I

Arcella, is a testate amoeba with two nuceli, found in fresh water. It has a
dome shaped shell made of protein. In the middle of the underside of the shell
there is an aperture from which pseudopodia protrude. Difflugia, like Arcella
is a freshwater testate amoeba. It has a single chambered shell composed of
mineral particles that are ingested by the animal and deposited on the secreted
matrix of its shell. The tests enable these testate members of the Rhizopoda a
fossil record that extends well into the Palaeozoic era.

1.5 Phylum Discomitochondria

These are motile bactivorus or osmotrophic swimming Protistans. They

possess undulipodia and are unicells although some are colonial forms. Disco
mitochondria as the name implies have mitochondria with discoid cristae.
They lack a meiotic sexual fertilization cycle.
Bodo, Trypanosoma, and Euglena are examples of the discomitochondrian
Protistans, that we will be considering here Fig 1.6.

Fig 1.6 Diversity within Phylum Discomitochondria

10
 Session 1:The Protozoa - 1

Bodo and Trypanosoma have a special large mitochondrian within which

there is a mass of DNA called a kinetoplast. Bodo is commonly found in
brackish and freshwater and in soil and feed on bacteria. The trypanosomes
have only an anterior undulipodium Fig 1.6 The second undulipodium is
represented by a basal body. Commonly the undulipodium when present,
trails and is connected along the sides of the body by an undulating
membrane.
Trypanosomes are agents of numerous diseases of humans and
domesticated animals in subtropical and tropical regions of the world. Part
of their life cycle is passed within or attached to gut cells of blood sucking
insects, mostly kinds of flies. Another part of the cycle is spent in the blood
or in white blood cells and lymphoid cells of the vertebrate hosts.
Chagas disease of tropical America, is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and is
transmitted by a blood sucking hemipteran bug. Extensive damage may be
caused in the human host when the parasite leaves the circulatory system
and invades the liver, spleen and heart muscles. Trypanosoma brucie
rhodensiense and T.b.gambiense are causal agents of African sleeping
sickness and are transmitted by the tsetse fly.
Among the Euglenida there are about 800 species. Most of them are
unicellular and live in fresh water. Some genera are marine. Some are
colonial and some are symbiotrophic. Most euglenids are photosynthetic
but many lack chloroplasts and hence are limited to heterotrophy. Even the
photosynthetic Euglenids, under certain conditions, take in dissolved or
particulate material.
Euglena gracilis Fig 1.6 is a characteristic example of a free living
Euglenids.

ACTIVITY 1.5

1. Breifly explain the medical importance of Trypanosoma

1.6 Phylum Granuloreticulosa

These are Protistans which are small, granule like and possess a reticulate
cytoplasm around them. Latin name granulum, means “small grain” and
reticulum a “network”.

This phylum includes two classes the Reticulomyxida and Foraminifera. Of

these Foraminifera is the better known class and are commonly known as
forams, because the shells that surround these Protistans have pores. The
members of class Reticulomyxida are bactivorous slimy nets and occur as
soft masses. They do not have shells and will not be considered in detail in
this session.

11
 Unit I

The cytoplasm of forams streams out as thin filaments from the pores on the
foram shells to form very thin filopodia reinforced by microtubules. They
combine with each other to form a network that surrounds the Protist. Such a
network of streaming cytoplasm is referred to as the reticulopodia Fig 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 A characteristic species belonging to Phylum Granuloreticulosa

Unlike in Amoeba the cytoplasmic streaming is bidirectional in these

reticulopidia, and they are used for feeding, swimming and collecting material
for shell or tests around them. Forams are exclusively marine organisms. The
smallest are some 10 µm in diameter, and the largest ones are visible to the
naked eye and grow to several centimeters in diameter. The majority are tiny
and live in sand or mud or attached to rocks, algae, or other organisms.
Forams are omnivores. They eat algae, ciliates, Actinopods and even
nematodes and crustacean larvae. Many that live in shallow waters harbour
photosynthetic Protistans, like Dinomastigotes, Chrysomanads and diatoms, as
symbionts.
The pore studded shells of forams are brilliantly coloured, in Salmon pink,
Red or yellow brown. It is composed of organic material and is often
reinforced with minerals. Minerals may be sand grains, Calcium carbonate
granules, echinoderm plates or sponge spicules. The simplest form has one
single chamber but many have multi-chambers. A typical test looks like a
clump of blobs of partial spheres.
The most common example of foram is Globigerina Fig 1.7 Globigerina is a
free swimming planktonic form and is very important, in the economy of the
sea, as food for many marine animals.

12
 Session 1:The Protozoa - 1

When forams die, tests accumulate as sediment on the bottom of marine

basins especially since the Triassic period. Tests are usually found in strata
that cover oil deposits and recognition of foram morphology and
knowledge of their distribution has been helpful in petroleum exploration.

1.7 Phylum Actinopoda

Actinopods are a group of heterotrophic Protistans. All are plantonic and
most of the members are marine. Very few live in fresh waters. They
include the Protistans classfied as radiolarians, in the past as other
superficially similar plankton and large Protistans with some radial
symmetry. The members of this phylum are classified presently under four
classes The Helizoa are primarily freshwater “sun animacules” and the
others Phaeodaria, Polycystina and Acantharia, are considered as marine
Radiolarians.
A major characteristic that distinguishes these Protistans are their long
slender cytoplasmic Axopods, also called axopodia which radiate from the
surface of the body. These fine projections are enclosed along their length
by a plasma membrane and is stiffened by a bundle of microtubules
running down the axis of the structure called an axoneme. Each axoneme
often has a elaborate arrangement of microtubules characteristic of that
actinopod group. Among the many actinopods, axopods have been found to
be useful in catching prey and for rolling motion by shortening and
lengthening of microtubules.
Actinophrys Fig 1.8 is a characteristic example of Heliozoa and is
commonly found among freshwater aquatic plants in lakes. Within its
body, fluid filled vacuoles give the cytoplasm a frothy appearance and
makes the Helizoan neutrally buoyant, so that it hangs suspended in the
water near the bottom.

Fig. 1.8 Diversity within Phylum Actinopoda

13
 Unit I

The Radiolarians, like the Heliozoans are spherical organisms bearing

axopods and sometimes thin cytoplasmic projections known as filopodia. Fig
1.8 The filopodia are like the axopods, but their microtubular arrangement less
complex than in Axopods.
Their cytoplasm is divided into an inner region containing one to many nuclei
and is bounded by a central capsule with a membranous wall and outer part
forming a broad vacuolated cortex, called the calymma. In many species the
calymma contain large numbers of symbiotic cryptomonads or more often
dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae). Photosynthesis of these symbionts make
radiolarians effective phytoplankton.
Both polycystines and phaedorians often have strikingly beautiful opaline
skeletons made of hydrated amorphous silica. Acantharia in general are
spherical organisms and have a unique radially symmetrical skeleton
composed of rods of crystalline strontium sulphate.
Like in foraminifera, the death of Radiolarians cause the accumulation of
shells at the bottom of the ocean sediment. When the sediment is made of
more than 30% of forminiferan or Radiolarians shells it is called foram and
radiolarian ooze respectively.

ACTIVITY 1.6

1. Distinguish radiolarian ooze and foraminiferan ooze.

2. State the differences among psuedopodia, axopodia, filopodia and reticulopodia.

3. Compare a Globigerina with a Actinophyrus to explain the different characteristic

featurers seen in foraminiferans and Radiolarians.

14
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

1.8 Phylum Dinomastigota

Phylum Dinomastigota includes forms of Protistans that are called
Dinoflagellates or Dinophytes. E.g. Ceratium and Gymnodium.
Characteristic morphological features of Dinomastigota are as follows.
As the name Dinomastigote implies these organisms have two undulipodia.
One rests on a characteristic horizontal groove, the girdle or the cingulum
(annulus) encircling the cell Fig 1.9. The other undulipodium lies at right
angles to the former in a groove known as the sulcus.
Dinomastigotes are usually enclosed in rigid walls called tests. The upper
half is the epicone and the lower half is the hypocone. They are made up of
plates made of cellulose encrusted with silica. Those forms not having rigid
walls are called “naked Dinos”
Specialised vacuole-like organelles appear in the cytoplasm and these are
called pusules. Usually two per cell and they open by canals into the
kinetosomes and from there to the exterior of the cell, These are believed to
respond to changes in pressure and are involved in osmoregulation

Fig 1.9 The generalized structure of a Dinomastigote, Ceratium and Gymnodium

Stinging organelles called the trichocysts are found in the cell membrane of
many Dinomastigotes and could be extruded to sting prey.

15
 Unit I

There are about 4000 known species of dinomastigotes in 550 genera. Most
are marine plankton and are abundant in warm seas. Many genera have
freshwater representatives. The dinomastigotes produce powerful toxins that
are accumulated by fish and marine invertebrates. Sometimes toxic red tides
seen in marine habitats consists of colourful blooms, many of which are
marine dinomastigotes. Some of the planktonic forms are bioluminescent, like
Noctiluca and appear as twinkling lights in the sea at night.
Some of the dinomastigotes are symbiotrophic or epibiotic on marine
animals or sea weeds. Some others are predatory. However there are a number
of species that are photosynthetic and are symbionts in marine corals, sea
anemone and clams. The most common intracellular photosynthetic symbiont
in the reef communities of the world is the dinomastigote,Gymnodium
microadriaticum.

1.9 Phylum Ciliophora

Nearly 10,000 freshwater and marine species of Protistans have been
classified under phylum Ciliophora. Such Protistans have short undulipodia
known as cilia on their body and are referred to as Ciliates. Examples of
representative species include Paramecium, Stentor, Colpoda, Vorticella,
Prorodon, Didinium and Acineta Fig 1.10 Classification of these organisms
are based on kinetid structure and organisation. Nearly all are phagotrophic,
single cell organisms consuming bacteria, tissues or other Protistans. They are
osmotrophs utilizing dissolved nutrient rich water.

16
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Fig. 1.10 Diversity within Phylum Ciliophora

Ciliates are completely different from other protistans having Cilia, Pelicle,
Two nuclei and specific reproduction patterns.
Ciliates are characteristically covered with cilia, which are basically short
undulipodia with their kinetosomes embedded in the outer proteinaceous
layer, the cortical region and are modified to perform specialised
locomotory and feeding functions.

17
 Unit I

The ciliate body is typically covered by a complex pellicle. It is associated

with a number of different organelles, such as the alveoli, complex ciliary
system , trichocysts and toxicysts
Within the single cells there are two types of nuclei, the smaller micro nuclei
and the larger macro-nuclei. Of the two types of nuclei, only the micro nuclei
contain standard chromosomes and are essential for the sexual processes
unique to ciliates. Macro nuclei are always required for growth . Within a
single organism the number of micronuclei varies but there is only one macro
nucleus. The shape of this varies according to the species.
Reproduction
Most ciliates reproduce by transverse binary fission. They divide across the
short axis of the cell to form two equal offspring. In addition, ciliates undergo
a sexual process called conjugation Fig 1. 11

Fig. 1.11 Conjugation in Paramecium

The conjugants are two cells of compatible mating types (“sexes”) and remain
attached to each other for as long as many hours. Each conjugant retains some
micro nuclei and donates others to its partner.

18
 Session 1: The Protistans - 1

Diversity among Ciliates

Ciliates could be either free living or parasitic. The free living ciliates are
of two types, active swimmers and the sessile forms. Among the swimmers
there are raptorial forms which capture single organisms by direct
interception but many are filter feeders collecting organisms from the
natural water currents or from currents produced by the ciliature. Among
the sessile forms there are ciliates which are attached to marine and
freshwater invertebrates in addition
to those attached to the substratum in aquatic habitats. The parasitic ciliates
parasitize both invertebrates and vertebrates.
Ciliates show variations mainly in the nature of the distribution of cilia and
the development of compound ciliary structures used for feeding and
locomotion, the development of oral apparatus (gullet and mouth) and the
type of nuclear structures.
Ciliates with uniform distribution of Cilia
Prorodon, Didinium and Colpoda are simple ciliates living in freshwater
with uniform distribution of cilia on the outer surface Fig 1.10 Of these,
Prorodon and Didinium have cystostomes on the anterior end and
Didinium is a raptorial feeder feeding on live prey like Paramecium. It has
been observed that Didinium discharge toxicysts into prey.
In Colpoda, the cystostome is displaced to a lateral position and is at the
base of the vestibule. Both Colpoda and Prorodon have the capacity to
form thick walled cysts, and are capable of surviving prolonged droughts.
When conditions become favourable the ciliates escape from cysts and
swim freely and feed.
Acineta, is a free living, but sessile ectocommensal, ciliate, usually
attached by long stalks to marine and freshwater invertebrates. Fig.1.10.
They depend on food particles present in the water current created by the
movement of their hosts.
Acineta is a Suctorian. The body at its free end contains long knobbed
feeding tentacles. These are supported by a cylinder of micro tubules and
carries special organelle called haptocysts which are discharged into the
prey body anchoring it to the tentacles. The contents of the prey are sucked
thorough the tubular tentacles into a large food vacuole.

Ciliates with compound ciliary structures

Unlike those described earlier, the examples considered in this section will
have either compound ciliary structures or an oral apparatus. Of these the
simplest form and the most studied example is Paramecium . Fig.1.10. In
Paramecium the body ciliature is uniform and although the oral apparatus
is present, it is not conspicuous as in other ciliates. During feeding the cilia
of the oral groove of Paramecium produce a water current that sweeps
down the side of the body and over the oral region. The compound ciliary
structures of the buccal cavity pull in food particles and drive them into the
cytopharynx which package food particles as food vacuoles.

19
 Unit I

As opposed to Paramecium, Vorticella. Fig 1.10 is a sessile free living ciliate

which does not possess body ciliation and contains two ciliary bands at its free
end of the body that winds counter clockwise around the margins of the oral
disc and turn downwards into the funnel shaped buccal cavity. The inner
ciliate band produces the water current and the outer band acts as a filter.
Suspended particles mostly bacteria are transported along with the stream of
water between the two bands into the buccal cavity.
Stentor is a large trumpet shaped ciliate found in freshwater. Fig 1.10 Its
flexible body is highly contractile, can quickly change from fully extended
position into a small rounded blob and back again. Stentor could also detach
and swim freely. Surrounding the mouth is a spiral of ciliary membranelles, ie
flat triangular plate made of several rows of cilia that appear to be fused. The
rest of the body has a uniform distribution of cilia.
Euplotes is a completely different from all others, having compound ciliary
structures, the cirri, on its body. Fig 1.10. These are found ventrally and are
used as levers in locomotion. Membranelles near the mouth region is
associated with feeding. They are filter feeders, predominantly marine and
widely distributed.

ACTIVITY 1.7

1. List the different types of Ciliates.

2. Describe the variations with respect to ciliary distribution, structure of oral apparatus
and nuclear organisation among them.

1.10 Phylum Apicomplexa

Apicomplexa are single celled Protistans and occur as symbiotrophs within
animal cells. They are modified to penetrate tissues of both vertebrate and
invertebrates and live within them and obtain food. Many are blood stream
parasites of animals. There are yet others which cause hypertrophy or
gigantism of host cells in which they divide. The infections lead to
duplication of host chromatin, causing a striking increase in the amount of
host DNA.
Protistans within Phylum Apicomplexa have the following characteristic
features.

• All members have at one end of the cell a distinctive arrangement of

fibrils, microtubules, vacuoles and other cell organelles. This
arrangement is referred to as the “Apical Complex” and hence the
name Apicomplexa.
• They all form spores during their life cycle. They are compact
infective bodies that permit dissemination and transmission of the
species from host to host.
• Apicomplexans reproduce sexually, with altenation of haploid and
diploid generations.

20
 Session 1: Protistans - 1

Fig.1.12 Life cycles of Monocystis, Eimeria and Plasmodium

The life cycle of many Apicomplexans are complex and require several
different species of animals as hosts (Fig 1.12).
In Monocystis and Eimeria the life cycle involves only a single host within
which both the haploid and diploid stages of sexual cycle occurs. They are
respectively the earthworm and livestock or fowl.

21
Unit 1

In Plasmodium the sexual cycle involves two hosts, one a definite host,
Anopheles mosquito in which diploid stages occur and an intermediate host,
man, within which haploid stages occur.

ACTIVITY 1.8

1. Make a MIND MAP to illustrate the diversity among Protistans.

2. Construct your own BOX to summarize the classification of Kingdom Protista
(Include - Phylum, Class, Examples ( Names of animals )).

You shoud prepare the map based on the knowledge you gained from Efil
programme. You have to present your Map at the First day school (Compulsory
DS1) – (CDS)

Summary
The former protozoas,are now placed in Kingdom Protista and classified into
approximately 8 different phyla and they include Archaeprotista,
Rhizopoda,Discomitochondria,Granuloreticulosa,Actinopoda,Ciliophora,
Dinomastigota and Apicomplexa.
The Archaeprotists are anaerobes lacking mitochondria. Rhizopoda,
Granuloreticulosa and Actinopoda have cytoplasm streaming out of their
bodies to form pseudopodia, reticulopodia and axopodia / filopodia
respectively and they all lack undulipodia.
The forms that have characteristic undulipodia in this session includes the
Protistans classified under Phylum Discomitochondria.
Within each Protist phylum described above, are a diversity of species which
are free living, symbiotrophic forms, commensals and parasites.
Both the Dinomastigotes and the Ciliophorans have undulipodia, flagella or
cilia. In Ciliophorans we observe complex ciliary structures, undulating
membranes, membranelles and cirri.
The Apicomplexa do not have undulipodia or for that matter pseudopods
involved in bringing about movement and is a highly specialised group having
complex life cycles and includes parasites of animals and man.

22
 Session 1: Protistans - 1

Learning outcomes
By the end of this study session you should be able to;
• describe the characteristic features of Kingdom Protista and outline
its basis of classification.
• list the different phyla in which we now place the protistans and
identify their characteristic features.
• describe the diversity found within different protistan phyla.
• classify upto class level all Protistans studied in session 1.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Describe the structural and functional diversity of;

• free living animal like Protistans in marine environments.
• Protistians live in fresh water habitats.
• Parasitic Protistans.

23
Unit 1

24