Updated Life Sciences Survival Kit Paper 2_2024

Life Sciences Cape Winelands Updated Survival Kit PAPER 2 2024
CAPE WINELANDS EDUCATION

DISTRICT
LIFE SCIENCES PAPER 2
SURVIVAL KIT
1
DNA, RNA, Protein Synthesis (Paper 2- 27 marks)

DNA is the basic unit of genetics.
DNA provides the code for production of proteins, a process called protein synthesis.
There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA
 DNA is found (or located) in the nucleus of cells
is also found in the mitochondria of cells
 RNA is found in the nucleus
also found at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm of a cell.
 RNA plays a role in protein synthesis by joining amino acids in the correct
sequence, according to the instructions which DNA provides
Brief history of the discovery of the DNA molecule:

Franklin & Wilkins: did research on structure of DNA, they took X-rays of the DNA
molecule
Watson & Crick: formulated the double helix structure of the DNA molecule by using a
three dimensional (3D) model
STRUCTURE OF DNA: Double helix

Consists of two strands of nucleotides that form a twisted ladder (double helix)
Double Helix
A DNA molecule is made up of building-blocks or monomeres, called nucleotides
NB : Each DNA nucleotide is made up of three components:

1. Nitrogenous bases linked by weak hydrogen
bonds
The four nitrogen bases: adenine (A)
thymine (T)
cytosine (C)
guanine (G)
2. Sugar portion (deoxyribose in DNA)
3. Phosphate portion
Specific base pairing arrangement are known as

complimentary bases.
A always pairs with T (A-T)
C always pairs with G (C-G)
NB!!: Nitrogen bases attach to the sugar portion of the
nucleotide
2
Know the stick diagram of DNA to

illustrate its structure:
When you learn this topic, practice to

draw a nucleotide AND
be able to label the different parts of the
DNA stick diagram
FUNCTIONS OF DNA:
1. Sections of DNA-forming genes carry hereditary information
2. DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis
PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION

(Meaning of replicate = to make an exact copy of)
When does DNA replication take place?

During INTERPHASE
Where does DNA replication take place?
In the nucleus
Significance (or importance) of DNA replication:

• Doubles the genetic material so it can be shared between the resulting daughter cells
during cell division.
• Results in the formation of identical daughter cells during mitosis
How DNA replication takes place:

(you must be able to describe this process)
3
Definition of a DNA profile:

It can be described as an arrangement of black bars representing DNA fragments of the
person.
Uses of DNA profiles:

• Identify criminals
• Identify dead bodies
• Identify relatives
• Identify paternity
Interpretation of DNA profiles:

Compare the DNA profile found at the crime scene to the DNA profile of the suspects.
Suspect 2 is most probably guilty as all the bars on his DNA profile are the same as the
bars
of the DNA profile found at the crime scene.
Typical question in the exams:

Describe the process of DNA replication. (5)
- The double helix unwinds

- Weak hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen bases break, DNA
unzips (separates)
- Both of the original strands serve as a template on which the
complement is built
- Free DNA nucleotides build a strand onto each of the two DNA strands,
attaching to their complementary bases
- Two identical DNA molecules are formed, each consisting of one original and
one new strand
4
RNA - (Ribonucleic Acid)

RNA is also a nucleic acid.
It is found in the nucleus
and in the cytoplasm
and plays a very important role during protein synthesis
RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid.
Two types of RNA that you will learn more about - mRNA and tRNA
Location of RNA:
mRNA is formed in the nucleus and functions on the ribosomes
tRNA is found in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes
RNA is also made up of building-blocks (monomeres) called nucleotides.

RNA nucleotides are made of 3 parts:
phosphate,
ribose sugar and a
nitrogen base (adenine, cytosine, uracil and guanine)
Stick diagram of a RNA molecule:
You could be asked to:

Tabulate three differences between DNA and RNA molecule. (7)
Tü
DNA RNA
Double-stranded molecule Single-stranded molecule
Contains deoxyribose (sugar) Contains ribose (sugar)
Contains the nitrogenous base, Contains the nitrogenous base,
thymine uracil
OR
State TWO differences between a DNA nucleotide and an RNA nucleotide. (4)
DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose
RNA contains the sugar ribose
DNA contains the nitrogen base thymine
5
RNA contains the nitrogen base URACIL
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The involvement of RNA in protein synthesis:
TRANSCRIPTION
(occurs in
nucleus)
DNA mRNA
TRANSLATION
(occurs at the
ribosomes)
mRNA tRNA
mRNA rewrites the code from DNA to form a mRNA molecule which leaves the nucleus and
will carry that ‘code’ to the ribosomes.
This process is called TRANSCRIPTION, and occurs in the nucleus
tRNA carries a specific amino acid to the ribosomes,
where the amino acids will join to form a protein.
This process is called TRANSLATION, and occurs at the ribosomes
The involvement of DNA in protein synthesis:

DNA provides the code so that a mRNA molecule is formed which leaves the
nucleus and will carry that ‘code’ to the ribosomes.
This process is called TRANSCRIPTION.
mRNA is formed Only one strand of DNA

serves as a template
You must be able to: Describe TRANSCRIPTION as follows:

● The double-helix unwinds
● The double stranded DNA unzips as weak hydrogen bonds break
● To form two separate strands
● Only ONE strand serves as a template
● To form mRNA
● Using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
● mRNA is complementary to DNA
● mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis
You must be able to describe the process of TRANSCRIPTION and label diagrams
representing this process.
Practice how to use the code on a DNA molecule to rewrite it as a mRNA molecule.
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TRANSLATION:
This process occurs in the cytoplasm at the RIBOSOMES
You must be able to: Describe TRANSLATION as follows:

● Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid
● When the anticodon on the tRNA
● matches the codon on the mRNA
● then the tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome
● Amino acids become attached by peptide bonds
to form the required protein
Use the diagram of translation to identify:
- mRNA
- tRNA
- the ribosome Peptide bond
- amino acids
- peptide bonds
Go back to the previous paragraph and read through the steps of translation again, memorise
the description
1.1 Practice the following:

1.1.1 Write down the complementary strand of mRNA which the DNA strand codes
for.
DNA: ACC GTC TAT CCA CTA
mRNA: UGG CAG AUA GGU GAU
(Remember: NO T’s in mRNA!!!)
1.1.2 Rewrite mRNA back to DNA.
mRNA: GCA CCC UAA UCU AAG GAC
DNA: CGT GGG ATT AGA TTC CTG
1.1.3 Use the given mRNA(codons) strand to write down the anti-codons of the tRNA.
mRNA: UUU AGC AUC CCU AAG GAU (codons on mRNA)
tRNA/oRNS: AAA UCG UAG GGA UUC CUA (anti-codons on
tRNA)
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MEIOSIS – Paper 2, 21 marks

Is a type of cell division whereby diploid cells (body cells) undergo two divisions
to produce four genetically different haploid cells - called sex cells or gametes (female
gamete=ovum; male gamete= sperm cell)
Revision of cell structure:

Give special attention to the following parts:
Nucleus: the part that contains all the DNA (chromosomes)

Centrosome: is made up of 2 centrioles which move to the poles of the cell during cell
division
Cytoplasm: the gel liquid that fills the inside of the cells, and contains organelles
Structure of chromosomes:
centromere
chromatids
What is a chromosome?
Highly condensed form of DNA which becomes visible as chromosomes just before the cell
divides
One chromosome is made of 2 chromatids joined by a centromere
Differentiate between (which means you need to know the difference between):
Haploid (n) and diploid (2n) cells in terms of chromosome number

All body cells are diploid (2n), which has the full chromosome number in each cell (2 sets of
chromosomes, one set from your mother and the other set from your father)
Only sex cells(gametes) are haploid(n) as the chromosome number has been halved by
meiosis.
Somatic cells and gametes

Somatic cells – are body cells
Gametes – are sex cells used for sexual reproduction (female sex cells=ovum; male sex
cells=sperm cells)
Sex chromosomes (gonosomes) and autosomes
Sex chromsomes - gonosomes determine your sex/gender (male XY chromosomes; female

XX chromosomes)
All other chromosomes in your cells are called autosomes
In humans we have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pr of
gonosomes
Definition of meiosis:
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing
half the original amount of genetic information (haploid chromosome number).
These cells are our sex cells – sperm cells in males, egg cells in females
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Site of meiosis (place where it occurs)

Meiosis only occurs in reproductive organs
In humans:
males - in the testes for the formation of females - in the ovaries for the formation of
male gametes (sperm cells) female gametes (ova)
In plants:
Male part - anthers with pollen grains to
produce male gametes
Female part - ovaries to produce female
gametes
Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis I - the number of chromosomes is halved
diploid number (2n) is halved to the haploid number (n)
Meiosis II
Similar to mitosis
Number of chromosomes do not reduce
Interphase -part of the cell cycle that occurs just before Meiosis I
DNA replication takes place
Chromosomes which are single threads, become double (2 chromatids)
Each chromosome will now consist of two chromatids joined by a centromere
DNA replication helps to double the genetic material so that it can be shared by the
new cells arising from cell division
Phases of Meiosis
Know the following phases of Meiosis I, by using diagrams:
(Phases: P M A T)
Prophase I
Including a description of crossing over
Metaphase I
Including the random arrangement of chromosomes
Anaphase I
Telophase I
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Phases of Meiosis I:
PROPHASE I centriole
Chromatin network becomes shorter and thicker
Chromosomes become visible
Chromosomes of lie in pairs lie next to one another -
called homologous chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes exchange segments of
their chromosomes during CROSSING OVER
In Prophase I – crossing over
Chromatids touch at chiasmata on homologous of
chromosomes where crossing-over takes place.
Chromatids break at chiasmata
Chromosomes of homologous pairs recombine
Homologous chromosomes exchange segments of
the chromatids (pieces of chromosomes / genes)
What is the importance of crossing over?
This leads to genetic variation
METAPHASE I
Spindle fibers are spread over the whole cell Spindle
Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves fibres
randomly (no set pattern) in homologous pairs on
the metaphase plate(equator)
This is called random arrangement
It also contributes to genetic variation
Spindle fibers are attached to the centromeres of the
chromosomes
ANAPHASE I
Spindle fibres contract and pull homologous pairs
apart
One full chromosome (2 chromatids joined by a
centromere) of each pair moves to opposite pole
TELOPHASE I
Chromosomes reach the poles of the cell
Poles only have half of the original chromosome
number
Cell membrane invaginates(pinches) in the middle and
the cytoplasm divides (called cytokinesis)
The result at the end of Meiosis I is TWO cells with half the chromosome number (n)
10
Meiosis II - use diagrams to identify the different phases

Prophase II
Every cell that is formed during Meiosis I divides

again
Each chromosome has 2 chromatids joined by a
centromere
Spindle fibres start to form between the poles in
each cell
Metaphase II
Individual chromosomes arrange themselves

on the equator (metaphase plate) of each cell
Random arrangement of chromosomes can also
occur during Metaphase II
Centromeres are attached by the spindle fibers
Anaphase II
Spindle fibers start to contract
Pulling the centromeres apart, centromeres
divide
Chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles of
each cell
Telophase II
Single stranded (unreplicated) chromosomes
reach the poles
A new nucleus is formed
Cell membrane of each cell pinches at the
middle
Cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis)
Four haploid(n) cells are formed
Each cell (gamete) only has half the
chromosome number of the original cell (in
humans 23 chromosomes)
4 Gametes are all genetically different
Importance of Meiosis
Production of haploid gametes
The halving effect of meiosis overcomes the doubling effect of fertilisation, thus maintaining
a constant chromosome number from one generation to the next
Abnormal meiosis through non-disjunction: when chromosome pairs fail to separate

during meiosis (Anaphase)
An example of the consequences of non-disjunction: Down syndrome

- Non-disjunction of chromosomes at position 21
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- during Anaphase in humans

- to form abnormal gametes with an extra copy of chromosome 21
- The fusion between an abnormal gamete (24 chromosomes)
- and a normal gamete (23 chromosomes)
- forms a zygote with 47 chromosomes which leads to Down syndrome
Genetic variation is introduced through:
- Crossing over (during prophase I)
- The random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator (during
metaphase I and II)
Similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Cell division occurs
Creates new cells
Starts with a parent cell
Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis: (be able to tabulate the differences)
Mitosis Meiosis
Only occurs in somatic cells Only occurs in reproductive organs
Creates body cells Creates gametes (sex cells)

Only one cell division occurs Two cell divisions occur
Creates 2 diploid cells that are identical Creates 4 haploid cells which are all
genetically different
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GENETICS, Paper 2 – 48 marks

Genetics is the study of inheritance and the variation of inherited characteristics.
TERMINOLOGY: GENETICS
Chromosomes: DNA condensed (tightly wound) and
now visible as chromosomes
Gene: small section of DNA (chromosome)
that codes for a specific
characteristic or protein
Alleles: alternative forms of a gene found at

the same place on a chromosome.
Locus: the position of the gene on the

chromosome
Dominant An allele if present, is ALWAYS

allele: expressed in the phenotype
Recessive An allele that is hidden
allele: (overshadowed by dominant allele)
in the phenotype.
Can only be expressed(seen) if
both alleles are recessive
Phenotype: Physical appearance of an organism Represented by words eg brown,
determined by the genotype (what blue, blonde, red and white etc.
we can see/observe from the
outside)
Genotype: Genetic composition of the alleles of the Represented by the use of
gene for a particular characteristic letters eg. BB; Bb and bb
Homozygous: Two alleles the same for a particular
characteristic (BB or bb) or
Heterozygous: Two different alleles for a particular

characteristic (Bb)
Monohybrid A genetic cross involving only ONE

crosses: characteristic, eg colour of fur
NB!! Every Paper 2 Question Paper WILL include a genetic cross, which normally counts out
of 6 marks. You will get 2/6 marks if you are able to write down this template/format for a
genetic cross. Practice it many times before you write Paper 2.
13
Format for representing a genetic cross:
P1 – generation Phenotype ____________ x ____________

Genotype ____________ x ____________
Meiosis
Possible Gametes ___, ___ x ___, ___
Fertilization (Punnet diagram)
F1 – generation Genotype ________________

Phenotype ________________
You are awarded marks for: P1 generation+ F1 generationü

Meiosis + fertilization ü
Complete Dominance:
The genotypes will always be represented by ONE letter eg. B, but could include upper case
B and lower case b to represent the different combinations for the two alleles.
Possible phenotypes for parents (P1 generation): brown hair and red hair
Possible genotype combinations for parents (P1 generation): BB (homozygous dominant);
Bb (heterozygous dominant)
and bb (homozygous recessive)
eg. B - brown is completely dominant over b – red
1.1 Types of dominance:
 Complete dominance – one allele is dominant and the other is

recessive, such that the effect of the recessive allele is masked
by the dominant allele in the heterozygous condition
 Incomplete dominance – none of the two alleles of a gene is

dominant over the other, resulting in an intermediate phenotype
in the heterozygous condition
 Co-dominance – both alleles of a gene are equally dominant
whereby both alleles express themselves in the phenotype in
the heterozygous condition
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1.1 Monohybrid crosses:
Mendel's principle of segregation:
 The pair of alleles on homologous chromosomes separate

during meiosis/gamete formation, so that only one allele of
each pair is present in the gamete.
Mendel's principle of independent assortment:
 Alleles of a gene for one characteristic segregate

independently of the alleles of a gene for another
characteristic. The alleles for each gene will therefore come
together randomly during gamete formation.
Mendel's Law of Dominance:
 When two organisms with pure breeding contrasting traits are

crossed all the individuals of the F1 generation will display the
dominant trait.
1.2 Sex determination:
 22 pairs of chromosomes in humans are autosomes

and one pair of chromosomes are sex
chromosomes/gonosomes
 A human male has X and Y gonosomes and a female has two X
gonosomes
 Half of the sperm of males will have 22 + X chromosomes, and
the other half will have 22 + Y chromosomes. Depending on
which sperm reaches the egg, there is a 50% chance of the
zygote being male and a 50% chance of the zygote being
female.
15
1.3 Karyotypes:
 A karyotype is the number, shape and arrangement of all the

chromosomes in the nucleus of a somatic cell.
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1.4 Sex-linked inheritance:
 Although most of the bodily characteristics are carried on the

22 pairs of autosomes, there are a few characteristics carried
on the gonosomes only.
 Certain sex-linked genetic disorders are carried on the
allele found on the X chromosome only. Two of these disorders
are colour blindness and haemophilia.
Colour blindness:
 Colour blindness is a visual defect resulting in an inability

to distinguish between certain colours.
 The allele for colour-blindness is recessive (e.g. Xb) and is
carried on the X- chromosome
Haemophilia:
 Haemophilia is the inability of the blood to clot due to lack of a

blood clotting factor.
 The allele for haemophilia is recessive (e.g. Xh) and is
carried on the X- chromosome.
Genotype Phenotype
XHxH Normal female
XHXh Normal female
XhXh Haemophiliac female

XHY Normal male
XhY Haemophiliac male
1.5 Blood grouping:
 There are four blood types in humans: A, B, AB or O.

 These phenotypes are controlled by three alleles (IA, IB and i)
but each person only inherits two alleles.
 Multiple alleles – refers to more than two alternative forms
of a gene at the same locus.
 Allele IA and allele IB is dominant over allele i.
 Allele IA and allele IB are codominant.
Blood group Genotype

(phenotype)
A IAIA or IAi
B IBIB or IBi
AB IAIB
O ii
1.6 Dihybrid crosses:
17
 A genetic cross involving two characteristics
Example of a dihybrid cross
 In pea plants, the allele for tallness (T) is dominant and the allele for
shortness
(t) is recessive. The allele for purple flowers is dominant (P) and the
allele for white flowers is recessive (p). Two plants, heterozygous
for both tallness and purple flowers were crossed. Use a genetic
cross to show all the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their
offspring.
1.7 Genetic lineages/pedigrees:
 A genetic lineage/pedigree traces the inheritance of

characteristics over many generations
Example:
The pedigree diagram below shows inheritance of eye colour in humans
over three generations of a family. Brown eye colour (B) is dominant over
blue eye colour (b).
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 Squares represent males and circles represent females.

 The horizontal line between a square (Joshua) and a circle
(Ronel) shows that they have mated.
 The vertical line flowing from the horizontal line represents
the offspring (Sarah and Peter) of the two parents (Joshua and
Ronel).
 Remember the following steps when interpreting pedigree diagrams:
 Step 1: Study any key and opening statement/s and look for
dominant and recessive characteristics and phenotypes.
Brown eye colour (B) is dominant over blue eye colour (b) –
as stated in the problem
 Step 2: Write in the phenotypes of all the individuals as given
in the problem. Joshua, Jack and John are males with blue
eyes. Veronica and Marlena are females with blue eyes. Peter
and Frank are males with brown eyes. Ronel, Sarah and Gayle
are females with brown eyes.
 Step 3: Fill in the genotype of all the individuals with the
recessive condition – it must have two recessive alleles (two
lower case letters, e.g. bb). Joshua, Veronica, Marlena, Jack
and John will have the genotype ‘bb’. The recessive
characteristic only shows up in the homozygous condition
 Step 4: For every individual in the diagram that has the
recessive condition, it means that each allele was obtained
from each of the parents. Work backwards and fill in one
recessive allele for each parent.
 Step 5: If the parents showed the dominant characteristic,
fill in the second letter which represents the dominant allele
(a capital letter, e.g. B). The
genotype of Peter is ‘Bb’ – working backwards from the
offspring Marlena or Jack or John who are homozygous
recessive. This means that one of the recessive alleles of
Marlena, Jack and John, i.e. ‘b’, must have come from parent
Peter and the other one from parent Veronica
 Step 6: Any other individual showing the dominant
characteristic will most likely be homozygous dominant
(BB) or heterozygous dominant (Bb). Ronel could be
homozygous dominant (BB) or heterozygous dominant (Bb)
1.8 Mutations:
 A mutation is caused by a permanent change to the DNA of a cell.
Gene mutation:
 A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of

nitrogenous bases/nucleotides in a gene and can
occur during DNA replication, transcription and
crossing over.
 Examples of gene mutations are haemophilia and colour-blindness.
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 Haemophilia – absence of blood-clotting factors

 Colour-blindness – due to absence of the proteins that
comprise either the red or green cones/photoreceptors in
the eye.
Chromosomal mutation:
 Chromosomal mutations occur when meiosis does not occur

normally. It may result in a change in the number or structure
of chromosomes e.g. during Anaphase I if the chromosomes
do not separate. Both chromosomes go to the same pole, and
thus the chromosome number of the gametes changes.
 An example of a chromosome mutation is Down syndrome -
due to an extra copy of chromosome 21 as a result of non-
disjunction during meiosis
1.9 Genetic engineering:
 Genetic engineering is the manipulation or transfer of

genes from one organism to another to make products
that satisfy human needs.
 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are the result of genetic
engineering.
Example (genetic engineering in medicine):

 Synthetic insulin is used to treat diabetes and is
produced by genetic engineering technology (see
diagram and explanation below).
 The DNA with the gene coding for the production of insulin
is removed from healthy human pancreatic cells
 Enzymes are used to cut the DNA into segments to isolate the specific
gene.
 A plasmid/ circular DNA is removed from a bacterial cell.
 The plasmid is cut using enzymes.
 The human insulin gene is inserted into the plasmid to form
recombinant DNA
 The recombinant DNA is placed back into the bacterial cell.
 The bacteria are placed in a fermentation tank where they
20
reproduce rapidly to produce many copies of the insulin gene.

 The insulin is extracted from the bacteria and purified.
Advantages of genetic engineering:
 Produce crops that are resistant to adverse conditions/

drought/disease/pests
 Increase crop yield
 Change the time for the ripening of fruit
 Increase shelf life of plant products
 Improve nutritional value of food
 Improve the taste of food
 Developing fruit/plants with desirable characteristics
 Production of drugs or hormones (e.g. insulin) which have
fewer side-effects and is cheaper
Stem cell research:
 Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability

to grow into any tissue in the body.
 They may be harvested from the placenta, embryos, bone
marrow and from blood in the umbilical cord.
Use of stem cells:
 Bone marrow has been used for a long time to treat cancers
 Stem cells are used to replace dead cells in the heart after a
heart attack or growing skin tissue to treat burn victims or
growing nerve cells to treat spinal cord injuries and
Parkinson’s disease
Cloning:
 Cloning is the process where genetically identical organisms are

produced
Process of cloning in animals:
 The nucleus of an ovum is removed and replaced with

the nucleus of a somatic donor cell/ diploid donor cell
 The zygote is stimulated for mitosis to occur
 The embryo is then placed into the uterus of an adult female
Process of cloning in plants:
 Plants may be cloned by vegetative reproduction/asexual reproduction

/tissue culture/grafting
 A plant with the desired characteristics is selected
 A vegetative part of the “parent” plant structure is removed and
placed
inside a growth medium and allowed to grow.
1.10 Paternity testing: Blood grouping:
21
 The blood group of a child is determined by the alleles

received from both parents
 The blood group of the mother, the child and the
possible father is determined
 If the blood group of the mother and possible father
cannot lead to the blood group of the child, the man is
not the father
 If the blood group of the mother and the possible father
can lead to the blood group of the child the man might
be the father but this is not conclusive because many
men have the same blood group
DNA profiles:
 A child received DNA from both parents

 The DNA profiles of the mother, child and the possible father are
determined
 A comparison of the DNA bands of the mother and the child is made
 The remaining DNA bands are compared to the possible father’s DNA
bands
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23
Life Sciences Gr 12 Cape Winelands Updated Survival Kit - PAPER 2 2024
EVOLUTION Paper 2 – 54 marks
Evolution is: change over time ….

It is the environment that determines which individuals of the species will survive and then
reproduce
Evolution: can lead to the development of a new species (Speciation)
Biological evolution:
The genetic changes in populations over many generations which lead to development of new
species.
Evolution:
is a process of change over time where species/populations survive their changing
environment.
NB!! SPECIES:
A group of organisms with the similar characteristics, that can reproduce AND produce fertile
offspring.
NB!! POPULATION:
A group of similar organisms with similar characteristics, which occur in the same area, can
reproduce and produce fertile offspring.
Evidence for evolution:
- Fossil records: provides evidenceof the history of extinct organisms on earth
- Biogeography: the study of the distribution of current and extinct species over the whole
world.
- Modification by descent (homologous structures): basic structural plans in animals are
the same, but the perform different functions
- Genetics: the study of inheritance provides evidence
Sources of variation that occur between individuals of the same species:

1. Meiosis
-Crossing over (prophase 1)
-Random arrangement of chromosomes (metaphase 1)
2. Mutations
-Mutations are changes in the DNA of chromosomes
3.Random fertilisation (‘random’ fertilisation of gametes)
4. Random mating (which males and female mate)
Types of variation:
- Continuous variation – those characteristics where there is a range of inter-mediate
phenotypes, e.g. height
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Always represented as a histogram
- Discontinuous variation – those characteristics that fall into distinct categories e.g.,
blood groups
Always represented as bar graph
Lamarck’s ‘Laws’
1. Law of use and disuse:

-Organs’ become modified or adapted according to use, if used more- became bigger, if not
used – they become smaller and disappeared
2. Law of inheritance of acquired characteristics:

-modifications brought about by use or disuse were able to be transmitted to offspring
-i.e animals adapted to their environment and passed these characteristics on to next
generation
His laws were REJECTED: Only genetic characteristics (in your DNA) can be inherited and not
something that you acquired in your lifetime.
NB!!! Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection: Know this very well!!
• There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.

• Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
• When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is competition,
• then organisms with characteristics which make them more suited, survive,
• whilst organisms with characteristics that make them less suited, die.
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• The organisms that survive, reproduce

• and pass on the favourable allele to their offspring.
• The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the
favourable characteristic.
Punctuated Equilibrium: explains the speed at which evolution takes place:

Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or change gradually
through natural selection (known as equilibrium).
This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid changes occur
through natural selection during which new species may form in a short period of time.
equilibrium
change
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION - (selective breeding)

For many years, humans have been doing breeding experiments to develop organisms with a
selected set of desirable characteristics
Differences between Natural Selection and Artificial Selection (prepare this for a possible
question)
DEFINITION OF SPECIATION:
Formation of a new species
First identify the geographical barriers(that splits population) in these two diagrams.
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Speciation through geographic isolation: (Know this very well!!)

● If a population becomes separated by a geographical barrier (sea, river,
mountain, lake)
● then the population splits into two.
● There is now no gene flow between the two populations.
● Since each population may be exposed to different environmental
conditions/the selection pressure may be different
● natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations
● such that the individuals of the two populations become very different from
each other
● genotypically and phenotypically.
● Even if the two populations were to mix again
● they will not be able to interbreed.
● The two populations are now different species
Reproductive isolation mechanisms: (that help to keep species separate):

- Breeding at different times of the year
- Species-specific courtship behaviour
- Plant adaptation to different pollinators
- Infertile offspring
- Prevention of fertilisation
EVOLUTION: Exemplar Questions

Describe how Darwin explained natural selection by using the giraffe population referring
to the length of their necks. (6)
KEYWORDS ANSWER
Variation in population There is a great deal of variation amongst the giraffe
population.
Favourable characteristics and Some have long necks and some do not.
some not
Change in environmental When there is a change in the environmental conditions
conditions or if there is competition,
Organisms more suited then giraffes with long necks which make them more
characteristics, survive suited, survive
Those with unfavourable whilst giraffes with short necks, which make them less
characteristics, die suited, die.
Survive, reproduce The giraffes with long necks that survive, reproduce
pass alleles of favourable and thus pass on the favourable allele of long necks to
characteristic their offspring
27
Next generation higher proportion The next generation will therefore have a higher
individuals with favourable proportion of individuals with long necks.
characteristics
Tabulate THREE differences between natural selection and artificial selection. (7)
Natural Selection Artificial Selection

The environment or nature is the selective force Humans represent the selective force
Selection is in response to suitability to the Selection is in response to satisfying human
environment needs
Occurs within species May involve one or more species (as in cross-
breeding)
The diagrams below show a process of
evolution. The diagrams illustrate the events
that occurred in the rabbit population over
many years. Study them and answer the
questions that follow.
Use the diagram to explain how the two

new species evolved from the
original population. (6)
Answer:
KEYWORDS ANSWER
population separates by If a population of rabbits becomes separated by a
geographical barrier geographical barrier (sea, river, mountain, lake)
then the population splits into two.
No gene flow There is now no gene flow between the two rabbit
populations.
different environmental conditions Since each rabbit population may be exposed to different
environmental conditions/the selection pressure may be
different
natural selection occurs natural selection occurs independently in each of the two
independently populations
individuals differ such that the individuals of the two populations become very
different from each other
Genotypically and phenotypically genotypically and phenotypically.
Should the populations mix Even if the two rabbit populations were to mix again
Not interbreed they will not be able to interbreed.
different species have been formed The two populations are now different rabbit species
HUMAN EVOLUTION
28
Phylogenetic tree to show the place of the family Hominidae. All hominids belong to this
family.
Common
ancestor
A phylogenetic tree shows possible relationships between members of the family Hominidae.
What is the name given to the type of diagram below? Phylogenetic tree
A typical question:
Name the common ancestor in this diagram (other organisms branch from here)
Answer: Australopithecus afarensis
Characteristics that humans share with African apes:

Large brain
Eyes in front
Freely rotating arms
Long upper arms
Rotation around elbow joints
Bare fingertips, no claws
Opposable thumbs
Upright posture
Anatomical differences between African apes and human:
29
Foramen magnum
More backward
position in
chimpanzees
Cranium - the area that the brain fits into
Humans Larger brain,

larger cranium
African
apes Smaller brain,
smaller cranium
Spine:
30
C-shaped S-shaped
Teeth and palate shape
More
More curved
rectangular
Jaws
Cranial ridges and eyebrow ridges
Pelvic girdle
Narrow, long Wide, short
31
Fossil evidence show the anatomical differences over time in the following genera (one genus,
many genera):
Genus: Ardipithecus
Genus: Australopithecus
Genus: Homo
Note: be able to identify the Genus and the Species of organisms

Look at these examples to practice identifying the Genus and the Species (asked in the
exams)
Give the genus and the species of:
1. Australopithecus Sediba: Answer Genus- Australopithecus; Species- Sediba
2. Homo Habilis: Answer Genus- Homo; Species - Habilis
Out of Africa Hypothesis: Evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:

Fossil evidence: (You must know this well. Take note of the bold and underlined facts as these
must be stated to get marks.)
1. Oldest Ardipithecus fossils found in Africa only

2. Australopithecus fossils found in Africa only, including Karabo, Little Foot, Taung
Child, Mrs Ples
3. Homo fossils of Homo habilis found in Africa only;
4. oldest fossils of Homo erectus found in Africa and
5. oldest fossils of Homo sapiens found in Africa,
6. while the younger fossils of Homo Erectus/Homo Sapiens were found in other parts
of the world
32

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Life Sciences Cape Winelands Updated Survival Kit PAPER 2 2024

CAPE WINELANDS EDUCATION

LIFE SCIENCES PAPER 2

DNA, RNA, Protein Synthesis (Paper 2- 27 marks)

Brief history of the discovery of the DNA molecule:

STRUCTURE OF DNA: Double helix

NB : Each DNA nucleotide is made up of three components:

Specific base pairing arrangement are known as

Know the stick diagram of DNA to

When you learn this topic, practice to

PROCESS OF DNA REPLICATION

When does DNA replication take place?

Significance (or importance) of DNA replication:

How DNA replication takes place:

Definition of a DNA profile:

Uses of DNA profiles:

Interpretation of DNA profiles:

Typical question in the exams:

- The double helix unwinds

RNA - (Ribonucleic Acid)

RNA is also made up of building-blocks (monomeres) called nucleotides.

Stick diagram of a RNA molecule:

You could be asked to:

RNA contains the nitrogen base URACIL

The involvement of DNA in protein synthesis:

mRNA is formed Only one strand of DNA

You must be able to: Describe TRANSCRIPTION as follows:

You must be able to: Describe TRANSLATION as follows:

Use the diagram of translation to identify:

1.1 Practice the following:

MEIOSIS – Paper 2, 21 marks

Revision of cell structure:

Nucleus: the part that contains all the DNA (chromosomes)

Haploid (n) and diploid (2n) cells in terms of chromosome number

Somatic cells and gametes

Sex chromosomes (gonosomes) and autosomes

Sex chromsomes - gonosomes determine your sex/gender (male XY chromosomes; female

Site of meiosis (place where it occurs)

Meiosis II - use diagrams to identify the different phases

Every cell that is formed during Meiosis I divides

Individual chromosomes arrange themselves

Abnormal meiosis through non-disjunction: when chromosome pairs fail to separate

An example of the consequences of non-disjunction: Down syndrome

- during Anaphase in humans

Similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis:

Creates body cells Creates gametes (sex cells)

GENETICS, Paper 2 – 48 marks

Alleles: alternative forms of a gene found at

Locus: the position of the gene on the

Dominant An allele if present, is ALWAYS

Heterozygous: Two different alleles for a particular

Monohybrid A genetic cross involving only ONE

Format for representing a genetic cross:

P1 – generation Phenotype ____________ x ____________

Fertilization (Punnet diagram)

F1 – generation Genotype ________________

You are awarded marks for: P1 generation+ F1 generationü

1.1 Types of dominance:

 Complete dominance – one allele is dominant and the other is

 Incomplete dominance – none of the two alleles of a gene is

P1 – generation Phenotype x