The formation of the heaviest elements 

The rapid neutron-capture process needed to build up many of the elements heavier than iron
seems to take place primarily in neutron-star mergers, not supernova explosions.
Anna Frebel; Timothy C. Beers

Physics Today 71 (1), 30–37 (2018);

https://doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.3815

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09 December 2024 13:22:08

 Anna Frebel is an associate professor of physics at MIT in
Cambridge, Massachusetts. Timothy C. Beers is a professor
of physics at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana.

The formation of the

HEAVIEST
ELEMENTS
Anna Frebel and
Timothy C. Beers

The rapid neutron-capture process needed

09 December 2024 13:22:08

to build up many of the elements heavier than
iron seems to take place primarily in neutron-
star mergers, not supernova explosions.

A
ll of the hydrogen and most of the helium in the
universe emerged 13.8 billion years ago from the
Big Bang. The remainder of the chemical elements,
except for a tiny amount of lithium, were forged
in stellar interiors, supernova explosions, and
neutron-star mergers. Elements up to and including iron are made in the hot cores
of short-lived massive stars. There, nuclear fusion creates ever-heavier elements as it
powers the star and causes it to shine. Elements heavier than iron—the majority of
the periodic table—are primarily made in environments with free-neutron densities
in excess of a million particles per cubic centimeter. The free neutrons, if captured
onto a seed nucleus, result in a heavier, radioactive nucleus that subsequently decays
into a stable heavy species. The so-called slow neutron-capture process, or s-process,
mostly occurs during the late stages in the evolution of stars of 1–10 solar masses
(M⊙). But the s-process accounts for the formation of only about half of the isotopes
beyond iron. Creating the other half requires a rapid capture sequence, the r-process,
and a density of greater than 1020 neutrons/cm3 that can bombard seed nuclei. The
requisite neutron fluxes can be provided by supernova explosions (see the article by
John Cowan and Friedrich-Karl Thielemann, PHYSICS TODAY, October 2004, page 47)
or by the mergers of binary neutron-star systems.
30 PHYSICS TODAY | JANUARY 2018
 09 December 2024 13:22:08

THIS MAP OF MILKY WAY SATELLITES

(yellow dots) was generated by Helmut
Jerjen. Since it was created, the satellite
count has grown to about 60. Segue 1
and Reticulum II (Ret II), both mentioned
in the article, are specifically identified.
(Satellites map courtesy of Helmut Jerjen;
background Milky Way image courtesy of
the European Space Observatory.)

JANUARY 2018 | PHYSICS TODAY 31

 HEAVIEST ELEMENTS

In 2016 a tiny, faint galaxy, a satellite of the FIGURE 1. A COSMIC DANCE Mergers of orbiting neutron stars, as we
Milky Way called Reticulum II (Ret II), pro- with a fiery end. This artist’s have noted, meet the criteria for the produc-
vided evidence that the supernova-explosion conception visualizes, from left tion of r-process nuclei. Figure 1 illustrates such
scenario that had long been favored could not to right, the ripples in spacetime a merger. But even the recent LIGO–Virgo de-
created as two neutron stars
be the main mechanism for the production of tection of two neutron stars coalescing has
orbit each other and eventually
the heaviest elements. Instead, the chemical added only one piece to the puzzle of under-
coalesce. During the merger,
composition of the stars in Ret II strongly sug- standing the origin of the heaviest elements.
copious amounts of heavy ele-
gests that neutron-star mergers are the uni- Nuclear physicists are still working to model
ments are produced. (Courtesy
verse’s way to make elements such as gold and of NASA.) the r-process, and astrophysicists need to es-
platinum. The neutron-star formation scenario timate the frequency of neutron-star mergers
is supported by striking observations reported to assess whether r-process heavy-element
in October of last year: the Laser Interferometer Gravitational- production solely or at least significantly takes place in the
Wave Observatory (LIGO) and Virgo interferometer measure- merger environment.
ments of gravitational waves from the merger of a pair of To test r-process models, nuclear physicists will need to
mutually orbiting neutron stars1 and associated weeks-long obtain measurements or solid predictions of the fundamental
outbursts of electromagnetic radiation pointing to a kilonova properties of heavy, unstable nuclei that lie far from the valley

09 December 2024 13:22:08

event (see references 2 and 3 and PHYSICS TODAY, December of stability occupied by familiar long-lived isotopes—they’ll
2017, page 19). need to know, for example, about masses, nuclear interaction
cross sections, and decay rates. Procuring such data is a primary
Cosmic Rosetta stones science driver for several international accelerator facilities.
Neutron stars form in the death throes of stars with masses of The US representative, the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, is
10–20 M⊙. Such high-mass stars can form at any time. Theory currently under construction at the campus of Michigan State
suggests, though, that they are dominant in the early universe, University and is expected to be completed in 2022.
a few hundred million years after the Big Bang, at which time R-process nucleosynthesis models that use the data gen-
they have a propensity to be born as binaries.4 erated at accelerator facilities must clear another hurdle:

1.0

Dy Fe
0.8 Fe
NORMALIZED FLUX

Sm
Ce Er Ce
Ce Ce Ce
Fe
Y Ce Dy
0.6 Gd Ce
Ba
Sm
Ce
0.4 Co La

0.2 Fe
HE 1523–0901 HD 122563
Eu

4120 4125 4130

WAVELENGTH (Å)
FIGURE 2. TWO OLD STARS. In these spectra, absorption lines are labeled by element symbols. The blue spectrum corresponds to the
r-process-deficient star HD 122563. The red spectrum, with its pronounced absorption lines for several rare-earth elements, was taken for
HE 1523-0901, the most r-process enhanced of all the stars in the galactic halo. (Adapted from ref. 13.)

32 PHYSICS TODAY | JANUARY 2018

 Solar r-process component
2
CS 22892-052
LOG OF NORMALIZED ABUNDANCE

1
Sr
Zr Pt
Mo Ru Os Pb
Ba Nd
0 Pd Dy
Sm Gd Er
Ce Yb Ir
Y Hf
Rh
−1 La
Nb Ag Eu Ho
Pr Tb Au Th
Tm Lu
U
−2

40 50 60 70 80 90
ATOMIC NUMBER
FIGURE 3. PATTERN MATCHING.
Their predictions must be consistent with con- Two decades ago Christopher Sneden and
The abundance pattern of
straints derived from astronomical observa- colleagues identified CS 22892-052, the first
r-process elements in the typical
tions of the abundances of heavy elements in r-II star CS 22892-052 (blue data highly r-process-enhanced star in the galactic
the ultimate laboratory, the universe itself. In points) aligns with the r-process halo.9 The announcement came as a great sur-
that regard, Nature has shown scientists a solar-system abundances, shown prise. Even though its measured abundances
kindness by sprinkling the galaxy with chem- as a gray jagged line for compari- of iron and elements with similar atomic num-
ically primitive stars that exhibit high levels of son. (Courtesy of Erika Holmbeck, bers were about 1000 times lower than those

09 December 2024 13:22:08

r-process elements. based on data from ref. 14.) of the Sun, CS 22892-052 had detectable quan-
When the r-process was first hypothesized tities of radioactive thorium. The observed
six decades ago,5,6 the abundances of r-process spectral lines, together with theory, suggested
elements heavier than iron had to be inferred from solar-system that the star had an age in excess of 12 billion years. Admittedly,
material, specifically meteorites and the solar atmosphere. Un- such determinations may be plagued by large systematic un-
fortunately, the material from which the solar system formed certainties, but at face value, the derived stellar age suggests
included the products of some 8 billion years of chemical- that the r-process must have been operating when the universe
element enrichment from previous generations of stars. That was chemically quite primitive.
long-term accumulation makes it difficult to extrapolate details In CS 22892-052 and other so-called r-II stars, the abundance
of the individual nucleosynthesis events that contributed at var- of r-process elements such as europium relative to that of iron
ious times. But beginning in the 1980s, large-scale surveys began is more than 10 times as great as the abundance ratio in the
to identify the small population of iron-deficient stars that Sun. Such results are conventionally expressed with a bracket
likely formed in the first billion years following the Big Bang. notation: [Eu/Fe] > +1.0. The quantity inside the brackets is the
Those surveys expanded the number of recognized stars with abundance ratio; the brackets tell you to compare it with the
iron abundances less than 1% of the Sun’s; nowadays, many ratio in the Sun and take the base-10 logarithm. Figure 2 com-
tens of thousands of such stars are known.7,8 pares the absorption spectrum of an r-II star with that of a more
During the past decade, high-resolution spectroscopic stud- typical old star and shows the strong absorption lines for sev-
ies have revealed that something like 3–5% of those ancient eral rare-earth elements. During the past 20 years, astrophysi-
stars have moderately or highly enhanced abundances directly cists have discovered about 25 r-II stars and some 125 members
associated with the r-process. They are rare needles in the of a class of moderately r-process-enhanced stars, r-I stars, for
haystack of the few hundred billion stars that make up our which +0.3 < [Eu/Fe] < +1.0.
Milky Way, cosmic Rosetta stones that astrophysicists can use Detailed studies of r-I and r-II stars with ground- and space-
to decipher the site and origin of the r-process. based telescopes have produced fundamental clues to the ori-
gin of the astrophysical r-process. Here we list some of them.
Accumulating clues ‣ As figure 3 shows, the overall abundance pattern of the
Traditional archaeologists examine fossil evidence on Earth to r-process elements in r-II stars is essentially identical to that of
understand ancient civilizations. Practitioners of stellar archae- the solar system. (The r-I stars also display the same pattern.)
ology search the Milky Way’s halo, the low-stellar-density re- And that near identity is despite the fact that the r-I and r-II
gion enveloping the disk of the galaxy, to find the long-lived, stars formed from gas that differs significantly from solar-
low-mass stars that have recorded the chemical history of ele- system material. Those stars have [Fe/H] values no larger than
ment production by the now extinct first generations of stars. −1.5 and sometimes as low as −3.5. Called metallicity, [Fe/H] in-
(See the article by Anna Frebel and Volker Bromm, PHYSICS dicates the overall abundance of elements beyond hydrogen
TODAY, April 2012, page 49.) and helium, up to and including iron. Also, r-I and r-II stars
JANUARY 2018 | PHYSICS TODAY 33
HEAVIEST ELEMENTS

a b

FIGURE 4. A HIDDEN, TINY

presumably formed early in cosmic history, GALAXY. Reticulum II (Ret II) is site responsible for the r-process must itself be
whereas the solar system is a relatively youth- an ultrafaint dwarf galaxy on the able to replicate that chemical fingerprint, or
ful 4.6 billion years old. The similar abundance outskirts of the Milky Way. (a) This else multiple nucleosynthesis pathways must
patterns in such disparate systems indicate a image shows all the stars in the exist that can give rise to the bifurcation of

09 December 2024 13:22:08

remarkably robust r-process behavior. direction of Ret II. The horizontal r-II stars.
‣ Examples of r-I and r-II stars have been bars on the brighter stars arise Clearly, we astrophysicists still have plenty
found in essentially all stages of stellar evolu- from saturation effects. (b) Sophis- to learn. It does seem probable, though, that
tion, which precludes the possibility that their ticated image search algorithms the production of the r-process elements took
apparent r-process-element enhancement is the can identify the stars in panel a place in the early history of chemical evolution.
result of peculiar atmospheric chemistry in that are members of Ret II. A Moreover, the ancient stars with r-process
particular stages of their lives. coherent structure is clearly elements must have formed in environments
‣ Long-term monitoring of the radial veloci- visible. (Courtesy of the Dark that limited additional star formation, a process
ties of r-I and r-II stars shows no telltale vari- Energy Survey/Fermilab.) that could erase the distinctive r-process pat-
ations that would arise from the presence of a terns. Such an environment has now been
binary companion.10 That observation argues against models found. It’s a tiny, satellite galaxy that we mentioned earlier and
in which r-process elements were formed by a companion will revisit: Reticulum II.
star—for example, in a supernova—and then transferred to the
presently observed r-I or r-II star. Apparently, the observed The rise of the dwarfs
stars were born from gas that had already been enriched in The oldest stars in the Milky Way date back to the earliest
r-process elements by a previous source. star-forming events. They likely originated in small galaxies
‣ The [Fe/H] distributions for r-I and r-II stars are significantly that were later accreted by the Milky Way. As those small
different. For r-II stars, [Fe/H] is concentrated at values ranging galaxies were absorbed, they spilled out their stars and created
from −3.5 to −2.5. For r-I stars, [Fe/H] extends as high as −1.5. the Milky Way’s halo. As a consequence of that disruption, astro-
The mismatched distributions may point to differences in the physicists can no longer access the galaxies in which those old
birth environments of the r-I and r-II stars. Even if r-I and r-II stars formed.
stars have the same birth environment, it is possible that However, we can derive information about the destroyed
r-process yields could be diluted differently in natal clouds with galaxies through studies of the ancient stars in the satellite
different masses. Subsequently formed stars would then dis- galaxies that still orbit the Milky Way. That approach uses sur-
play different abundance levels for r-process elements. Alter- viving dwarf galaxies to explore the nature of similar galaxies
natively, stars with higher [Fe/H] may have formed from gas in the early universe. The dwarfs are likely next on the table
that was enriched in iron by an unusually large number of to be eaten by the Milky Way, but before they are consumed
supernova explosions. they provide safe havens for stars that have remained mem-
‣ About 30% of r-II stars have what is called an actinide boost. bers of their parent galaxy since their birth. We can study
Measurements of thorium and in some cases uranium indicate the detailed chemical compositions of those stars to learn about
that compared with the other r-II stars, the boosted stars have the early chemical enrichment in dwarf galaxies. Even more
a three- to fourfold enhancement of those radioactive elements important, we can study the environments in which those
relative to stable elements such as europium. The astrophysical stars formed.
34 PHYSICS TODAY | JANUARY 2018
 FIGURE 5. A CHALLENGE TO SUPERNOVAE. Shown
here are (a) barium-to-hydrogen and (b) europium-to-
hydrogen chemical-abundance ratios of stars as a
function of their iron-to-hydrogen abundance ratio.
(The bracket notation on the axes is explained in the
main text.) Red filled circles indicate stars in the ultrafaint
dwarf galaxy Reticulum II, the other colored symbols
indicate stars in other UFDs, and gray filled circles indicate
stars in the halo of the Milky Way. Arrows indicate data
for which only upper limits are known, and error bars
represent one standard deviation. The orange bars along
the y-axes indicate a range of heavy-element abundances
predicted by models that posit neutron-star mergers as
the source of r-process elements; the brown bars give
estimates assuming a supernova is the source. Until the
discovery of Reticulum II, data tended to support the
supernova picture. But even then, the supernova
models had their problems, and Reticulum II is certainly
inconsistent with a supernova source. (Courtesy of
Alexander Ji; adapted from ref. 11.)

Prior to 2006 only a handful of dwarf satellite galaxies were Earth, Ret II is quite close for an orbiting satellite. Still, detailed
known to orbit the Milky Way. Indeed, their apparently small high-resolution spectroscopy is necessary for an accurate esti-
numbers challenged formation models of large galaxies like mate of the chemical composition of its individual stars and
ours. Theory and numerical simulation had predicted that many thus of its natal gas. To obtain the spectra, a spectrograph
more smaller systems should be orbiting the Milky Way, like mounted at the telescope splits starlight into its rainbow colors.
bees swirling around a giant hive. Once the Sloan Digital Sky As a result, the starlight is distributed over many detector pix-
Survey (SDSS) completed its imaging of the northern sky in els; each individual pixel has only a small signal. Long exposure

09 December 2024 13:22:08

2009, much of the tension was alleviated because analysis of times compensate for the tiny signal, and for bright stars, one
the deep, large-scale imagery obtained by the SDSS revealed doesn’t have to wait ridiculously long to obtain data with the
a new type of small, very faint dwarf—ultrafaint dwarf (UFD) desired quality. But faint stars such as those in even the closest
galaxies. UFDs push current telescope and detector technologies to their
The SDSS eventually found about 15 UFDs; today the Milky limits. Only the brightest stars in a dwarf galaxy are, in princi-
Way’s total satellite count is close to 60. Those little systems are ple, observable, and each one of those may require an entire
remarkable. They are nearly devoid of gas and extremely old, night’s exposure time.
and most contain only a few thousand stars—much fewer than In 2015 Alexander Ji and one of us (Frebel) used the 6.5 m
typical star clusters. Yet many UFDs possess extended dark- Clay Magellan telescope in Chile to obtain high-resolution
matter envelopes, as determined from velocity dispersions de- spectra of the brightest stars in Ret II. We expected to find the
rived from the motions of their stars. Those envelopes define same pattern of elemental abundances for the Ret II stars as had
the UFDs as true galaxies, inasmuch as star clusters do not con- been seen in all other dwarf galaxies. To our surprise, we found
tain dark matter. Because UFDs are so sparsely populated, they instead that seven of the nine stars that could be observed
cannot easily be seen as coherent objects in an astronomical showed an unusual, extreme enhancement in the heaviest ele-
image, which is why they were overlooked until recently. Spot- ments of the periodic table—they were all r-II stars. Previously,
ting a UFD requires sophisticated algorithms to search an the r-II signature had been seen only in rare Milky Way stars.
image and identify stars that, among other criteria, are located We had found the first r-process galaxy.11
at the same distance from the Sun. Figure 4 shows an example Apparently, when Ret II was still young, an r-process nucleo-
of the sky in the direction of a UFD galaxy, compared with an synthesis event enriched the gas that ultimately formed the
image that includes just UFD member stars. stars we are observing today. The great enhancement of r-process
Data taken in 2015 by the Dark Energy Survey revealed a heavy elements in the UFD’s stars, coupled with a knowledge
batch of UFDs in the southern sky. The new survey results con- of the stars’ formation environment, led us to conclude that a
firmed that small satellite galaxies are ubiquitous, as originally neutron-star merger was likely responsible for Ret II’s r-process
predicted. Subsequent chemical-abundance studies of the stars enrichment.
in the newly discovered dwarf galaxies confirmed the satellites Figure 5 displays the abundances of the r-process elements
to be chemically primitive and very old. They exhibit the sig- europium and barium in Milky Way halo stars and dwarf
natures of the earliest element-production events, and at least galaxy stars, including those in Ret II. The plots also show es-
one of them, Segue 1, may be among the first galaxies to have timates for the elemental yields in neutron-star mergers and
ever formed. Somehow it managed to survive to the present. supernovae. Before the discovery that Ret II was an r-process
galaxy, the preponderance of data for ancient Milky Way stars
Gold in the halo had suggested that the likely site of r-process heavy-element
Reticulum II is another of the noteworthy UFDs in the Milky production was core-collapse supernovae, which have a short
Way halo. Located just 30 kiloparsecs (100 000 light-years) from enrichment time scale. Even so, for decades lingering doubts
JANUARY 2018 | PHYSICS TODAY 35
HEAVIEST ELEMENTS

persisted among nuclear physicists. In hindsight, given the The r-process-enhanced stars in Ret II and those in the
host of issues with supernova models, it has become clear that galactic halo have basically identical elemental-abundance sig-
an understanding of the birth environment is crucial. A knowl- natures. The only thing that separates them is that the dwarf
edge of, for example, the mass of a birth galaxy or the dy- galaxy stars have known birthplaces, whereas individual halo
namical processes taking place therein could enable astro- stars do not. From consideration of how the r-process-enhanced
physicists to estimate the degree to which an r-process yield stars were formed in Ret II, it seems that the r-I and r-II halo
is diluted. Theory could then be compared with the observa- stars were born in systems of a similar nature. In that sense,
tional data and finally, perhaps, we’ll be able to answer the Ret II may be viewed as a missing link that connects the r-I and
questions of when, where, and how the r-process created the r-II stars strewn throughout the halo of the Milky Way.
heaviest elements, including the jewelry-store elements gold Meanwhile, Terese Hansen and colleagues recently found
and platinum. another UFD galaxy—Tucana III, somewhat more massive than
At least for Ret II, one can clearly rule out a supernova ori- Ret II—that exhibits signs of r-process-element enrichment
gin for r-process-element production. The observed r-process from a neutron-star merger.12 They used high-resolution spec-
enhancement would have required hundreds to thousands of troscopy to observe the brightest of its stars, which they showed
supernovae, and a small UFD galaxy simply does not have suf- to be an r-I star. The astrophysical community is waiting for
ficient binding mass to have survived such a large number of data from additional stars to firm up any conclusions about
cataclysms. Of course, some supernovae must have exploded Tucana III, but in any case, more than a dozen r-I stars had been
in Ret II, but a small number would not produce significant previously identified among dwarf galaxies that are not UFDs,
amounts of r-process elements. including Draco, Ursa Minor, Sculptor, and Carina. Such ob-
On the other hand, as figure 5 demonstrates, the predicted servations imply that enrichments from neutron-star mergers,
r-process heavy-element yield of a single neutron-star merger though rare, are not unique to the UFDs.
does agree well with element abundances observed in Ret II.
Furthermore, the merger picture passes a timing test that it Putting it all together
could in principle have failed. It turns out that once the first The above-discussed clues to the astrophysical origin of the
generation of stars in a system like Ret II explodes and injects r-process have generated great excitement and spurred new ef-
energy into the system, the galaxy needs about 100 million years forts to identify r-I and r-II stars in the galactic halo. The goal
to cool sufficiently for another round of star formations. That’s is to find about 500 r-I stars and 100 r-II stars and use them to

09 December 2024 13:22:08

just enough time for the members of a neutron binary to spiral refine estimates of the frequency of such stars throughout the
in toward each other and merge. halo, quantify potential variations in the abundance patterns

See Science in a New Light

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February 26 – March 1, 2018

Orlando, FL USA
Orange County Convention Center
of r-process heavy elements, and better constrain the fractions how the Milky Way was assembled and thus gain much needed
of r-II stars that exhibit the actinide boost. Together with an in- clues about the nature of the r-process and in particular the as-
ternational team and using various telescopes worldwide, the trophysical site where it takes place.
two of us are currently combing through thousands of candi- Theoretical and observational programs spanning the globe
dates to find those rare gems. Our pilot survey has already iden- are providing increasingly strong constraints on the r-process,
tified at least 14 new r-II stars and many more new r-I stars. and new nuclear accelerator facilities under construction prom-
As new UFD galaxies are discovered, their brightest stars ise to furnish a wealth of new data. The multidisciplinary en-
will be observed with high-resolution spectroscopy to yield an deavor involves nuclear physics, gravitational physics, and as-
understanding of their chemical makeup and thus their star- tronomy. Properly synthesized, the contributions from those
formation and chemical-enrichment histories. The identification fields have the potential to yield a solution to one of the most
of additional r-process-enhanced dwarf galaxies will enable challenging riddles posed by the cosmos and a full understand-
astrophysicists and nuclear physicists to interpret, readily and ing of how the elements in the periodic table came to be.
in unprecedented detail, the nucleosynthetic products of the
r-process in the simplest possible environment.
Ongoing research will also pave the way to learning more REFERENCES
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census of the r-process-enhanced stars both in the halo and in Cosmos, SISSA (2008), article 025.
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