*Classification of Automobiles:(a) According to use(b) According to capacity(c) According to

fuel used(d) According to wheels(e) According to drive(1) According to transmission(g)

According to suspension system(h) According to engine fitting(i) According to
body construction.
*Frame:The frame is the main part of the chassis on which remaining parts of chassis are
mounted. The frame should be extremely rigid and strong so that it can withstand shocks,
twists, stresses and vibrations to which it is subjected while vehicle is moving on road. It is
also called underbody.The frame is supported on the wheels and tyre assemblies. The frame
is narrow in the front for providing short tuming radius to front wheels. It widens out at the
rear side to provide larger space in the body.It is a skeleton to hold the major unit together.
These are of two types:(a) The conventional pressed steel frame to which all mechanical unit
are attached.(b) Integral or frameless construction in which body construction perform
combine function of body and frame. So it decreases the weight and save fuel consumption
also reduces manufacturing cost but increases repair cost if damage occur during accident.
*Alternative Fuel:As a result gases from fossil fuel emission have caused and continuing to
caused great damage to the atmosphere such as green house effect and acidic rain.
Alternative fuels which are renewable and eco friendly reduce the dependency on fossil
fuels and they help to preserve the atmosphere by reducing the emission levels. The burning
of fossil fuels create higher levels of CO, and other gases in atmosphere affecting the green
house effect. The scarcity of conventional fossil fuels. growing emissions of combustion
causing pollutants and their increasing costs will make biomass sources more attractive. The
conventional fuel as diesel exhaust may cause lung cancer and other respiratory diseases.
The diesel emission has been classified as human carcinogen.
*Electric Vehicles working:•The battery used in electric car it lead-acid battery whane only
disadvantage is relatively low specific energy (27-33 Wh/kg). Sodiuro sulphur type with
specific energy 8-81 WhAg is a good alternative but of very high cost and its use is yet
limited. •The drive centofler kes powers from the batteries and delivers to motor.•The drive
controller consuts of two variable resistors opersånt by accelerator pedal os besite
podal.Accelerator pedal signal sent to drive controller through resistor to adjust the power
to be delivered to the motor•Two resistors (potentiometers) are used for safety.•The drive
controller gets signals from both the potentiometers but operates only if the two signals are
equal. •The drive controller takes in about 300 volts DC from the battery set and converted
into maximum of 240 volts three phase AC to send to the same motor
*Working of Clutch:A clutch is a mechanism used to transmit the rotating motion of one
shaft to another when desired and the axis of bot the shaft are coincident. It works on the
principle of friction. It connect the engine shaft and gear box shaft. The transmission ce
power can be affected by friction between two or more rotating concentric surfaces, called
as friction plate. The friction plates can be pressed firmly against one another by means of
axial force provided by spring and the pressure plate. When it engaged, the clutch tends to
rotate as a single unit. The rotating speed of the concentric surface another shalt is depends
upon the friction force which is proportional to axial force applied by spring .
*Diaphragm clutches:• In this clutch, in order to produce the required pressure for engaging
it, a form of diaphragm or conical spring is employed in place of coil spring.•This type of
clutch is quite advantageous because it requires no release levers and the spring itself acts
as a series of levers.Some of the conical springs used even are not having the constant-rate
characteristics.•The pressure of spring is always varying.•It increases till the spring reaches
to its flat position and decreases with the passing of this position.•In case of this clutch, the
driver{ has not to exert as high a pedal pressure to hold the clutch out of engagement as it
case of a coil spring type.•In case of a coil spring type of clutch, when the pedal is depressed
to disengage the clutch, the spring pressure farther increases.
*Centrifugal Clutch:•The centrifugal clutch is extensively used in light two wheelers like
moped or two wheelers without gear.•The centrifugal clutch uses centrifugal force, instead
of spring force for keeping it in engaged position, it does not require clutch pedal for
operating a clutch. •The clutch is operated automatically depend upon the engine
speed.•The vehicle can be stop in gear without stalling the engine and driver can started a
vehicle selecting any gear. •It consist of flywheel, pressure plate, friction plate, spring, cover
with stopper and bell crank lever. •As the accelerator pedal is pressed, the engine speed
increases. The weight A attached to one end of bell crank lever fues upward exerting a
pressure on pressure plate C, so the pressure plate moves towards left which increases
the spring force E.
*Constant mesh gear box:•In this type of gear box, all the gears on the main shaft, lay shaft
are in constantly meshing. •The two dog clutches are provided on main shaft, one between
the clutch gear and the second gear and other between first gear and reverse gear.•The
main shaft is splined and all the gear on the main shaft are free to rotate.•The two dog
clutch can slide on the main shaft and rotate with it.•All the gear on lay shaft (counter shaft)
are rigidly fixed with it and one gear on lay shaft is mesh with clutch shaft gear also as same
as engine speed•To obtained the first gear (low gear) the Dog clutch D₂ moves toward by
mean of gear shift lever, it teeth are engaged with teeth on low gear M. •Similarly when dog
D, is moved right and mesh with teeth on M, gear, a reverse gear is obtained. The direction
of rotation is change by gear 1.
Synchromesh gear Box:•In order to simplify the operation of changing gear so that this can
be done by every type of operator, skilled o unskilled driver without occurrence of teeth
clashes and their consequent damage, different types. • But the principle of all these devices
is to bring the speeds of both the engine driven and gear box oumpui shak diven gear which
are to be engaged to the same rotational speed tor moving their dog clutches or equivalent
meshing unit into engagement readily and quietly.•This gear box is similar with constant
mesh gear box that the gear on main shaft, lay shaft are in constantly mesh The gear on lay
shaft are fixed while gear on main shaft are frce to rotate as lay shaft gear speed•In this a
synchromesh device is used instead of dog, which equalises the speed by fricuon after which
these may be engaged smoothly.•The systematic sketch of synchromesh is shown in Fig.
2.6.6. A is the engine shaft having cluich gear B rotate at engine speed, gear B L,C,D E are on
main shaft and gear U,. U. U, and U_{*} are the gear on lay shaft. U_{1} the intermediate
gear.•F, and F_{2} are the synchromesh member tree to slide on maan shalt which is
spline internally.
*Construction and Working of an Overdrive:It consists of an epicyclic gear train in which
sum gear is free to rotate on the engine shaft (input shaft) which is splined. •while the
carrier can be slide. A free clutch is also fitted on input shaft. The ring gear is mesh with the
casing of the output shaft. •When the sun gear is locked with the casing ie, it became
stationary, the speed of the output shaft increase hence say as overdrive is engaged.
Thus depending upon the locking of sun gear with casing or carrier the overdrive or direct
drive is obtained. •There is another possible control of the mechanism there is a direct drive
through the free wheel chitch when the engine develops the power.•When the accelerator
pedal is brought to zero position and engine is idling, the output shaft will tends to override
the input shaft.•The rollers of free wheel no longer remain wedge and the vehicle
freewheels.•Thus for gear changing driver has to lift his foot off the accelerator pedal, clutch
need not be operated.
*Torque conventr :Attempts to improve the fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions
include the use of torque converters which lock up beyond a certain speeds, or in the higher
gear ratios, eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears which automatically actuate above
certain speeds.•Explain Torque Converter with neat sketch.•If the hydraulic pump and/or
hydraulic motor make use of the hydrodynamic effects of the fluid flow, i.e. pressure due to
a change in the fluid's momentum as it flows through vanes in a turbine. •The pump and
motor usually consist of rotating vanes without seals and are typically placed in close
proximity. •The transraission ratio can be made to vary by means of additional rotating
vanes, an effect similar to varying the pisch of un airplane propeller.•The torque converter in
most automotive automatic transmissions is, used in a hydrodynamic transmission.It was
possible to drive the dynamic flow transmission without shifting the mechanical gears.•This
type of transmission are used in many passenger rail vehicles. In this application the
advantage of smooth power delivery may outweigh the reduced efficiency caused by
turbulence energy losses in the fluid.
*Differential working & construction:a) Construction of differential:•The differential
consists of a crown wheel (ring gear), two type of bevel gear, cage and spider or cross
arm.•The road wheels are driven by two half axle shaft.•The side gear (planet gear) on the
inner ends of each the half axle shaft.•The sun bevel gear and planet bevel gear are mesh
with each other at right angle. The side gears are freely mounted on the spider or cross arm.
The cage together with the bevel pinions is secured in the differential cage is bolted to the
crown wheel of the final drive.. The differential cage has a bearing at its centre. This bearing
is mounted on the left half axle shaft. This percaits the differential cage to turn
independently on the half axle shaft. arrangement. . The crown wheels mesh with curved
teeth bevel pinion which is rotated by propeller shaft.b) operation:•The pinion, driven by
the propeller shaft, rotates the crown wheel. Since the differential cage is attached to the
crown wheel it also rotate, when the cage rotate, the bevel pinion and the cross arm which
carries them moves around the circle with the diferential cage.•When the vehicle is driving
on a straight level road, both the driving meet the same rolling resistance. Hence, the load
on the planetary gear which mesh with the gear on one half axle shaft side gear will be same
as those on the teeth that mesh with other side gear.

*Classification of brakes:1. According to purpose(a) Primary or service brake(b) Secondary

or parking brake2. According to location(a) At the transmission(b) At the wheel(i) Two wheel
brake(i) Four wheel brake3. According to construction(a) Drum brake(b) Disc brake4.
According to method of actuation(a) Mechanical brake(b) Hydraulic brake(c) Electrical
brake(d) Vacuum brake(e) Air or pneumatic brake5. According to extra-braking effort(a)
Servo-brake or power assisted brakes(b) Power brakes or power operated brake6. According
to application(a) Foot brake(b) Hand brake
*Disk Break System:•The disc brake may be of a single piston caliper or a double piston
caliper type. The master cylinder located in the handle bar of two wheeler. •In single piston
floating caliper as the hydraulic pressure is applied, the piston move the pad toward the disc.
When the load makes the contact with the disc, the caliper body floats on the caliper shaft.
This bring the caliper pad (fixed pad) on the opposite side also to come in contact with the
other side if the disc. As further pressure is applied, the disc is pinched between both pads.
•In double piston caliper, hydraulic pressure is applied equally on two piston on each side of
the caliper. This causes both pad moves forward and makes contact with the disc. Hence the
disc is pressed between the pads•Disc brake is not self energizing as the drum brake. As
such more force is needed to apply them for the some brake requirement. Their chief
advantage is their resistance to fading, since disc remain cool even under repeated brake
application.•Now a day the automobile are equipped with disc brake. The disc or caliper
brake lias a metal disc instead of drum and a pair of pad or flat shoe instead of the curved
shoe used with the drum brake.•The essential components of a disc brake are the disc, the
caliper having the piston, the friction pad and metal back plate. To which friction pads are
attached. The rigid metal disc is mounted on the wheel hub. The metal disc revolves
between the jaws of the front wheel brake and to the axle housing in a rear wheel brake,
*pneumatic or Air Braking System:
•The compressor is operated by engine. The compressor suck the air from atmosphere
through air filter and compressed it to high pressure and discharge to the reservoir through
oil separator. •The pressure gauge is fitted to reservoir to indicate the pressure in the tank.
The reservoir contain enough compressed air for several braking operation. The air from
reservoir tank is supplied to brake valve and to other accessories.
•There is no braking effect until the brake pedal is not pressed as brake valve prevent the
passage of air to the brake chamber.•An pneumatic braking system is used in mediurn and
heavy duty vehicle. (1) The pressure on the pre-compressed air allow any force required for
braking to developed very small effort applied by the driver to the brake pedal.
(2) The compressed air can be used for many purposes like to inflate the tyre, drive
windshield wiper, actuate steering gear etc.(3) This system is most convenient for full trailers
and semi-trailers.•The layout of air braking system shown in above. It consists of air filter, air
compressor, unloader valve. reservoir, brake valve and brake chamber with steel tubes
and flexible hoses.

*Antilock Break system:•Vehicles wheels may be lock-up due to excessive wheel torque
over tyre road friction forces available, caused by too much hydraulic line pressure•The ABS
monitors wheel speeds and releases pressure on individual wheel brake lines, rapidly pulsing
individual brakes to prevent lock-up.•Three channel systems are equipped with a sensor for
each wheel, but control the rear brakes as a single unit. ABS ictects the right wheels about to
lock and reduces braking force on the wheel.•The system would also reduce force on both
back wheels. Both systems help avoid lock-up and loss of vehicle control. Cor.tro! means that
as long as the wheels are rotating, the antilock device permits normal application of the
brake.•But if the brakes are applied so hard that the wheels tend to stop turning and a skid
start to develop, the device comes inte operation.•It partly releases the brake so that the
wheels continue to rotate. However, braking continues, but it is held to just below the point
where a skid would start. This result maximum braking effect.
*Understeering and Oversteering:•While taking turn, the centrifugal force acts on the
vehicle which produces side thrust.•To sustain that force, the plane of the wheel must make
some angle with the direction of motion of vehicle. This is achieved by the distortion of tyre
tread.The angle between the wheel inclination and the path taken by the wheel is known as
slip angle. This value of slip angle depend upon amount of side force, the flexibility of tyre
load carried by the wheel and other factors such as camber angle and road surface.•When
the slip angle is greater at the rear wheel than the front, the vehicle tends to over steer than
is to turn into the curve more than the driver intended.•When the slip angle is smaller at the
rear than the front, the vehicle tends to under steer.•The under steer is opposite to over
steer and is preferable because correction by the driver involves rotating the steering wheel
a little more in the direction of turn.
*Rack & pinion steering gear :•The rack and pinion gear has become increasingly popular
for today's smaller cars. It is simpler, more direct acting and may be straight mechanical or
power assisted in operation.•In staall car, this steering is quick and easy. It provide maximum
amount of road feel as the tyres meet irregularities in the roads. •There is no damping out
of road feel as the tyres meet irregularities in the roads.•There is no damping out of road
shock and vibrations compare to other type of steering system.• As gear ratio is imited to
diameter of steering wheel and pinion gear so it can be used in small car and operated by
light force where as in large vehicle this can be disadvantage hence re-circulating ball type
are found in trucks.•In this type of steering gear, a pinion is mounted at the end of the
steering shaft. The pinion engages with the rack which is provided with ball joint at its each
end in order to allow for the rise and fall of wheel.
*Power steering :•With increasing demand for light control aligning tyre torque for keeping
vehicle load acceptable, power steering has become necessary in most of the vehicle.•In
order to reduce the steering wheel turning effort, turn sharp corner easily, negotiate winding
roads and monocurve the vehicle in confirmed space. •The driver can sense and
predetermine the approach of front wheel steering resistance to stabilize the vehicle on
turns or wind road a power steering is used.•The construction of power steering is in such a
way so that vehicle may be steered in the usual way when the engine is not working or any
break-down occur in the power source. •The more the steering mechanism and wheels
resist turning, the more the control valve is displaced. Hence, power assistance is always
supplied in proportion to the effort needed to turn the wheels.
*Need of suspension system:•In order to provide comfortable ride to the passengers and
avoid additional stresses in the vehicle frame.•The vehicle should neither bounce or roll or
sway the passengers when comering nor pitch when accelerating, braking or sudden lifting
or dropping of the front wheel with respect to rear wheels.•Although some of the road
irregularities and inequalities are absorbed by large tyres.•It is necessary to provide a
suspension system for reducing the shocks to passengers and for comfortable ride also
reduce additional stresses in the automobile frame and body.•All the parts which perform
the function of isolating the automobile from the road shock are collectively called as a
suspension system.•A good suspension should have springiness and damping.•The
springiness is the elastic resistance to load while damping is ability of absorbing shocks.
*Basic terms to suspension:1. Jounce: It refers to the bounce or vertical movement of the
vehicle suspension upward when it comes across the bump or shock in the road.2. Jounce: It
refers to the bounce or vertical movement of the vehicle suspension upward when it comes
across the bump or shock in the road. Rebound: Rebound refers to the movement of the
vehicle suspension in the opposite direction of jounce. The downward travel of the tyre and
wheel that extends the spring and shock absorber is called rebound, or extension. When the
spring is deflected, it stores energy3. Sprung and Unsprung Masses:•The total mass of a
vehicle, for the purpose of the suspension design, is broken up into two parts-sprung and
unsprung.•Unsprung weight consists of tyres, wheels and suspension components
thatattach these items to the main body chassis structure.4. Spring rate: It is defined as the
amount of force acts on the vehicle during the compress or deflect a spring. The rate of the
spring, however, remains constant at the load is placed onto the spring. . Elasticity: It is the
measures of the deformation of an vehicle body when force applied (when it come across
the bump ride quality.5 In automobile it must be constant for suspension system.
*Function and Requirement of Independent Suspension System:1. Its have light moving
parts help the wheel to follow the road irregularities.2. The unsprung weight is low.3. It
absorbs road shocks or impacts due to bump in road by oscillating.4. Tyres also provides
spring effect, but to a smaller extent.5. It set the parameters like camber, castor angle and
king pin inclination for better steering qualities.6. Axle should not tilt and wheel remains
vertical.7. It reducing the shocks to passengers and for comfortable ride also reduce
additional stresses in the automobile frameand body.8. It require more rigid sub-frame or
chassis frame.9. It require more frequent attention on misalignment of steering geometry
with the wear of component.
Mac-pherson strut suspension system:The upper end of a strut is fixed to the underside of
the cross member of body through a flexible mounting and a lower part of the strut is
fastened at the bottom by a joint to the lower wishbone arm. •The lower part of the strut
also carries the stub axle, on which wheel is mounted.•The rotary motion of the steering
wheel is transmitted to the lower part of the strut and it turn the whole unit.
•A helical compressive coil spring with shock absorber surround the upper part of the strut
which takes care of the road roughness shocks and vibration by absorbing the shock and
protect the vehicle from the stresses transmitted to the body.•A Mac-Pherson, engineer
introduces a single wishbone with a telescopic strut type independent suspension system.
•This system, consist of a telescopic strut type shock absorber, a single arm and
a diagonal stay.
*Telescopic shock absorber construction:•It consist of a cylinder to which head is
welded.•The head is screwed into the top end of the outer tube.•To the bottom end of the
outer tube is welded with a pressed steel cap and eye or ring. This eye is connected to wheel
axle. •The piston slides inside the cylinder. This piston is secured to the piston rod which at
its upper end has an eye welded to it. With this eye, the piston rod is attached to the frame
of the vehicle the outside part of the piston rod is protected by a dust shield (cover) which is
welded to the fixing eye.Working: •When a vehicle come across the bump, the bottom eye
is moved upwards, then the fluid below the piston must be displaced to the top side of the
piston.So the fluid level in the reservoir space will rise.•The pressure set up in the system
will depend upon the size of the passage open by valve in the piston and foot valve. •This
will depend on the square of the speed at which the cylinder is moved upward.•When the
cylinder moves downward, fluid will be displaced from the upper end of the cylinder to
lower end through the inner ring of hole in the piston by opening the lower disc valve
against coil spring.
*Gas Filled Shock Absorbers:•Gas filled shock absorbers work along the same principle as a
conventional hydraulic shock absorber but also have a gas cushion that be compressed,
therefore creating space for the compressed oil.•The gas filled shock-ups can be easily
differentiated by 'Canister' which holds the nitrogen gas inside and attached to the
conventional spring loaded shock absorber.•The canister is used to be filled with pressurized
Nitrogen gas, which further act as reservoir for both oil and Nitrogen gas. The role of the
Nitrogen gas is to keep the damping oil pressurized so that the gas molecules present in the
oil remain bonded with the oil molecules and must not get loosen to form bubbles/foam
and hence prevent the Cavitation.•A floating piston separates oil and gas, thus preventing
them from mixing. If the oil is displaced when the spring is compressed, the piston
compresses the gas cushion. When the spring then extends, the gas pushes the oil back,
similar to a spring. The gas pressure is very high and ensures that even the smallest
movements are damped.
*Factors affecting tyre life :•The heat generated by tyre does not affect by climate and
seasonal condition but it affects by the way of heat dissipated to surrounding. At high
temperature rubber gets softened result in decreases the abrasive resistance causes more
thread wear. •In rainy season or in wet condition water acts as a lubricant to rubber which
reduces tyre wear but chances of puncture Increases as rubber cut more easily in wet
condition as it depend on nature it is unavoidable.2.The road surface condition:•Concrete
roads are greatly abrasive than tanved road as it is made from varying size of stone. Gravel
road and extremely smooth that effect wear.3.The Route:•On straight roads tyre and tyre life
reduces while winding road on a hilly areas, tyres wear much faster when to brake. change
direction suddenly and accelerate continuously, even when speeds are relatively low.4.Type
of work:•The time available for cooling tyre is less on long and high speed running. So
continuous running reduces tyre life and it is unavoidable.•Fast starts, quick stop, high speed
running or turning greatly reduce the tyre life while maximum tyre life and economy is
promoted by conservative driving habits but this can be avoidable.
5.style of driving:•The sidewall of tyre is deflected due to overload as same as in under
inflated. The frequency of side wall deflection increases with increases in speed of vehicle
result in more heat generation causes more deflection. So tyre will damage.
*Principle of Working of Lead Acid Battery:It operates on the principle of Electrolysis.
Electrolysis is the conduction of electricity between two electrodes immersed in a solution
containing ions (electrolytes), which causes chemical changes at the electrodes. When two
dissimilar metal plates for example one copper and one zinc, were immersed in an acid
solution and joined by a wire a small current flowed through the circuit. This basic principle
is used in Lead acid batteries with active materials used as lead peroxide (PbO2) on a
positive plate and spongy lead (Pb) on a negative plate along with a combination of distilled
water and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as an electrolyte.
*Bendix Drive:•This type of drive depends upon the inertia of the drive gear to produce
meshing. Inertia is the property which all things have that resist any change in motion. When
drive gear is stationary, it resist any force which tends to set it in motion. •Bendix drive is
used to engage starter pinion with the flywheel gear.•For fastening this unit with the
armature starting motor shaft, the drive head is keyed to the end of armature shaft while
the other parts are free from armature shaft and drive head. •They are only connected
through the spring which is attached to the head and the sleeve carrying pinion.•When the
current passes into the starting motor the armature begin to turn at full speed causing the
transmission of turning effect to the threaded siceve.•Although the pinion is turned very
little, yet it is moved forward by the spiral thread till it engaged with the teeth of the
flywheel due to its inertia of rest and unbalanced weight.
*Charging system:•The battery is storage of direct current. The battery has to supply the
current to the starter at the time of starting as well asic the various accessories of
automobile.•Generator provides current to charge battery constantly. The rate of charging
current flow to battery depends upon state of charge of battery. •If battery is rur. down the
charging rate will be higher. Under certain circumstances it happen that run of vehicle is not
sufficient to charge the battery which has been discharge due to frequent use of starter,
prolong period of parking light ON or by the use of other accessories like, heater, blower, car
radio etc.
*components of charging system:1.Battery: Gets charged as it avails DC supply from rectifier
2) Rectifier- It is full wave three phase rectifier that is used in every vehicle.
3) Regulator: It regulates current and voltage to the battery by regulating field current.4)
Alternator: Stator and rotor-Converts mechanical energy made available by engine into
electrical energy as per the principle of induction.
*Alternator working:•When the field winding rotate a magnetic flux cut the magnetic lines
produced by pole (N and S) and e.m.f. is produced This e.m.f. can be collected by brushes
from the slip rings. The nature of this e.m.f. is A.C. So it is called alternator. •However the
alternating current generated in the coil is changed to direct current D.C. by a rectifier just
before output and if instead of revolving a coil, a magnet (magnetic flux) is rotated inside the
coil, current can be generated in the coil. •The large volume of current generated in the coil,
the more coil will heat up due to current flow.•For this reason, cooling is better if the coil is
equipped on the exterior of the generator.•Therefore, all alternators for automobile utilize
generating coil (stator coil) with an internally rotating magnet (rotor coil).

*Importance of cable color code used for wiring the lighting system :•Brown:•Used for the
battery and generator circuit. •It goes from the battery or motor starter switch to the
ammeter or control box and with compensated voltage control feeds the lighting and
ignition switches, also the radio set, when fitted from the control box terminal.•yellow:•It is
denoted by capital letter Y.•Used for the dynamo circuit. •white:•It is denoted by capital
letter W. •Used for the ignition circuit and all electrical components that may be used while
the ignition is switched on but do not require a fuse.E.g. the electrical petrol pump, starter
solenoid switch etc.•Blue:•It is denoted by capital letter L.•Used for the head lamp circuits
and fed from the terminal on the lighting switchE.g. lighting switch to head lamp.
•Red:•Used for the side and tail lamp circuits and fed from the terminal on the lighting
switch.•Included in circuits are fog lamps, panel lights and other lamps which are required
only when the side lamps are in use. *black:•It is denoted by capital letter B. •Used for
earthed circuit.
*Gauges & Sensors with function:1] Fuel Gauge: To indicate the level of fuel in the fuel
tank.[2] Water temperature Gauge: To indicate the temperature of engine cooling water
[3] Oil Pressure Gauge: To indicate the oil pressure in the engine.[4] Speedometer: Use to
measure the speed of the automobile vehicle.[5] Tachometer: Use to Measure the RPM of
the Engine.•Sensors with their Functions:[1] Mass airflow Sensor: Use to calculate the air
density in the engine.[2] Engine Speed Sensor: Use to monitor the crankshaft rotation speed.
[3] Oxygen Sensor: Use to monitor the content of exhaust gases.[4] Coolant Sensor: Use to
check temp. of coolant.[5] Voltage Sensor: Use to manage the car idling speed.
*Explain the working of starting system.The starting system uses a tremendous amount of
battery power to operate a large DC motor. The starting motor has a small gear that meshes
with a much larger gear on the engine flywheel. This allows the starter to rotate the flywheel
and engine crankshaft. The engine goes through its four-stroke cycle. Fuel is pulled into the
cylinders. [1] Starting system presently used in passenger cars and other vehicles has to start
contacts in the ignition switch. When the ignition key is turned against the spring force
pass the ON position to START, and the starting contacts close.[2] This connects the starting-
motor solenoid or magnetic switch to the battery. After the engine start and the ignition key
is released, spring force returns it to the ON position. This opens the starting contacts. [3] On
starting motors used with overrunning clutches, a solenoid is commonly used to produce the
clutch-shifting action.[4] The solenoid contains a pair of winding that is connected to the
battery when the starting switch is closed. This produces a magnetic field that pulls a
plunger in.[5] The plunger movement causes a shift lever to move the overrunning clutch on
the armature shaft
*Passenger Comfort and Safety:•With the development of society, and Sharpe increase in
the vehicle sales, traffic accident have become increasing frequently and serious. At the
same time with the rapid development of science and technology automotive technology
rapidly improve. •The proof that these regulatory acts are progressing in the right direction
is the fact that due to increased road safety, the number of fatal accidents in the last two
decades has decreased, while the volume of traffic tripled. This significant progress has been
achieved due to improved vehicle safety and, not least, through upgrading and improving
infrastructure. The noise level has reduced by about 90% since the 1970, and if we stay in
this period.
(a) Necessity for registration:No person shall drive any motor vehicle and no owner of a
motor vehicle shall cause or permit the vehicle to drive in any public place or in any other
place for the purpose of carrying passengers or goods unless the vehicle is registered in
accordance with this chapter and the certificate of registration of the vehicle has not been
suspended or cancelled and the vehicle carries a registration mark displayed in the
prescribed manner.(b) Condition for exemption from registration:For the purpose of the
proviso to section 39, a motor vehicle in the possession of a dealer shall be exempted from
the necessity of registration subject to the condition that he obtains a trade certificate from
the registering authority having jurisdiction in the area in which the dealer has his place of
business in accordance with the provisions of this chapter.(c) Registration where to be
made:Subject to the provisions of section 24-A, section 25 and section 32 every owner of a
motor vehicle shall cause the vehicle to be registered by a registering authority in the State
in which he has the residence or place of business where the vehicle is normally kept.(d)
Registration how to be made :An application for registration of motor vehicle shall be made
in Forms 10 (Form Bi by the teme to the registering authority within a period of seven days)
from the date of taking delivery of such veincie, excluding the period of journey and shall be
accompanied by (a) sale certificate in Form 21: (h) valid and other documents as set forth in
the frest schedule, shall contain the information required by that form, and m be
accomplished by prescribed fee in rule 81.
*Types and significance or traffic sign:
Traffic signs act as silent conductors of the traffic on the road. Any person who halds a
driving licence and is eligible to drive a vehicle should live proper knowledge of traffic signs.
The government has made it mandatory for any perso wants to obtain a driving licence to be
well-versed with the traffic signs•Functions of traffic signs:Knowledge of traffic signs for any
driver is necessary as they perform certain functions which are essential for road safety. The
functions performed by traffic signs are1. The distance left to cover to reach a specific
destination.2. Alternative routes to the specific destination, if any.3). Locations on the
cautionary traffic signs are also displayed such as schools, colleges, workplaces, clubs, public
places and restaurants.4. Traffic signs prevent the undesirable risks posed on the road to
drivers and the passengers in the vehicle.5. Traffic signs make sure that order has ensued on
the road and if the signs are followed properly, the chances of accidents occurring are
greatly minimized.6. Traffic signs also help in easy navigation of the routes.
*Duties and Responsibility of RTO and AIMV:1. Implement the provisions as per the central
and state motor vehicle rules and the Motor Vehicles Act, as enforced by the Government 2.
Conducting driving tests3. Issuing and renewing, the driving licenses4. Inspecting the vehicle
insurance.5. Clearing the pollution test6. Collection of road find licenses and road tax/excise
duny.7. Vehicle registration,8. Granting international driving licenses.9. Providing freight and
public transport licenses10. Maintaining the database of the registered vehicles.•Function:
1).Inspects truck accessories, air lines and electric circuits, and reports needed repairs. 2)
Examines vehicles for damage, and drives vehicle to detect malfunctions.3) Tests vehicle
components for wear, damage, or improper adjustment, using mechanical or electrical
devices. 4) Applies inspection sticker to vehicles that pass inspection, and rejection sticker to
vehicles that fail.5) Prepares report on each vehicle for follow-up action by owner or police.

Automobile Maintenance System:•A service station is a place where in addition to care of

the motor vehicle like mechanical service and nunor repairs, pemoi is supplied, cars are
lubricated and cleaned, washed and other types of simpler services that are required daily
are performed. In general it includes a number of sections like garage general it includes a
number of sections like garage peneral service, mechanical service, major repair shop, tire
shop, paint shop, body shop.•A service station is addition to the equipment available is
garage is usually run in conjunction with a sales agency for a particular type of motor vehicle
to provide comprehensive repair service for that particular vehicle.•Workshop: It is an
engineering workshop where works no: attended in service station will be attended. The
specialist repair shops need experts in their particular line.•They usually provide good
service in attending to repairs at reasonable charges as well as take off the responsibility
Gom the shoulders of the service station men. Similarly the electrical repair, radiator repairs,
painting and welding jobs as well as body work can also be send to specialist repair shop.
•Dealership: A automobile dealership or vehicle local distribution is a business that sells new
or (old)used cars at the retail level. based on a dealership contract with an automaker or its
sales subsidiary. It employs automobile salespeople to sell their automotive vehicles. It may
also provide maintenance services for cars, and employ automotive technicians to stock and
sell spare automobile parts and process warranty claims.
*Organization structure of the motor vehicle( RTO) :1. To maintain a database of registered
vehicles.2. Mechanical inspection of accidental vehicles.3. To grant a certificate of fitness to
transport vehicles.4. To issue International driving permits.5. To routinely inspect vehicles.6.
Checking emissions and issuing pollution certificates for vehicles.7. To conduct the driving
test, issue Learner's, Permanent driver's licenses and renew the same.8. To maintain a
proper check on the validity of insurance on motor vehicles.9. To issue badges to the drivers
of public services vehicles like Auto rickshaws and Taxis.
•Significance of live and dead Axle:(a) It facilitates steering to turn the vehicle right or left
as required. (b) It provides space for attachment of the suspension system, wheels, etc.
(c) It prevents interference due to front engine location.(d) A live front axle contains the
differential mechanism through which the engine power flows toward the front wheels.
•semi floating axle:The arrangement of the semi-floating axle is shown in Fig. It is also called
as the half- floating rear axle. The driving wheel is directly bolted to the axle shaft at its outer
end.
•Working of Semi Floating Axle:The vehicle load is received by each of the half shafts
through casing and bearing. This causes a bending load and tendency to shear at marked
point P. The axle shafts also have to take end thrust and torque loads caused by the skidding,
turning, and wobbling of the wheels.