Semester Spring 2024

Assignment NO 2
Q. 1 Define the concept of curriculum organization. Analyze
the principles of curriculum organization with reference to
Pakistan.
Ans:
What is Curriculum Organization?
According to Ralph Tyler, important changes in human
behaviour are not produced overnight. No learning
experience has a very profound influence upon the learner.
Changes in ways of thinking, in fundamental habits. in major
operating concepts, educational experiences in attitudes, in
abiding interests and the like develop slowly. It is only after
months and years that we are able to see major educational
objectives taking marked concrete shape. In some respects,
produce their effects in the way water dripping upon a stone
wears it away. Ln a day or a week or month there is no
appreciable change in the stone, but over a period of years
definite erosion is noted. Correspondingly, by the cumulation
of educational experiences profound changes are brought
about in the learner. In order for educational experiences to
produce cumulative effects, they must be organized to
reinforce each other. Organization is thus seen as an
important aspect of curriculum development because it
greatly influences the emciency of instruction and the degree
to which major educational changes are brought about in the
leamers.
Criteria for Effective Curriculum Organization: Continuity,
Sequence and Integration
As discussed by Tyler in Basic Principles of Curriculum and -
Instruction, there are three major criteria to be met in
building an effectively organized youp of. learning
experiences. These are continuity, sequence and integration.
A summary of Tyler's discussion is given below:
Continuity
This refers to the vertical reiteration of major curriculum
elements. For if in social studies" the development of skills in
reading social studies mater: important objective, it is
necessary to see that there is a recuring and opportunity for
these skills to be practiced and developed. This means that
same kinds of skills will be brought into continuing operation.
in similar fashion.
if an objective in science is to develop a meaningful Concept
of energy, it is important that this concept be dealt with
again and again in various parts of the science course.
Continuity is thus-seen to be a major factor in effective
vertical organization of curricular contents,
Sequence
This is related to continuity but goes beyond it. It is possible
for a major curriculum element to occur again and against
but merely at the same level, so that there is no progressive,
development of understanding or skill or attitude. Sequence
as a criterion emphasizes the importance of having each
successive experience .built upon the preceding one, but
goes more broadly and deeply into the matters involved. For
example, sequence in the development-of reading skill in
social, studies would involve the provision of increasingly
more complex social studies material, increased breadth in
the operation of the skill involved in reading these materials,
and increased depth of analysis so that the sixth-grade social
studies programmes would not simply reiterate the reading
skill involved in the fifth-grade but would go into them more
broadly and deeply. Correspondingly, sequential
development of a. concept of energy in the natural science
would require that each successive treatment of energy
would' help the "energy". Sequence emphasizes not
duplication but higher levels of treatment with each
successive learning experience.
(iii) Integration
This refer to the horizontal relationship of curriculum
experiences. The organization of these experiences should be
such that they help the student increasingly to get a unified
view and to unify his behaviour in relation to the elements
being dealt with. For example, in developing skill in handling
quantitative problems in arithmetic, it is also important to
consider the ways in which these skills can be effectively
utilized in social studies, in science, in business and other
fields so that they are not developed simply as isolated
behaviours to be used in a single course, but are increasingly
part of the total capacities of the student to use in the varied
situations of his daily life. Correspondingly, in developing
concepts in the social studies, it is important to see, how
these ideas can be related to work going on in other subject
fields so that increasingly there is unity in the studerits
outlook, skills, attitudes and the like.
Conclusion
The above discussion leads to the conclusion that the most
important criterion point for the selection of curriculum
content is the Islamic society, which puts equal emphasis
upon the materialistic and spiritual development of the
individual and society.
Furthermore, the content should be selected and presented
in such a way that a balance between 'permanence' and
'change' is established. In other words, we have to conserve
the perennial values and also adopt innovations and change.

PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION

The principles suggested for use in selecting educational
content are also useful in considering organization and may
be modified slightly to become more applicable for such a
purpose. The pattern of the curriculum with its sub-divisions
should be planned and structured with due regard to the
bases which have been suggested as underlying the
operation of the school the purposes of education, the needs
and abilities of the learners and the educative process.
(a) Provide for scope and sequence with flexibility
(b) Provide a common body of educative experiences, plus
those which are essential in meeting special interests and
needs.
(c) Be consonant with the manner in which learning takes
place.
(d) Implement the attainment of stated objectives, and
encourage the evaluation of pupil growth and development
in terms of these objectives.
(e) Give consideration to the individual learners, and
involve them in cooperative curriculum planning an active
learning ventures.

Q. 2 Define the process of curriculum development

evaluation. Develop a logical strategy for designing and
evaluating an education program for higher education.
Ans:
Process Of Curriculum Development
The curriculum development process consists of the
following six stages.

Stage 1: Assessing the educational needs

Stage 2: Formulating objectives and learning goals
Stage 3: Careful selection of learning experiences to
accomplish these objectives
Stage 4: The selecting the rich and valuable content through
which teachers can offer the learning experiences.
Stage 5: Organizing and integrating learning experiences with
relevant content keeping in mind the teaching-learning
process
Stage 6: Timely and accurate evaluation of all the above
phases.

. DESIGNING EVALUATION STUDIES

An evaluation study requires a lot of thinking as well as
proper planning to get useful results. Generally, most
attention has. been placed on the evaluation of the content,"
-the basic on Which the curricullum development was
approached. Recent trends towards more process- concept
or behavioural -based programms more adequate definition
or evaluation, better related criteria for judging value and
more •sophisticated mechanisms for organizing the
procedures and models for reporting. Every evaluation study
has peculiarities of its own but the design of the•study has to
be planned using rational procedures. Various strategies and
models for designing evaluation studies have been tried and
a summary•statement of the procedures involved in some of
them will now be attempted.
In organizing a curriculum evaluation, logically and
intelligently, leading to decisions on the effectiveness of the
program and its possible improvement, one suggested .
strategy involves the following:
Specification, refinement, or modification of programne
goals and evaluation.
(b) Planning for an approximate evaluation design.
(c) Selection or development of data-gathering methods.
Collection •of relevant data.
(e) Processing, summiarizing and analysis of data.
(f) Contrasting of data and objectives. (g) Reporting and
(fedback of results.
Steps in the Evaluation Process
The evaluation process should include the following steps:
The involvement of all concerned in the study ms.-
racilitators of programm evaluation, such as:
related groups, boards. parents.
professional individuals
• psychologists, .teachers, (c) Student grouös.
The formation of a cohesive model of broad, goals and
specific behavioural objectives, arranged in hierarchical order
from general to outcomes in respect of all the three domains
•of objectives;
The translation of specific objectives into a communicable
form, applicable to facilitating leanung; and the application of
instructional strategies with content and process
components.
(iv) The choice or instrumentation (lest, observations.
interviews, etc.) which will allow once to make inference
about program Periodic observation or behaviours ag valid
and reliable indices.
(vi) The analysis of data, given by measurers. by typical
statistical methods.
(vii) The interpretation of data relevant to specific objectives
and broad goals to allow conclusions to be drawn about the
effectiveness or the program and instructional strategies.
(viii) Recommendations culminating in further modifications
and •revision of broad goals and specific objectives to
produce substantial improvements, in the program.

Q. 3 Analyze the curriculum of a teacher education program

in Pakistan. Identify essential communication skills for
teachers and explain how they should be incorporated into
the curriculum.
Ans:
Curriculum of Teacher education program
The current teacher education emerging from contemporary
policy discourses is based on evidence. Its curricular decisions
are not (only) based on custom or professional judgment, but
on evidence about what strategies “work” and make the
biggest impact on candidates' learning and the learning of
pupils in their future classrooms. The current teacher
education is “in an ‘evidence era’, where actions are justified
through a language shrouded in talk of research, data, and
best practice” (Helgetun and Menter, 2020, p. 2). The
assumption is that with more and better evidence
“practitioners and policymakers at all levels will make better
decisions, and teacher quality will improve” (Cochran-Smith,
2005, p. 8).

What is being constructed as credible evidence for the

current teacher education is two-fold. On the one hand, the
literature exposes an insistent belief in research to deliver
evidence. There is a call for increasingly sophisticated
research approaches to inform the current teacher
education. Consider, for example, the OECD report Evidence
in Education which calls upon researchers to address the
“need to make causal claims” (Cook and Gorard, 2007, p. 44)
and the corresponding “ethical need for researchers to use
something like a randomized controlled trial to make these
claims responsibly” (p. 44). For the current teacher education
based on evidence, causal questions have a special
importance and “identifying ‘what works’ deserves a special
status among the concerns of those accountable for the
quality of educational performance, as does learning about
‘what works’ in the most secure ways” (Cook and Gorard,
2007, p. 34). A second trusted source of evidence for the
current teacher education is all other data available from
internal, external, and increasingly transnational
accountability activities. This includes, for example, internal
data from institutions' own quality assurance procedures,
external data from audits and inspections, but also more
distant evidence such as pupil achievement scores on
national and international metrics (e.g., TIMMS and PISA).
Here, the evidence discourse combines with the
accountability discourse. In the process of making teacher
education quality transparent for all stakeholders involved,
measurable outcomes are created, and those numbers in
turn deliver evidence for the necessary changes in teacher
education curricula, programs, and institutions, especially
from a comparative perspective.

The current teacher education not only effectively uses

evidence and research developed by others. It also creates
evidence itself when asked for by external evaluators or to
check whether a program meets its own standards for good
teaching (Cochran-Smith, 2005). Increasingly, teacher
educators engage in self-study or related forms of
practitioner research to work on the improvement of their
own practices and programs, and the profession as a whole
(Kitchen et al., 2020). Some countries, especially those with
dual systems of higher education, have also seen increasing
pressures on teacher educators to become research active
(a.o. Czerniawski et al., 2017).

The logic is that with more and better evidence (i.e., evidence
that demonstrates the effectiveness of practices and
graduates), the current teacher education will make better
decisions about the content and delivery of its curriculum,
but also be able to respond to the insistent critiques from the
public, including parents and policymakers. Grossman (2008),
for example, claims “a profession is most vulnerable to attack
when serious questions can be leveled at the perceived
effectiveness of its practice” (p. 13). While acknowledging
that responses to critiques coming from the public “will
always be driven by normative assumptions, professional
judgment, and ethical commitments” (p. 13), Grossman
stands that the profession's responses to critiques “would be
substantially enhanced as well as more professionally
responsible and publicly credible, if we had a sounder
research base with which to refute their claims or support
their own” (p. 13). Again, the logic is clear: the current
teacher education should be based on evidence about what
works, and the profession itself carries responsibility for
putting in the effort and developing the skills to determine
how its practices and programs make a difference. This
evidence preferably takes the form of the outcomes that the
public and governments care about most, that is, classroom
performance of teacher candidates and pupil achievement,
and preferably the relationship between both (Cochran-
Smith et al., 2010).
Why is it Important for Teachers to Have Effective
Communication Skills?
Teachers benefit from good communication skills in three
different areas: when communicating with students, with
parents, and with colleagues.

Communicating with Students

Communication skills are most vital for interactions with
students, because the act of teaching itself requires them. In
your role, you are responsible for comprehending and
breaking down complex information, conveying this
information clearly to your students (both verbally and in
written resources), presenting in a manner that sustains their
attention, and listening to and resolving their questions or
problems.

You are also required to adapt content for different learning

styles, motivate students to learn, build supportive
relationships using encouragement and empathy, manage
the classroom, and give feedback – making your classroom a
safe and supportive learning environment. All of these things
require good communication skills.

The better your communication skills, the more effectively

you can perform these tasks. In turn, your students will make
more academic progress. Studies have found that the success
of students is directly related to interactive, engaging
teaching environments formed by able teachers (see
Mashburn et al., 2008). Additionally, the way that you
communicate with your students can positively affect their
perceptions of school, their role in the classroom, themselves
and their abilities, and their motivation to succeed (see
Dobbs & Arnold, 2009).

Q.4 Compare the approaches to curriculum development

adopted in Canada, the UK, and the USA. Evaluate the
curriculum development process in Pakistan. Suggest
necessary changes for enhancing the quality of education at
the primary level.
Ans:
Curriculum development in CANADA
Geographically Canada is the second largest country in the
world next only to Soviet Union. By population it is among
the smallest with its 24 million people of different colours,
creeds and languages with two predominant languages
English and French, traced back to its colonial beginning.
Education System
There is officially, no Canadian educational system and by
law education is a provincial responsibility. Thus Canada has
twelve educational systems. Though systems in different
provinces have much in common, yet each has its unique
features stemming from tradition and aspirations of the
people in each province, and from differences in economy,
geography and size of population. Educational systems in
English speaking provinces have been influenced by Scottish
traditions, while in France are followed in French speaking
province of Quebec. One thing, however, is cornmon that
Canada is now two-third urban and new, and constantly
improving technologies have brought the county close to
being able to offer equality in educational opportunities to all
citizens. There are elementary schools, secondary schools,
special schools, private schools, community colleges and
universities. The beginning age for school varies across the
country. Elementary school is for children aged 5 or 8 to Il or
13 with secondary schools providing progralnmes for 12 or
14 years old. The elementary school is usually designed to
provide basic learning in reading, writing, computation,
science, social studies, music and art. Emphasis is also being
put on Canadian studies.
Secondary schools are of different types, though most are
Composite Schools and offer a wide range of academic,
business and technical courses. Some vocational occupa
tional schools are also available for non-academically
oriented students. These schools lead directly to the world of
work while graduation from a composite school leads to
employment in a community college or university.
Curriculum
There is no uniform curriculum in Canada and even within
provinces there are many differences among school systems.
The Ministry of Education is responsible for prescribing
courses of study. The Ministry' declares subjects which are to
be compulsory. Usually education department issues
guidelines outlining the course content and then it is the
responsibility of the supervising officer of a school to see that
these guidelines are interpreted and implemented within the
philosophy and rational of the approach outlined therein.
School staffs are encouraged to take active part in designing
the course. A new course is usually introduced in one or a
few schools and then school boards seek ministerial approval
for its province-wide application. Discovery method, Team
Teaching and new technology are in wide use. Lecture
method is also used by some teachers.
Until 1960, a student had to pass a set of departmental
exams to graduate from a secondary school. This system was
strongly criticized on the basis that less capable students
would cram and pass the exams and that teachers would
concentrate on the areas important for the exams only. In
most cases, it is now the principal and classroom teacher
who determine whether or not a student will graduate on
the basis of overall school performance and school tests and
exams.

THE UNITED KINGDOM Curriculum

Introduction

The United Kingdom is located on a number of Islands on the

western edge of the European continental shelf. Immigrants
from all over the world had important consequences for the
educational systems prevalent in the U.K. Ethnic minorities
are concentrated in certain larger urban areas, especially,
London and require from system in these areas, recognition
of their special needs, particularly, in respect of language and
cultural differences.
Educational System
Education in the U.K. is said to be national system, locally
administered. A large part of the day-to-day running is in the
hands of local education authorities (LEA).
Attendance of school is compulsory for children of 5-16 or
18, years divided into two or three tiers. The two tier system
comprises primary schools age (5-1 1) except in Scotland
where transfer is usually at 12 instead of I l, sometimes
subdivided into infant" (5-7) andjunior (7-1 1) school and
selective or nonselective secondary school (ages 1 1-16 or
18). The three tier system consists of first schools (ages S to 8
or 9); middle schools (ages 8-12 or 9-13); and upper schools
usually nonselective (ages 12 or 13 to 16 or 18). The two tier
system is most common; the three-tier system is to be found
only in England catering for 15 per cent of all pupils. Children
over the age of compulsory school education (16) may
continue in the same institution such as a sixth form college,
tertiary college, college of further education or technical
college.
Education for school learners is divided into two categories:
non-advanced further education (NFE) which consists of
courses provided upto the standard of the General Certificate
of Education, (GCE) and Advanced (A) and higher education
which consists of courses above this level provided in
universities, autonomous institutions and by colleges
maintained by LEAs.
Curriculum
Previously there was no nationally determined curriculum
but examination boards which controlled the General
Certificate of Education exerted something of a unifying
influence on what was taught in schools. Her Majesty's
Inspectors of Schools were responsible to the Secretary of
State for Education. They investigated and reported on all
aspects of education including the curriculum. The
government, however, introduced a national in 1989. The
prescribes a core of three principal Mathematics, Science and
Language and childrens attainment in these subjects is to be
tested at age 7, Il and 14. Other foundation subjects include
History, Geography, Art and Music. In Addition, the
Education Act (1988) includes the provision for religious
education all pupils. A foreign language is also applicable for
secondary schools.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Introduction
Rich in Land, population and natural resources and highly
developed technologically, the people of USA enjoy a high
standard of living and lead the nations of the world south.
The indigenous population consists of Indians and migrants
from Britain, Germany, Scandinavia, southern and Europe,
and central and south America besides the descendants of
slaves imported from Africa during colonial and post-colonial
years. The combination of geographical and demographic
characteristics results in great diversity from one section of
the country to the other. Systems and structures of
education are also quite diverse in different parts of the
country.
Educational System
Each state provides a system of free public school, covering
kindergarten plus 12 years. Though laws vary among the
states, schooling is compulsory from the age of 6 or 7 years
to 16. There are several structural patterns in use depending
on the location; kindergarten plus elementary grades 1-8
followed by four years of high school; kindergarten plus six
grades of elementary schools followed by a three year junior
high school and three year senior high school (sometimes
combined into a six year high school, or a relatively new
development kindergarten plus four or five grades of
elementary schools, a four-year middle school and four-year
high school. All patterns lead to a high school graduation at
the age of 17 to 18 years.
Historically, education has been considered a state and local
responsibility but the Federal Government has been involved
at all levels since 1972. Federal Government supports school
launch education for Indians, finances education for veterans
and rent loans. The Federal Department of Education headed
by a Secretary of cabinet rank is responsible for executing
government policy.
In various states generally a Board of Education comprising
selected/and or appointed members form policy and
determines the budget. The state department of education
headed by a chief administrative officer is responsible
for providing education at all levels, development, teacher
and school finances etc.
Curriculum
As a rule, the practical responsibility for running the schools
is in the hands of smaller units such as countries and districts
and 18,200 local districts run the daily administration. The
strong tradition of local autonomy and the pluralistic nature
of society influence curriculum. There is no official national
curriculum. State department of education prescribes
curriculum with varying degrees of specificity leaving scope
for local and individual variations. Subject specialists, school
adlninistrators, and teachers are involved in the process of
curriculum development based on research and
investigation. The major subjects taught at all levels of the
school systems are English language, Mathematics, Social
Studies, Science, Music, Arts, and Physical Education.
The advances in technologies have resulted in the
introduction of new teaching methodologies such as teach
teaching, programmed in instruction, language laboratories
and computer aided instruction. The current social concerns
have made their way into the curricula, especially at
secondary level in the new subjects such as Ethics studies,
Consumer and Environmental Education and Drug and
Alcohol Abuse Policies concerning promotion from one grade
to the next depend on the state or district decisions: A
student at secondary level is required to repeat a grade after
unsatisfactory performance but promotion at elementary
level is automatic. Acquisition of a high school diploma does
not always require a formal examination but attendance and
a satisfactory school record of achievement are considered
sufficient for this purpose. In the absence of any national
public examination system, the standard of education varies
in different states. Recently there have been moves to set
state criteria for high school diploma generally in the form of
minimum competency requirements.

Q.5 Provide brief notes on the following:

i Effective curriculum planning
ii Elements of Curriculum
iii Objective Movement in Education
iv Pedagogical strategies and curriculum
development
Ans:
Effective Curriculum Planning
Following are some crucial factors, which guide effective
curriculum planning;
1. Curricullum planning must be based upon a clear
conception of what makes a good life.
2. Curriculum planning must take into account the
characteristics of past, contemporary and future society.
3, Curriculum goals should address a broad range of needs,
interests of both individual and society,
4. Curriculum planning should recognize and encourage
diversity among learners.
5. Curriculum planning must make provision for all aspects
of teaching-learning situations. Tie should include suggestive
activities, content, resources, and measuring deuces, etc,
6, Curriculum planning should be done in the light of the
characteristics of the learners for whom they are intended.
Curriculum planning should also make use of approaches
other than subject-area approach.
8, Curriculum planning must provide flexibility to
allow teacher pupil planning.
9, Curriculum planning must provide for the infusion of
spontaneous ideas, which emerge during the interaction of
the learners and teachers.
10. Curicullum planning should reflect a balance among
cognitive, affective and psychomotor needs of the learners.
1 1. Curriculum planning should include provision for
reflective thinking, values and valuing, enhancement of self-
concept and self-esteem.
12. Cooperative planning and development are effectively
done. in cooperative settings.
13. Curriculum planning should take into consideration an
integrated set of' experiences rather than a disjointed
conglomeration of activities.
14. Curriculum planning must provide for continuous
evaluation of all aspects of curriculum

Elements of Curriculum
Curriculum development process consists of various phases
or elements. The curriculum planners have to consider all
these phases while working on such process. According to J,S,
Farranta ( 1990; P-24) the elements of curriculum
development are philosophy, society, aims. educational.
school organization, teaching teacher's role and teaching
methods.
In the words of Lawton D. (1976: P-21) the elements of
curriculum are the goals, objectives, content. processes,
resources, and means of evaluation. Wheeler (1974; P-30)
has given five elements of curriculum as: The selection of
aims, goals and objectives.
2. The selection of learning experiences calculated to help
in the attairunent of these aims, goals and objectives.
3. The selection of content (subject matter) through which
certain types of experience may be offered.
4. The organization and integration of learning experiences
and content with respect to the teaching learning process
within school and classroom.
5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of all aspects of phases
2,3, and 4 in attaining the goals detailed in phase I.
In the light of above mentioned elements and taking into
consideration the' educational system in Pakistan, curriculum
must have the following important basic factors:
(a) Situational analysis
(b) Setting the objectives.
(c) Content
(d) Learning experiences
(e) Evaluation

The Objectives Movement in education

The first behavioral approach to instructional design was the
objectives movement. Objective means the pedagogic
intentions of a particular course of study to be achieved
within the period of that course and in principle measurable
by some assessment device at the end of the course. "An
objective is a description of a performance you want
learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them
competent. An objective describes an intended result of
instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself" [10].
Valette and Disick suggest that "objectives should
stress output rather than input and that such output should
be specified in terms of performance" [12]. It was the
objectives movement that introduced a behavioral approach
to education. This movement has been very influential
and highly disputatious both in general and language
education. In the scope of general education the works of
Mager (1962, 1984) were quite influential. "Robert Mager is
considered by many to be the father of modern-day
behavioral objectives" [6]. His 1962 book, Preparing
Instructional Objectives, has had a major influence on the
development of learning and training programs. Mager
argued for the use of specific, measurable behavioral and
performance objectives that both guide designers during
courseware development and aid students in learning
process [1]. To Mager, the behavioral objectives should have
three major components: behavior, condition, and
standards. "1) [Behavioral objectives] must unambiguously
describe the behavior to be performed, optimally in
education.
Pedagogy in curriculum development
Pedagogy is the design of learning activities and activity
sequences. Curriculum is the design of programs or courses
of study. The chapter discusses three approaches to
pedagogy and curriculum: mimesis, synthesis and reflexivity.
The general principles of curriculum development are
relevance, flexibility, continuity, practicality and
effectiveness.
Types of pedagogy are:
Social pedagogy: It is aimed towards the social development,
awareness, and well-being of the students. ...
Critical pedagogy: It aims towards comprehending and
deconstructing several daily life problems and issues. ...
Culturally responsive pedagogy:
Socratic pedagogy: