Course Name: Curriculum Development

Course Code : ‘’ 8603 ’’

Semester : Spring, 2021 B.Ed 1.5 Yrs
Name : Farwa Munir
Roll No : CE-614625

Assignment No. 1

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 Question No. 1

Discuss various steps being followed by the planner when planning a curriculum.
What are the factors that may affect the curriculum planning?

Answer:
The term curriculum may be defined in many different ways: as a subject matter, or a set of rules
and experiences, which help to choose the best way of development, or a plan that has to be followed.

Jon Wiles (2008) explains curriculum as “a set of desired goals or values that are activated
through a development process and culminate in successful learning experiences for students”.

Six Steps Required to plan a curriculum

Step 1: Principles and purpose – Set out the intent of your curriculum
Begin the design process by establishing your curriculum principles. The curriculum principles
should reflect your school’s values, context, pedagogical approaches and needs. You should be able
to explain the purpose or intent of your curriculum.
Hold plenty of discussions to define and share your curriculum principles, vision and
intentions with stakeholders.
Step 2: Entitlement and enrichment – Develop your pupil entitlement
After clarifying your principles and purpose, you should set out your pupil entitlement (sometimes
known as pupil offer). The pupil entitlement should explain how you intend to enrich the curriculum
with educational visits, extracurricular activities and specific experiences.

Consider what pupils will experience as they move through school and map these out for each year
group. Link your entitlement to your curriculum principles, where possible.

Step 3: Breadth and balance – Develop the content of your curriculum

You will need to arrange your curriculum content into a range of engaging themes and projects.
Make strategic decisions about what your curriculum covers, how it interconnects, and in how much
depth lessons are taught to achieve both breadth and balance within and across subjects. These
choices and decisions create your school’s curriculum structure or long term plan.
Underpin your curriculum with a clear skills and knowledge framework for progression that
provides subject endpoints. Keep a close eye on coverage of national curriculum objectives, key
subject aspects and larger concepts.

Step 4: Teaching narrative – Plan the delivery of your curriculum

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 After organizing your long term plans, your teachers need to plan the detail of how they will
deliver each project. A teaching narrative should be clearly sequenced, cohesive and based on sound
pedagogical practice. It should detail the starting point for each project and explain how it will
develop. Planning should show how subject objectives will be taught, revisited
and met, and outline the desired outcomes. This process creates a medium term plan that can be
elaborated on for short term plans if required.
Make the planning process easy, so that teachers can create, adapt and share plans with others.
Ideally, this stage should be supported by integrated, quick assessment for learning tools.
Step 5: Resources – Source high quality resources to deliver your curriculum

You now need to identify the resources required to bring your curriculum to life and enhance its
coherence. A good curriculum needs high quality resources. These include human resources, practical
equipment, community partners, environments and teaching resources.
Create or source high quality resources to support the lessons, rather than the other
way around. Keep a school wide overview of resources to avoid unnecessary repetition and
ensure that content builds in complexity.
Step 6: Review and evaluate – Decide what works well and where there is room for
improvement
You now have an established curriculum. The next step is to regularly review its impact on
teaching and learning and to make any adaptations or changes. It will help to consider your original
curriculum principles and purposes when reviewing and focus on areas for development in school.
At this stage, you may identify Continued Professional Development (CPD) and curriculum support
needs for staff.

Check that monitoring of subject coverage and assessment for learning is a live and integral part
your curriculum.
What are the factors that may affect the curriculum planning?
Curriculum development is an integral function that depends on numerous political,
economical, social, technological, and psychological factors. Right now, political (political
instability) and technological (variety of innovations) factors affective curriculum development will
be evaluated.
Modern world continues progressing day by day: people present new inventions, demonstrate
demands, change interests, forget about their primary functions, and try to follow their personal
ideas. Each sphere undergoes considerable changes and causes the development of everything.
It is not a surprise that curriculum development becomes dependent on certain factors. Among the
variety of these factors, such points like political instability and technological innovations are
regarded as the most important ones.
Politics has a certain impact on all spheres of life, and instability of politics leads to instability in
everyday life. It usually defines goals and content; political considerations need to be admitted while
curriculum development; and political decisions may change the requirements for curriculum
development.
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 If the sphere of politics cannot be called stable, it becomes hard to explain why some points
within curriculum development have to be deleted, and new ideas should be considered.
Political corruption negatively influences curriculum development, and politicians have to control
their actions and thoughts not to worsen the situation but present the ideas that help to improve,
support, and develop successful curriculums.
If political pressure is under control in respect to curriculum development, the success of this
improvement is obvious. In other case, instructional leaders, who want to improve this factor,
have two possible ways out: to protect the chosen sphere from political influence or cooperate
with politicians to improve the situation from both sides.
The influence of technological progress is observed in each sphere of life, and when the time for
curriculum development comes, the technological point plays an important role.
Technological innovations may be applied to curriculum development in several ways “as a plan
for the systematic use of various devices and media” and as the issue that “is found in models and
procedures for the construction or development and evaluation of curriculum materials and
instructional systems” (Print, 1993, p.55).
Computers provide people with many changes to speed up their work, calculate everything
within a short period, share different kinds of information by various methods, and enlarge
personal level of knowledge in the most comfortable conditions.
Curriculum developers cannot ignore this technological progress and the influence it presents.
There is still one negative side of this progress that negatively influences curriculum development
and that has to be analyzed thoroughly; this is the inability to control all innovations. It may
happen that someone is already aware about the innovation, and another person lack of this
chance.
As a result, unequal possibilities at the technological level affect curriculum development in
many ways. To avoid such situations, leaders have to take care about each detail and provide people
with a chance to get the same background and only then start one more curriculum development.
Each factor is significant for curriculum development, and people should consider these factors
to improve the situation in the world and present only successful curriculums to make this life
better.
Reference:
 8603 B.Ed Course “Curriculum Development “book
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.eHow.com

Question No. 2

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What is the importance of the involvement of teacher and community in
curriculum development? Enlist the guiding principles that the members of
curriculum formation committee follow in content selection and its organization.

Answer:
The Importance of Teachers Involvement in Curriculum Development:
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the
teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum
development effort. Better teachers support better learning because they are most knowledgeable about
the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. If another
party has already developed the curriculum, the teachers have to make an effort to know and
understand it. So, teachers should be involved in curriculum development. For example, teacher’s
opinions and ideas should be incorporated into the curriculum for development. On the other hand, the
curriculum development team has to consider the teacher as part of the environment that affects
curriculum (Carl, 2009). Hence, teacher involvement is important for successful and meaningful
curriculum development. Teachers being the implementers are part of the last stage of the curriculum
development process.

The Challenges Teachers Face in Curriculum Development

The teachers’ involvement in the curriculum development process is essential in meeting the
needs of society. The process of curriculum development requires teachers to act and reflect on
society's needs in each stage of the development process. Nevertheless, sometimes this process which
teachers are requested to follow is unclear. For example, in South Africa most teachers are not
qualified and lack the necessary skills to participate in curriculum development. Their approach of
participation in the process is not well defined and very difficult on teachers, so they face many
challenges regarding their involvement in curriculum development (Ramparsad, 2000). As a result, I
think that there should be major advances in teacher development in order for teachers to actively
reflect on society's needs in each stage of the curriculum development process. On the other hand, in
any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the chance to be involved in these
processes. Professional development of teachers is as an important factor contributing to the success
of curriculum development and implementation (Handler, 2010). So, we should think about what
extent teacher education programs are needed for prospective teachers to study curriculum
development.

Preparation for Teacher Involvement in Curriculum Development

Because teachers have to be involved in curriculum development, the teacher should be provided
with appropriate knowledge and skills that help them to effectively contribute in curriculum
development operation.

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 As a result, teachers need training and workshops, which are geared toward professional
development to be able to contribute to curriculum development. On the other hand, there is an
important point to make efficient in involvement teacher in curriculum development that is teachers
have to be empowered in the process of curriculum development (Carl, 2009). This means teachers
should have improvement and increasing in many points of them, such as experience and autonomy.
Thus, teachers play an integral part in the process of developing the curriculum; then students’
outcome.

The Importance of community Involvement in Curriculum Development

Curriculum implementation is most effectively implemented when the community

understands and supports it when facilities are available for desirable school
organization and learning activities. There is also need for appropriate materials and
supportive personnel to assist teachers. Two key factors are necessary to the
implementation of the curriculum.

Financial support and other physical facilities Community’s theoretical support for
change. The financial aspect of curriculum implementation is dealt with as a priority of
the community.

The community’s support creates a healthy climate of understanding and

encouragement prevailing in the community. Most important here are the attitudes held
by parents because such attitudes towards the programme are easily transmitted to the
child for whom the changes are intended.
School community communication needs to go beyond mere information which
includes the maintenance of a continuous dialogue that enables the community to
understand the rationale behind such a change; to understand the educational problems
and procedures involved, and in many instances to provide direct assistance for
curriculum implementation in the form of resource persons, school volunteers, and any
other personal forms of contributions to the effort of the school.
Preparation of parents and the community is therefore seen as an important
element even at the planning stage. Also during the needs assessment stage, parents
and the community or what may be referred to as the lay person will have been
involved extensively in assessing their needs as far as the school curriculum is
concerned. Whatever needs are identified and written in the form of objectives for the
new curriculum, should be discussed with lay people if for nothing else to keep them
in touch with what is happening.
Enlist the guiding principles, that the members of curriculum formation committee
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follow in content selection and its organization.

a) Suitability to the age and mental level of the children

 What is to be given to the children in the form of learning experiences at a particular age
and grade level should suit their age and mental development
 The capacity for understanding, how children grow with age. The content of the study in
any subject should be formed to suit their mental ability.
b)According to the specific interests of students

 Children will be able to learn better in fields where they have special tastes and inclination of
the mind.
 It is also found that at different stages of age groups, children have different interest patterns.

 Interests of children also change according to circumstances and situations.

Therefore learning experiences should be designed to suit the interests and tastes of the age group of
students.

Each factor is significant for curriculum development, and people should consider these factors to
improve the situation in the world and present only successful curriculums to make this life better.

(a) The curriculum should be environmentally centered

 The content of the learning experiences for children should be linked with the needs of
the environment in which they live.
 For example, children from rural areas can understand and grasp easily the information which
is directly concerned with their experiences in their own rural environment.
 The same thing applies to children in a various environments like urban areas, hilly areas, etc.

(b) The principle of the comprehensive curriculum

 The curriculum must have the necessary details. List of topics to be covered does not solve
the purpose.
 Both teachers and students should know clearly what is expected of them, what is the beginning
and what is the end of the topic for the particular class.
 Material, aids, activities, life situations etc. should be listed in the curriculum.

(c) Principle of co-relation

 The curriculum should be such that all the subjects are correlated with each other.

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 While designing the curriculum, it must be kept in mind that the subject matter of various
subjects has some relation to each other so that they help the child eventually.
(d) The principle of practical work

 Children are very active by nature.

 They like new things and can learn more by doing or by activity method.

 Therefore curriculum should be designed in such a way that it provides maximum opportunity to
the child for practical work with the help of concrete things.
(e) Principle of flexibility

 Instead of being rigid curriculum should show the sign of flexibility.

 The organization of the curriculum should be on the basis of individual differences as every
child is different from the other.
 Apart from these conditions of society go on changing, therefore, the curriculum must be
flexible enough to address the needs as aspirations of the society.
(f) Principle of forward-looking

 This principle asks for the inclusion of those topics, content and learning experiences that
may prove helpful to the students in leading their future life in a proper way.
(g)The principle of consultation with teachers

 Teachers play a key role in the implementation of the school curriculum of any grade or stage.

 It is therefore quite essential to seek the proper involvement of the teachers in the construction
and development of the school curriculum.
(h) The principle of the joint venture

It is necessarily a joint venture where various experts are involved like educational
psychologists, educational technologists, curriculum specialists, evaluation specialists, teachers,
subject matter experts etc.
(i) The principle of availability of time and other resources

Curriculum is the means to realize the outcomes of the educational objectives of the school.
Implementation of the curriculum is equally important as curriculum construction. While
developing curriculum experts should also keep its implementation in mind. They should be
aware of the conditions of the schools and possible availability of time and resources available.

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Reference:

 8603 B.Ed Course “Curriculum Development “book

 www.google.com
 www.eHow.com

Question No. 3

Identify and discuss new trends emerging in curriculum development of Teacher

Education programs?

Answer:

A quality teacher education program is rational and streamlined to address specific pedagogical issues.
It elucidates the ideas about what constitutes good teaching and the content and scope of course work
and practical experiences. Teacher education courses are very much connected to practice as well as
theory. High quality teacher training programs have students studying to be teachers (preservice
teachers) and working continuously with expert master teachers. Teacher education programs focus to
build teacher proficiency and competence; candidates are able to face new challenges in educating
students. In today’s world, the demands on teachers are increasing. They must be able to create
understanding with investigative minds; assimilating the required transformation and accommodating
and responding to universal needs. The purpose of this paper is discuss significant changes that have
incurred in teacher education in India and also provide how these national tends relate to global trends,
reforms and innovations in teacher education. The need for teacher education programs to be
innovative and encompass various approaches and practices is also discussed. It is recognized that
teacher education programs should be structured and modified so that teacher candidates learn to
respond dynamically to new problems and challenges in the field of education. With this knowledge
and skills, future teachers can lead and guide the development of the country.

There have been changes in the perceptions of education in recent years; and this has been partially due
to the new flows of information and teacher resources which can be found in the form of the Internet.
Because of India’s brittle financial situation and challenges which remain in our society, there have
been debates regarding whether or not teaching should be professionalized and whether or not this
investment is a worthwhile value. Those who commentate in the world of education now believe that
more is needed in order to develop effective teachers. Merely having the knowledge and skill to teach
lessons is no longer enough as teachers now are expected to recognize and respond to additional
circumstances including a depressive or negative personality in students or even signs of abuse in some
severe circumstances. Being open and personable from time to time adds to a teacher’s
professionalism. Improving Teachers’ Skill by Doing Research

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Teaching has come a long way from the traditional lecturer-listener system. Today, teachers are not
just lecturers, but guides; and students are not just listeners, but co-explorers of knowledge. Education
has become more interactive and experiential for both parties. Thus, teaching skills have also evolved,
with more techniques available for teachers to use. Fortunately, there is one method that helps a
teacher see the aspects of his or her teaching that need improvement. This method is research, and
particularly Classroom Action Research (CAR). In its broadest sense, research is itself helpful when a
teacher is trying to introduce concepts to students. Teachers who do their own research on the topics
they teach, instead of depending on textbooks, can gain a much better understanding of those topics
and how their students interact with the topics. As a result, they can be more effective in sharing the
knowledge with students. CAR is more specific than basic research, and it is more concerned with the
teaching process itself than with the topics taught. Briefly, CAR is a form of practitioner research that
investigates the current situation of a class. The practitioner (the teacher) is the one who conducts
active research on what his or her class truly needs. Since CAR is practitioner research done by one
teacher for a particular class, it may produce unique results that can be generalized to other classrooms.
Classroom Action Research is truly helpful for teachers to find out what the students need. But more
importantly, it is a tool for them to identify what they themselves need to improve in their instruction.
This identification is the first step towards better teaching, and consequently, better quality education.

E – Learning
Information technology has long past dawned, and knowledge of it is now considered almost a basic
necessity. It is no wonder that schools have begun using computers during classes, whether for basic
tasks such as student report presentations or even for crucial activities such as exams.
Electronic quizzes are hardly new today. To complement the use of computers, various types of
software are available. The most basic ones are the word processors, spreadsheet creators, and
presentation programs. Then there are more specialized ones such as attendance trackers, educational
games, and graphic organizers. With computers, the use of the internet predictably follows. And with
this classroom innovation comes an endless world of possibilities. Notes can be recorded, uploaded,
and shared. More communication channels are opened up than ever before. Some classes even utilize
social networks for communication, as evident in online groups and forums. There are also more
substantial school activities done over the internet. For instance, absentee teachers may create online
tutorials for students, so that students will not have to miss a learning session. Some major projects
also require the use of online journals and blogs for documentation and the like. There are even those
who experiment with the creation and maintenance of websites for the exclusive use of the class. In
the end, this is the goal of every bit of educational evolution: a journey towards the best quality of
education possible for the younger generation.
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative Learning is a system in which two or more people cooperate in a learning
experience to share and contribute to each member's understanding of a topic and to complete a given
task. Sharing information and connecting with others, whether we know them personally or not, has
proven to be a powerful tool in education. Students are collaborating with each other through social
media to learn more about specific subjects, to test out ideas and theories, to learn facts, and to gauge
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each others’ opinions. Collaboration is a natural part of life and should be included in the curriculum.
Sometimes teachers will build a lesson designed specifically to teach collaborative learning and
teamwork. There are many teambuilding games and activities that can be done in a classroom that
force students to work together to complete a task. In this scenario, students can learn just as much as
if they were developing a presentation on their own, but they get the added benefit of learning how to
collaborate. Collaborative learning is on the rise in our classrooms. Done correctly, it is a great
opportunity to break up the monopoly of the lecture, teach teamwork to our students, and help them to
become more productive members of society in the future.
Constructivist Learning Theory
Constructivist Learning Theory is a philosophy which enhances students' logical and
conceptual growth. The role of teachers is very important within the Constructivist Learning Theory.
Instead of giving a lecture, the teachers function as facilitators whose role is to aid the students to
develop their own understanding. This takes the focus away from the teacher and lecture and puts it
upon the students and their learning. The resources and lesson plans that must be initiated for this
learning theory take a very different approach from traditional learning as well. Teachers following
Piaget's work in constructivism must challenge the students by making them effective critical thinkers
and must not merely be a "teacher" but also a mentor, a consultant, and a coach.
Improving Critical Thinking Skills

Critical thinking is paramount to the development of students and should be the goal of all teachers
no matter what subject they teach. Teachers should consider building critical thinking skills in all
the rubrics and lesson plans they use in their classrooms. Critical thinking skills can be taught in any
classroom and any subject with a little creativity. Some ways to incorporate critical thinking into
teaching include:
1. Deep analysis

Take something that students see often and take for granted, and have them analyze it more deeply.
For example, if a class recites the Pledge of Allegiance every morning, one day have them spend
some time answering some questions about what it means and why they say it.
2. Evaluation

Give a concept to the students and ask them to evaluate its merit, giving supporting reasons why they
think it is good or bad. This makes students think beyond what someone has told them or what they
feel and into the realm of the logic of an argument. This can even be done in a group if it is too
difficult for the students to come up with several reasons on their own.
3. Synthesis

Give two or more articles to students on a topic and have them put the information together in a
summary. Students demonstrate that they truly comprehend the material in an article instead of
simply memorizing it.

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 4. Debate

Give a topic to the students (something as non-controversial as possible to start) and have one
group of students debate one side of the argument and another debate the opposite. Make sure
that there are some strict guidelines in order to avoid the degradation of the debate into a heated
argument. These types of activities can be used in any classroom for any subject, and, if used
correctly, can result in a higher level of thinking for students; a lofty and worthy goal for any
teacher.
5. Paraphrase

Give a passage of a book or article to students and ask them to explain it in their own words. This is
similar to synthesis in that students must demonstrate understanding of the passage rather than
memorizing it.
Reference:
 8603 B.Ed Course “Curriculum Development “book
 www.eHow.com

Question No.4

Elaborate psychological principles, which are used as a basis for curriculum

development. Discuss the role of Psychological foundation of curriculum for
assessment and measurement of learning outcomes.

Answer:

Elaborate psychological principles, which are used as a basis for curriculum development

A great deal of research from cognitive and educational psychology has discovered how thinking and
learning can be improved in the classroom. The first eight principles highlight some of the most
important findings on teacher practices that impact student growth.
1. Growth mindset

Students’ beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive functioning and
learning.
Research shows that learners who hold the growth mindset that intelligence is malleable, and success is
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related to effort level are more likely to remain focused on goals and persist despite setbacks. A great
way to start off the year in a psychology class is with a discussion of growth versus fixed mindsets
because it helps students understand how their beliefs about intelligence can influence their own
academic success. For more information about fixed and growth mindsets and how they impact student
performance, see the TED talk by psychologist Carol D weck. A TED talk by Angela Lee Duckworth
discusses how student learning can be examined in the context of motivation and illustrates how the
personality trait of grit, which is correlated with success, can be developed through teaching of a
growth mindset. In addition to the numerous specific ideas in the Top 20 document for how instructors
can encourage students to develop a growth mindset, there is also an APA online module on praise that
offers excellent examples of how instructors can best frame communication with students to foster a
growth mindset.
2. Prior knowledge
Research shows that prior knowledge influences both conceptual growth and conceptual change in
students. With conceptual growth, students add to their existing knowledge, and with conceptual
change, students correct misconceptions or errors in existing knowledge. Facilitating conceptual
growth or change requires first obtaining a baseline level of student knowledge prior to the start of
each unit through formative assessment. One way to assess prior knowledge involves starting the unit
with a short list of five to ten true/false statements and having a class discussion about the results. The
results of this discussion can guide the selection of assignments and activities that will be appropriate
for facilitating either conceptual growth or conceptual change. Prior knowledge can be used to help
students incorporate background knowledge and draw connections between units during the course.
3. Limits of stage theories
Students’ cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of development.
Research indicates that cognitive development and learning are not limited by general stages of
development. It is important for instructors teaching Piaget’s cognitive stage theory to also reference
the limitations of this approach. Psychology curricula should highlight the significance of Lev
Vygotsky’s theory of zone of proximal development and the critical role that interactions with those
who are more capable can have on learning and growth. Instructors can use this research to facilitate
learning by designing instruction that utilizes scaffolding, differentiation and mixed ability grouping.
It is also critical that the most advanced students have the opportunity to work with others who will
challenge them, including other students or the instructor.
4. Facilitating context

Learning is based on context, so generalizing learning to new contexts is not spontaneous, but
rather needs to be facilitated.
Student growth and deeper learning are developed when instructors help students transfer learning
from one context to another. Students will also be better able to generalize learning to new contexts if
instructors invest time in focusing on deeper learning. One method of developing this skill is to have
students use their understanding of a particular unit to generate potential solutions for real-world
problems. APA Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools (TOPSS) offers an excellent example
of this type of assignment with the problem-focused unit on childhood obesity.
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 5. Practice
Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely dependent on practice.This principle details
empirically based strategies that will help students more effectively encode learned materials into long-
term memory. In addition to those in the memory unit, examples from this principle can help inform
instruction throughout the course. By issuing formative assessment frequently through practice
problems, activities and sample tests, instructors can help students increase their knowledge, skills and
confidence. Additionally, instructors conducting practice activities at spaced intervals (distributed
practice) will help students achieve greater increases in long-term retrieval ability. Practice tests should
include open-ended questions that require both the retrieval of existing knowledge and the challenge of
applying that information to new situations or contexts, thus also incorporating principle four. See also
the APA teaching module on practice for knowledge acquisition.
6. Feedback
Clear, explanatory and timely feedback to students is important for learning.
This principle highlights the importance of instructor responses and indicates the best manner in which
to deliver feedback to students in order to maintain or increase motivation to learn.
Providing students with clear, explanatory and timely feedback is important for learning. The CPSE
publication titled “Using Classroom Data to Give Systematic Feedback to Students to Improve
Learning” provides additional information about feedback methods including five key strategies.
7. Self-regulation

Students’ self-regulation assists in learning and self-regulatory skills can be taught.

Self-regulation skills, including attention, organization, self-control, planning and memory
strategies, improve learning and engagement and can be taught through direct instruction, modeling
and classroom organization. Teachers can model organizational methods and assist students by
highlighting learning targets at the start and conclusion of lessons, using classroom calendars,
highlighting difficult concepts that will require more practice, breaking large projects.
into manageable components, using well designed rubrics and allowing sufficient processing

time through questioning, summarizing and practice. Psychology students can apply this

research to their own study habits such as learning to practice self-control by limiting the

distractions presented by cell phones and social media. Students can also be encouraged to

design experiments related to the limits of attention and discuss the practical implications of

their results.

8. Creativity

Student creativity can be fostered. Creativity is considered a critical skill for the technology
driven world of the 21st century and because it is not a stable trait, it can be taught, nurtured and

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 increased. This principle describes specific methods of structuring assignments to increase
creativity and ideas for how to model creative problem solving. Creativity in the psychology
classroom can include opportunities for student-designed research projects, video projects,
demonstrations and model building. The TOPSS unit lesson plans include a variety of ideas for
creatively engaging students.
Discuss the role of Psychological foundation of curriculum for assessment and measurement of
learning outcomes.
It is important to understand psychological foundation of curriculum because psychology explain
how a person learns. Since teaching-learning process is taking place between living beings,
psychology is important to site an example, suppose I, as a teacher ask a student “Why were you
absent yesterday?
He may get very happy that I recognized his absence that means he is important for me. Some
other child might get irritated by the same question as he took as my interference in his life.

There is no certainty that all individuals will react exactly same to same stimulus but these are
some generalized principles of psychology which are applicable to one and all. It has been
proved empirically.
These psychological principles act as cement in the teaching-learning process. A teacher must
have good understanding of child psychology to be effective.
Psychology provides those elements which unify Learning process. Some philosophers have
simply said that teacher simply gives information. It becomes learning according to child’s
psychology.
Hence, it is very important to understand basic psychological needs of the learners and reflecting
on how these needs can be translated into curriculum.
Learning Theories and Curriculum.

We shall consider three learning theories:

 Behaviorism: It deals with various aspects of S-R and reinforcement.

 Cognitivism: It studies how the learner relates himself to the total environment.

 Humanism: It emphasizes on affective domain of learning.

Behaviorism:

The first theory which studied how learning occurs was named as behaviourism. Behaviorism
claimed and proved that behaviour can be modified by changing the environment.
In other words, a learner responds differently to different stimulus. Accordingly, it suggested to
intentionally provide a stimulus to create desirable response. It says that:
 Behavior is result of conditions in which learning takes place.
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 If proper stimuli are provided, behaviour can be moulded.

 It is.possible to control learning experiences to create desired learning outcomes It is important

to reinforce positive behaviour to ensure its repetition.

Many principles of behaviorism are used in curriculum development.

 Remediation of behavior, acquiring of skills and considerations.

 Defining short-term and long-term objectives.

 Suitable media and materials to suit the learners needs, and abilities.

 Positive reinforcement of positive behaviour.

 Understanding learner’s needs better and developing activities and tasks according to that.

 Behaviorism has gained popularity not only in educational field, but also in business and
industry, government and allied, health professions, or to say, wherever human beings are
involved.
Cognitive School of Thought.

 Unlike behaviorists, cognitive school claims that learning is cognitive in nature. It

explains that a man goes through different style of development from birth to
maturity. Piaget gave following states of cognitive development from birth to
maturity:
 Sensorimotor stage: 0-2 years Age, Development: The child learns sensorimotor
activities. He begins to establish simple relations between objects.
 Poperational stage: 2-7 years Age, Development: Learns to take a symbolic meaning,
but can consider only one dimension.
 Concrete operational stage: 7-11 years Age, Development: Learns to organize data into
logical relationships and can learn concepts in problem solving situations.
 Formal operational stage: 11 on-wards Age, Development: Can think about abstract
ideas, formulate hypotheses and deduce possible conclusions from them.
 These stages follow a hierarchical order. Age limit is flexible for each stage depending on

hereditary and environmental factors. Tyler, Taba and Bruner based their curriculum

principles on Piaget’s theory.

 Tyler suggested three ways of organizing learning experience on the basis of Piaget’s

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 theory.

 Continuity: Continuity implies repetition of skills and concepts in the curriculum in

vertical recurring -way. It will enable learner to practice those concepts.

 Sequence: Concepts should be understood in a proper sequence so that each successive

experience builds on the preceding one.
Integration: It is also necessary to integrate curriculum horizontally and is unified.in relation to
other elements. No discipline on subject-field can be understood in isolation of the other.
Taba suggested that Piaget’s theory has significant implications for a learners intellectual
development. He suggested:
 Transform complex concepts into mental operations that are suitable for learners,
development stage.
 Assimilation accommodation and equilibration are important-cognitive facts that must be
considered in curriculum development.
 Curriculum experiences should be compatible with existing experiences than these concepts
should be organized in such a way that they move from concrete principles and classify
new relationships.
 Bruner’s explained learning process on the basis of Piaget’s concepts of assimilation
and accommodation.
 Acquisition: It refers to acquiring of new knowledge or replacing old knowledge
with new. It corresponds to’ the concept of assimilation.
 Transformation: It refers to the way in which an individual processes new information. It
is based on Piaget’s concept of accommodation.
 Evaluation: It refers to understanding and analyzing information to solve a problem. It
is related to Piaget’s concept of equilibration
 It is very important to keep in mind the development stage of the child while planning the
curriculum. Piaget’s theory is more relevant for school teachers.
Humanistic Psychology.

 Humanistic psychology has been taken as a “third force” learning theory by many
observers. First and, second being cognitive development and behaviorism psychologists
are always concerned with the betterment of the society and the people.
 Humanistic approach suggests that-our behavior is dependent on our concept of
ourselves. Human beings understand ‘wholeness’ of the problem and react to it in an
organized pattern.

Reference:
 8603 B.Ed Course “Curriculum Development “book
 www.google.com

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  www.wikipedia.com
 www.eHow.com

Question No.5

What is the process of curriculum development in Pakistan? Discuss. Write

a brief history of curriculum development in the subcontinent.
Answer:

Process of Curriculum Development in Pakistan:

Curriculum revision/development is ideally an ongoing, assessment, planning and design,
teacher training materials, implementation monitoring, feedback and evaluation, the curricula
renewal is based on the following broad areas of concern.
Incorporating issues of global significance include environment change, degradation, population
control, gender issues and international understanding and cooperation. Fostering respect for,
prevention of cultural tradition, indigenous values and ways of life. Fostering is the moral values
through Islamic principle and ethics among pupils. Promoting democratic value, respect for an
appreciation of cultural diversity that characterize Pakistani society and the broader global
society. To introduce competency based curricula by defining mini involved in learning
competence at both primary and secondary level.
Following are the steps involved in curriculum development in Pakistan.

Curriculum wing request the provincial centers to prepare draft curriculum for each subject
taught in various classes up to the class XII. Provincial curriculum committees prepare
curriculum plane. The draft is sent to the curriculum wing. The national committee of curriculum
scrutinized the drafts in the light of the comments. The committee submits its recommendation to
the ministry approval. The curriculum schemes duly approved are passed, on the provincial text
book.
Nine types of curriculum adaptation:

1. Quantity:
Adapt the number of items that the learner’s expected to learn or number of activities student
will complete prior to assessment for mastery. For example, reduced the number of social studies
terms a learner must learn at any one time. Add more practice activities or worksheets.
2. Time:
Adapt the time allotted and allowed for learning, task completion or testing, for example,
individuals a timeline for completing the task, pace learning difficulty for some learner.
3. Level of support:
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 Increase the amount of personal assistance to keep the student on task or to reinforce or prompt
use of specific skills, enhance adult student’s relationship, use physical space and environmental
structure. For example, assign peer buddies, teaching assistant, peer tutors or cross age tutors, specify
how to interact with the student or how to structure the environment.
4. Input:
The way instruction is delivered to the learner. For example, use different visual aids, enlarge text,
plan more concrete examples, provides hands on activities place students in cooperative groups, pre
teach key concepts or terms before the lesson.
5. Difficulty:
Adapt the skill level, problem type or the learner may approach the work. For example allow the use
of a calculator to figure math problems, simplify tasks direction and change rules to accommodate
learner needs.
6. Output:
Adapt who the student can respond to instruction. For example instead of answering questions in
writing allow a verbal response, use a communication book for some students, allow students to show
knowledge with hands on materials.
7. Participation:
Adapt the extent to which the learner is actively involved in the task. For example, in geography
have students hold the globe, while other point out location, ask the students to lead a group. Have the
student turn the pages while sitting on your lap.
8. Alternate goals:
Adapt the goals or outcome expectation while using the some materials, when routinely utilized,
this is only for student with moderate to severe disabilities. For example, in a social studies lesson,
expect a student to be able to locate the colors of the states on a map, while other students learn to
locate each state and name the capital.
9. Substitute curriculum:
Provide different instruction and materials to meet learner individual’s goals. When routinely utilized,
this is only for students with moderate to serve disabilities. For example, during a language lesson a
student is learning toileting skills with an aide.

Write a brief history of curriculum development in the subcontinent.

Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching - learning process. The development of programs of study,
learning and teaching resources, lesson plans and assessment of students, and even teacher education
are all based on curriculum. Curriculum and curriculum development at first glance appear to be of
chief concern to educators, governments and parents, and both have relevance and
impact on the development of communities and prosperity.

The process of curriculum development in India lies between the two extremes of centralization and
decentralization. From time to time, the national government formulates the National Policy on
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Education which includes broad guidelines regarding content and process of education at different
stages.
Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru or prabhu. Initially, education
was open to all and seen as one of the methods to achieve Moksha in those days, or enlightenment.
As time progressed, due to a decentralised social structure, the education was imparted on the basis
of varna and the related duties that one had to perform as a member of a specific caste.[1] The
Brahmans learned about scriptures and religion while the Kshatriya were educated in the various
aspects of warfare. The Vaishya caste learned commerce and other specific vocational courses. The
other casteShudras, were men of working class and they were trained on skills to carry out these
jobs. The earliest venues of education in India were often secluded from the main population.
Students were expected to follow strict monastic guidelines prescribed by the guru and stay away
from cities in ashrams. However, as population increased under the Gupta empire centres of urban
learning became increasingly common and Cities such as Varanasi and the Buddhist centre at
Nalanda became increasingly visible.
Education in India is a piece of education traditional form was closely related to religion. Among the
Heterodox schools of belief were the Jain and Buddhist schools. Heterodox Buddhist education was
more inclusive and aside of the monastic orders the Buddhist education centres were urban institutes
of learning such as Taxila and Nalanda where grammar, medicine, philosophy, logic, metaphysics,
arts and crafts etc. were also taught. Early secular Buddhist institutions of higher learning like Taxila
and Nalanda continued to function well into the common era and were attended by students from
China and Central Asia.
On the subject of education for the nobility Joseph Prabhu writes: "Outside the religious framework,
kings and princes were educated in the arts and sciences related to government: politics (danda-nıti),
economics (vartta), philosophy (anvıksiki), and historical traditions (itihasa). Here the authoritative
source was Kautilya’s Arthashastra, often compared to Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince for its
worldly outlook and political scheming." The Rgveda mentions female poets called brahmavadinis,
specifically Lopamudra and Ghosha. By 800 BCE women such as Gargi and Maitreyi were
mentioned as scholars in the religious Upnishads. Maya, mother of the historic Buddha, was an
educated queen while other women in India contributed to writing of the Pali canon. Out of the
composers of the Sangam literature 154 were women. However, the education and society of the era
continued to be dominated by educated male population.[ Chinese scholars such as Xuanzang and Yi
Jing arrived in Indian institutions of learning to survey Buddhist texts. Yi Jing additionally noted the
arrival of 56 scholars from India and Korea. However, the Buddhist institutions of learning were
slowly giving way to a resurgent tradition of Brahmanism during that era. Scholars from India also
journeyed to China to translate Buddhist texts. During the 10th century a monk named Dharmadeva
from Nalanda journeyed to China and translated a number of texts. Another centre at Vikramshila
maintained close relations with Tibet. The Buddhist teacher Atisa was the head monk in Vikramshila
before his journey to Tibet.Examples of royal patronage include construction of buildings under the
Rastrakuta dynasty in 945 CE. The institutions arranged for multiple residences for educators as well
as state sponsored education and arrangements for students and scholars. Similar arrangements were
made by the Chola dynasty in 1024 CE, which provided state support to selected students in

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educational establishments. Temple schools from 12–13th centuries included the school at
the Nataraja temple situated at Chidambaram which employed 20 librarians, out of whom 8 were
copiers of manuscripts and 2 were employed for verification of the copied manuscripts. The remaining
staff conducted other duties, including preservation and maintained of reference material.
Another establishment during this period is the Uddandapura institute established during the 8th
century under the patronage of the Pala dynasty. The institution developed ties with Tibet and
became a centre of Tantric Buddhism. During the 10–11th centuries the number of monks reached a
thousand, equaling the strength of monks at the sacred Mahabodhi complex. By the time of the
arrival of the Islamic scholar Al Biruni India already had an established system of science and
technology in place. Also by the 12th century, invasions from India's northern borders disrupted
traditional education systems as foreign armies’ raided educational institutes, among other
establishments.
Reference:

 8603 B.Ed Course “Curriculum Development “book

 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.eHow.com

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