AN INTERNSHIP REPORT

Submitted by

VISHNU S- 412422106124

In Partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SRI SAI RAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution; Affiliated to AnnaUniversity,Chennai-600025)

ANNA UNIVERSITY::CHENNAI - 600 025

NOVEMBER - 2024

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this internship report “NETWORKING” are the Bonafide works
of “VISHNU S” (412422106124)” who carried out the internship works in the
“VI MICROSYSTEMS PVT. LTD., PERUNGUDI”.

Dr. S. Rajarajan, Professor Dr. G. ThamaraiSelvi, Professor

Dean/ Academics HoD/ ECE

Dr. P. Saravanan, Assoc. Prof Mrs. R. Janaki, Assoc. Prof

Strategist Talent Enabler

Mrs. K . Sivasankari, AP Mrs.S. Sweetline Shamini, AP

Placement facilitator Internship Incharge

Mrs. K . Sivasankari, Professor

Student Mentor

Submitted for the internship review held on

________________________________ at Sri Sai Ram Institute of Technology,
Chennai- 600 044.

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 DETAILS OF INTERNSHIP

SECTION NO COMPANY NO MODE OF YEAR/SEM

INTERNSHIP

I VI OFFILINE III/V
MICROSYSTEM
PVT.LTD

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO. CONTENTS PG. NO.
ABSTRACT ii
1 ABOUT THE COMPANY 1
2 GENERAL NETWORKING CONCEPTS 2
3 NETWORKING DEVICES 8
4 ROUTING TYPES 10
5 ROUTING PROTOCOLS 12
6 NETWORK SERVICES 16
7 IMPACT OF TRAINING 19
8 PROOF OF COMPLETION 20

LIST OF FIGURES
1 DHCP NETWORK 18

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 ABSTRACT

This opportunity of learning practically about networking and the CISCO

PACKET TRACER Tool was very much useful and boosted up the confidence
to get deeply into this domain of area. My area of interest in this domain has
been levelled up to the next level. With the knowledge of the components to be
used and types of services that can be simulated using the tool and the tracing
of packets or packet sniffing helped me learn about the communication
establishment and layer modelling of the communication model. Basics of
routing, hub connections and protocol establishments were taught in the
sessions and the packet sniffing was successfully established.

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 CHAPTER 1
ABOUT THE COMPANY

NAME OF THE COMPANY-VI MICROSYSTEMS PRIVATE LIMITED

CIN NUMBER – 33AAACV0909J1ZJ

Vi Microsystems Pvt. Ltd., established in 1986, with a prime motto to “Design

and Develop the Hardware and Software products” is headed by an educationalist
and Ex-Scientist from Government of India, with the enormous experience gained
in Research & Development. This organization was established to keep in tune
with the developing technologies in the field of Electrical, Electronics,
Instrumentation, Mechanical, Chemical etc.,
The Company has its own massive three-story building with a built in area of
about 20,000 square feet in Chennai. The company has an effective work force of
about 200 people working in various departments such as Sales, Service, R&D,
Production, Quality Control, Finance, Purchase, Project etc. Each department is
well equipped with Engineers and highly qualified Professionals working to
achieve the objectives of the organization.
The company has also its own R&D wing recognized by Department of Scientific
& Industrial Research, Government of India. By increasing its operations
multifold the company has provided employment to more people in its various
different departments.

Title of the Internship: Internship in Networking

Internship Period: 03/06/2024 to 17/06/2024
Mode of Internship: Offline

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 CHAPTER 2

GENERAL NETWORKING CONCEPTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

Α network is simply defined as something that connects things together for a
specific purpose. The term network is used in a variety of contexts, including telephone,
television, computer, or even people networks.
A computer network connects two or more devices together to share a nearly
limitless range of information and services, including:
• Documents
• Email and messaging
• Websites
• Databases
• Music
• Printers and faxes
• Telephony and videoconferencing

BASIC NETWORK TYPES

Network types are often defined by function or size. The two most common
categories of networks are:
• LANs (Local Area Networks)
• WANs (Wide Area Networks)
A LAN is generally a high-speed network that covers a small geographic area,
usually contained within a single building or campus. A LAN is usually under the
administrative control of a single organization. Ethernet is the most common LAN
technology.

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 A WAN can be defined one of two ways. The book definition of a WAN is a
network that spans large geographical locations, usually to connect multiple LANs. This
is a general definition, and not always accurate.
A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is another category of network, though
the term is not prevalently used. A MAN is defined as a network that connects LANs across
a city-wide geographic area.
A VPN (Virtual Private Network) allows for information to be securely sent
across a public or unsecure network, such as the Internet. Common uses of a VPN are to
connect branch offices or remote users to a main office.

2.2 TOPOLOGIES
1)Bus Topology:
• All nodes are connected to a single central cable.
• Easy to install & extend and requires less cable.
• Limited number of nodes.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• Central cable failure brings down the entire network.

2) Star Topology:
• All nodes are connected to a central hub or switch.
• Easy to install and detect faults.
• If central hub fails the entire network is down.
• Requires more cables.

• Each node is connected to exactly two other nodes, forming a circular pathway for
signals.
• Data packets travel in one direction, reducing chances of packet collisions; each
node has equal access.

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 • A failure in any single cable or node can disrupt the entire network; difficult to
troubleshoot.

4) Mesh Topology:
• Every node is connected to every other node.
• Highly reliable, provides multiple paths for data transmission, failure of one node
generally doesn't affect the network.
• Expensive due to the high number of cables and ports required, complex to install
and manage.

5) Tree Topology:
• A hybrid topology combining characteristics of star and bus topologies. Nodes are
connected in a hierarchical manner.
• Easily scalable, easy to manage and troubleshoot, suitable for large networks.
• If the root node fails, the entire network can be affected, requires a lot of cable.

2.3 OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and formalized in 1984. It provided
the first framework governing how information should be sent across a network. The OSI
model consists of seven layers, each corresponding to a specific network function:
1)APPLICATION
2)PRESENTATION
3)SESSION
4)TRANSPORT
5)NETWORK
6)DATA LINK
7)PHYSICAL

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 The OSI model itself is now somewhat deprecated – modern protocol suites, such
as the TCP/IP suite, are difficult to fit cleanly within the OSI model’s seven layers. This is
especially true of the upper three layers.
The bottom (or lower) four layers are more clearly defined, and terminology from
those layers is still prevalently used. Many protocols and devices are described by which
lower layer they operate at.

2.4 IPV4 AND SUBNETTING

A core function of IP is to provide logical addressing for hosts. An IP address
provides a hierarchical structure to both uniquely identify a host, and what network that
host exists on.
An IP address is most often represented in decimal, in the following format:
158.80.164.3
An IP address is comprised of four octets, separated by periods: First Octet Second Octet
Third Octet Fourth Octet 158 80 164 3 Each octet is an 8-bit number, resulting in a 32-bit
IP address. The smallest possible value of an octet is 0, or 00000000 in binary. The largest
possible value of an octet is 255, or 11111111 in binary. The above IP address represented
in binary would look as follows:
First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Fourth Octet
10011110 01010000 10100100 00000011

Subnet Mask:
Part of an IP address identifies the network. The other part of the address
identifies the host. A subnet mask is required to provide this distinction: 158.80.164.3
255.255.0.0 The above IP address has a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0. The subnet mask
follows two rules:
• If a binary bit is set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in the address
identifies the network.

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• If a binary bit is set to a 0 (or off) in a subnet mask, the corresponding bit in the address
identifies the host.
Looking at the above address and subnet mask in binary:
IP Address: 10011110.01010000.10100100.00000011
Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
The first 16 bits of the subnet mask are set to 1. Thus, the first 16 bits of the address
(158.80) identify the network. The last 16 bits of the subnet mask are set to 0. Thus, the
last 16 bits of the address (164.3) identify the unique host on that network. The network
portion of the subnet mask must be contiguous. For example, a subnet mask of 255.0.0.255
is not valid.

2.5 IPV6 ADDRESSING

The most widespread implementation of IP currently is IPv4, which utilizes a 32-bit
address. Mathematically, a 32-bit address can provide roughly 4 billion unique IP
addresses (232 = 4,294,967,296). Practically, the number of usable IPv4 addresses is much
lower, as many addresses are reserved for diagnostic, experimental, or multicast purposes.
The explosive growth of the Internet and corporate networks quickly led to an IPv4 address
shortage. Various solutions were developed to alleviate this shortage, including CIDR,
NAT, and Private Addressing. However, these solutions could only serve as temporary
fixes.
In response to the address shortage, IPv6 was developed. IPv6 increases the address size
to 128 bits, providing a nearly unlimited supply of addresses
(340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 to be exact). This provides
roughly 50 octillion addresses per person alive on Earth today, or roughly 3.7 x 1021
addresses per square inch of the Earth’s surface.

IPv6 offers the following features:

• Increased Address Space and Scalability – providing the absurd number of possible
addresses stated previously.
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• Simplified Configuration – allows hosts to auto-configure their IPv6 addresses, based
on network prefixes advertised by routers.
• Integrated Security – provides built-in authentication and encryption into the IPv6
network header.
• Compatibility with IPv4 – simplifies address migration, as IPv6 is backward-
compatible with IPv4.
The IPv6 address is 128 bits, as opposed to the 32-bit IPv4 address. Also, unlike IPv4, the
IPv6 address is represented in hexadecimal notation, separate by colons.
An example of an IPv6 address would be: 1254:1532:26B1:CC14:0123:1111:2222:3333

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 CHAPTER 3
NETWORKING DEVICES

3.1 HUBS
Hubs are Layer-1 devices that physically connect network devices together for
communication. Hubs can also be referred to as repeaters.
Hubs provide no intelligent forwarding whatsoever. Hubs are incapable of processing
either Layer-2 or Layer-3 information, and thus cannot make decisions based on hardware
or logical addressing.
Thus, hubs will always forward every frame out every port, excluding the port originating
the frame. Hubs do not differentiate between frame types, and thus will always forward
unicasts, multicasts, and broadcasts out every port but the originating port.

3.2 SWITCHES
Layer-2 devices build hardware address tables, which at a minimum contain the following:
• Hardware addresses for hosts.
• The port each hardware address is associated with Using this information, Layer-2
devices will make intelligent forwarding decisions based on the frame (or data-link)
headers.
A frame can then be forwarded out only the appropriate destination port, instead of all
ports. Layer-2 forwarding was originally referred to as bridging. Bridging is a largely
deprecated term (mostly for marketing purposes), and Layer-2 forwarding is now
commonly referred to as switching.
There are some subtle technological differences between bridging and switching. Switches
usually have a higher port-density, and can perform forwarding decisions at wire speed,
due to specialized hardware circuits called ASICs (Application-Specific Integrated
Circuits). Otherwise, bridges and switches are nearly identical in function.

8
Ethernet switches build MAC address tables through a dynamic learning process. A switch
behaves much like a hub when first powered on. The switch will flood every frame,
including unicasts, out every port but the originating port.

3.3 ROUTERS
Layer-3 routing is the process of forwarding a packet from one network to another
network, based on the Network-layer header. Routers build routing tables to perform
forwarding decisions, which contain the following:
• The destination network and subnet mask.
• The next hop router to get to the destination network.
• Routing metrics and Administrative Distance.
Note that Layer-3 forwarding is based on the destination network, and not the destination
host. It is possible to have host routes, but this is less common.
The routing table is concerned with two types of Layer-3 protocols:
• Routed protocols - assigns logical addressing to devices, and routes packets between
networks. Examples include IP and IPX.
• Routing protocols - dynamically builds the information in routing tables. Examples
include RIP, EIGRP, and OSPF.
Each individual interface on a router belongs to its own collision domain. Thus, like
switches, routers create more collision domains, which results in fewer collisions.
Unlike Layer-2 switches, Layer-3 routers also separate broadcast domains. As a rule, a
router will never forward broadcasts from one network to another network (unless, of
course, you explicitly configure it to).
Routers will not forward multicast either, unless configured to participate in a multicast
tree.Traditionally, a router was required to copy each individual packet to its buffers, and
perform a route-table lookup. Each packet consumed CPU cycles as it was forwarded by
the router, resulting in latency. Thus, routing was generally considered slower than
switching.

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 CHAPTER 4
ROUTING TYPES

4.1 STATIC VS DYNAMIC ROUTING

There are two basic methods of building a routing table: Statically or Dynamically.
A static routing table is created, maintained, and updated by a network administrator,
manually. A static route to every network must be configured on every router for full
connectivity. This provides a granular level of control over routing, but quickly becomes
impractical on large networks.
Routers will not share static routes with each other, thus reducing CPU/RAM overhead
and saving bandwidth. However, static routing is not fault-tolerant, as any change to the
routing infrastructure (such as a link going down, or a new network added) requires manual
intervention. Routers operating in a purely static environment cannot seamlessly choose a
better route if a link becomes unavailable.
Static routes have an Administrative Distance (AD) of 1, and thus are always preferred
over dynamic routes, unless the default AD is changed. A static route with an adjusted AD
is called a floating static route.
A dynamic routing table is created, maintained, and updated by a routing protocol running
on the router. Examples of routing protocols include RIP (Routing Information Protocol),
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), and OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First).
Routers do share dynamic routing information with each other, which increases CPU,
RAM, and bandwidth usage. However, routing protocols are capable of dynamically
choosing a different (or better) path when there is a change to the routing infrastructure.

The following briefly outlines the advantages and disadvantages of static routing:
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Advantages of Static Routing:
• Minimal CPU/Memory overhead.
• No bandwidth overhead (updates are not shared between routers).
• Granular control on how traffic is routed.

Disadvantages of Static Routing:

• Infrastructure changes must be manually adjusted.
• No “dynamic” fault tolerance if a link goes down.
• Impractical on large network.

The following briefly outlines the advantages and disadvantages of dynamic routing:
Advantages of Dynamic Routing:
• Simpler to configure on larger networks.
• Will dynamically choose a different (or better) route if a link goes down.
• Ability to load balance between multiple links.
Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:
• Updates are shared between routers, thus consuming bandwidth.
• Routing protocols put additional load on router CPU/RAM.
• The choice of the “best route” is in the hands of the routing protocol, and not the network
administrator.
4.2 CLASSFUL VS CLASSLESS ROUTING
Classful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information with their routing updates.
A router running a classful routing protocol will react in one of two ways when receiving
a route:
• If the router has a directly connected interface belonging to the same major network, it
will apply the same subnet mask as that interface.
• If the router does not have any interfaces belonging to the same major network, it will
apply the classful subnet mask to the r

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 CHAPTER 5
ROUTING PROTOCOLS

5.1 RIP (ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOLS)

RIP is a standardized Distance Vector protocol, designed for use on smaller networks. RIP
was one of the first true Distance Vector routing protocols, and is supported on a wide
variety of systems.
RIP adheres to the following Distance Vector characteristics:
• RIP sends out periodic routing updates (every 30 seconds).
• RIP sends out the full routing table every periodic update.
• RIP uses a form of distance as its metric (in this case, hop count).
• RIP uses the Bellman-Ford Distance Vector algorithm to determine the best “path” to a
particular destination.
Other characteristics of RIP include:
• RIP supports IP and IPX routing.
• RIP utilizes UDP port 520 .
• RIP routes have an administrative distance of 120.
• RIP has a maximum hop count of 15 hops.
Any network that is 16 hops away or more is considered unreachable to RIP, thus the
maximum diameter of the network is 15 hops. A metric of 16 hops in RIP is considered a
poison route or infinity metric.
If multiple paths exist to a particular destination, RIP will load balance between those
paths (by default, up to 4) only if the metric (hop count) is equal. RIP uses a round-robin
system of load-balancing between equal metric routes, which can lead to pinhole
congestion.
For example, two paths might exist to a particular destination, one going through a 9600
baud link, the other via a T1. If the metric (hop count) is equal, RIP will load-balance,

12
sending an equal amount of traffic down the 9600 baud link and the T1. This will
(obviously) cause the slower link to become congested.

5.2 IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)

IGRP is a Cisco-proprietary Distance-Vector protocol, designed to be more scalable than
RIP, its standardized counterpart.
IGRP adheres to the following Distance-Vector characteristics:
• IGRP sends out periodic routing updates (every 90 seconds).
• IGRP sends out the full routing table every periodic update.
• IGRP uses a form of distance as its metric (in this case, a composite of bandwidth and
delay).
• IGRP uses the Bellman-Ford Distance Vector algorithm to determine the best “path” to
a particular destination.
Other characteristics of IGRP include:
• IGRP supports only IP routing.
• IGRP utilizes IP protocol 9.
• IGRP routes have an administrative distance of 100.
• IGRP, by default, supports a maximum of 100 hops. This value can be adjusted to a
maximum of 255 hops.
• IGRP is a classful routing protocol.
IGRP uses Bandwidth and Delay of the Line, by default, to calculate its distance metric.
Reliability, Load, and MTU are optional attributes that can be used to calculate the distance
metric.
IGRP requires that you include an Autonomous System (AS) number in its configuration.
Only routers in the same Autonomous system will send updates between each other.

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5.3 EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
EIGRP is a Cisco-proprietary Hybrid routing protocol, incorporating features of both
Distance-Vector and Link-State routing protocols.
EIGRP adheres to the following Hybrid characteristics:
• EIGRP uses Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) to determine the best path among all
“feasible” paths. DUAL also helps ensure a loopfree routing environment.
• EIGRP will form neighbor relationships with adjacent routers in the same Autonomous
System (AS).
• EIGRP traffic is either sent as unicasts, or as multicasts on address 224.0.0.10, depending
on the EIGRP packet type.
• Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) is used to ensure delivery of most EIGRP packets.
• EIGRP routers do not send periodic, full-table routing updates. Updates are sent when a
change occurs, and include only the change.
• EIGRP is a classless protocol, and thus supports VLSMs.
Other characteristics of EIGRP include:
• EIGRP supports IP, IPX, and Appletalk routing.
• EIGRP applies an Administrative Distance of 90 for routes originating within the local
Autonomous System.
• EIGRP applies an Administrative Distance of 170 for external routes coming from
outside the local Autonomous System.
• EIGRP uses Bandwidth and Delay of the Line, by default, to calculate its distance metric.
It also supports three other parameters to calculate its metric: Reliability, Load, and MTU.
• EIGRP has a maximum hop-count of 224, though the default maximum hop-count is set
to 100.

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5.4 OSPF (OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST)
OSPF is a standardized Link-State routing protocol, designed to scale efficiently to support
larger networks.
OSPF adheres to the following Link State characteristics:
• OSPF employs a hierarchical network design using Areas.
• OSPF will form neighbor relationships with adjacent routers in the same Area. • Instead
of advertising the distance to connected networks, OSPF advertises the status of directly
connected links using Link-State Advertisements (LSAs).
• OSPF sends updates (LSAs) when there is a change to one of its links, and will only send
the change in the update. LSAs are additionally refreshed every 30 minutes.
• OSPF traffic is multicast either to address 224.0.0.5 (all OSPF routers) or 224.0.0.6 (all
Designated Routers).
• OSPF uses the Dijkstra Shortest Path First algorithm to determine the shortest path.
• OSPF is a classless protocol, and thus supports VLSMs.
Other characteristics of OSPF include:
• OSPF supports only IP routing.
• OSPF routes have an administrative distance is 110.
• OSPF uses cost as its metric, which is computed based on the bandwidth of the link.
OSPF has no hop-count limit.

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 CHAPTER 6
NETWORK SERVICES

6.1 DHCP (DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL)

In networks with a large number of hosts, statically assigning IP addresses and other IP
information quickly becomes impractical. Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP)
provides administrators with a mechanism to dynamically allocate IP addresses, rather
than manually setting the address on each device.
DHCP servers lease out IP addresses to DHCP clients, for a specific period of time. There
are four steps to this DHCP process:
• When a DHCP client first boots up, it broadcasts a DHCP discover message, searching
for a DHCP server.
• If a DHCP server exists on the local segment, it will respond with a DHCP offer,
containing the “offered” IP address, subnet mask, etc.
• Once the client receives the offer, it will respond with a DHCP request, indicating that it
will accept the offered protocol information.
• Finally, the server responds with a DHCPACK, acknowledging the clients acceptance of
offered protocol information.
By default, DHCP leases an address for 8 days. Once 50% of the lease expires, the client
will try to renew the lease with the same DHCP server. If successful, the client receives a
new 8 day lease.
If the renewal is not successful, the client will continue “attempting” to renew, until 87.5%
of the lease has expired. Once this threshold has been reached, the client will attempt to
find another DHCP server to bind to.
In addition to IP address and subnet mask information, DHCP can provide the following
protocol parameters:
• Default Gateway
• Domain Name and DNS servers

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• Time Servers
• WINS servers
6.2 DNS (DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM)
Domain Name System (DNS) translates between domain names and IP addresses, and is
supported by nearly every operating system. All Internetbased name resolution utilizes
DNS.
DNS is organized as a hierarchy. Consider the following translation: www.google.com =
209.85.225.104
The above domain name represents a Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN): • .com
represents a top level domain.
• .google represents a secondary level domain.
• www represents a host computer in the .google.com domain. Other top level domains
include .org, .net, and .gov. Top level domains can also include country codes, such as .ca,
.nl, and .de

6.3 NAT (NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATION)

A public address can be routed on the Internet. Thus, devices that must be Internet-
accessible must be configured with (or reachable by) public addresses. Allocation of public
addresses is governed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
A private address is intended for internal use within a home or organization, and can be
freely used by anyone. However, private addresses can never be routed on the Internet. In
fact, Internet routers are configured to immediately drop traffic with private addresses.
Three private address ranges were defined in RFC 1918, one for each IPv4 class: • Class
A - 10.x.x.x /8
• Class B - 172.16.x.x /12
• Class C - 192.168.x.x /24
It is possible to translate between private and public addresses, using Network Address
Translation (NAT). NAT allows a host configured with a private address to be stamped

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with a public address, thus allowing that host to communicate across the Internet. It is also
possible to translate multiple privately-addressed hosts to a single public address, which
conserves the public address space.
NAT provides an additional benefit – hiding the specific addresses and addressing structure
of the internal (or private) network.

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 IMPACT 0F TRAINING
The hands-on training allowed me to apply theoretical principles to real-world
scenarios, enhancing my problem-solving skills and technical proficiency.
Working alongside experienced professionals provided valuable insights into
industry best practices and emerging technologies. This internship not only
solidified my interest in computer networks but also equipped me with the
skills and confidence needed to pursue a successful career in this dynamic and
rapidly evolving field.

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PROOF OF COMPLETION

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