Elements of chemical industry

▎1.
Precipitation
Definition: Precipitation is a process in which a solid (precipitate) forms from a solution due to a
chemical reaction, typically when the solubility product of the resulting compound is exceeded.
Chemical Perspective: In catalyst preparation, precipitation can involve various chemical reactions.
When soluble salts are mixed, the ions may combine to form an insoluble compound that
precipitates out. The process can be influenced by factors such as pH, temperature, and
concentration.
Examples:
• Barium Sulfate (BaSO₄): Mixing barium chloride (BaCl₂) with sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) results in the
precipitation of barium sulfate, which can be used as a catalyst support.
BaCl₂ + Na₂SO₄ → BaSO₄(s) + 2NaCl
• Nickel Hydroxide (Ni(OH)₂): Nickel nitrate (Ni(NO₃)₂) can be precipitated by adding sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), forming nickel hydroxide, which is used in hydrogenation reactions.
Ni(NO₃)₂ + 2NaOH → Ni(OH)₂(s) + 2NaNO₃
Applications: Precipitated materials can serve as catalysts or supports. The control over particle size
and morphology allows for optimization of catalytic properties, such as surface area and reactivity,
making it suitable for heterogeneous catalysis in processes like ammonia synthesis.
▎2. Coprecipitation
Definition: Coprecipitation is a technique where two or more components are precipitated together
from a solution, allowing for uniform mixing at the molecular level.
Chemical Perspective: This method often involves the simultaneous precipitation of metal ions from
a mixed solution. The resulting solid contains multiple components homogeneously distributed,
which can enhance catalytic properties due to synergistic effects.
Examples:
• Mixed Metal Oxides: A common example is the preparation of copper-zinc oxide (Cu-ZnO)
catalysts for methanol synthesis. Copper nitrate and zinc nitrate can be coprecipitated using sodium
carbonate, yielding a mixed oxide catalyst.
Cu(NO₃)₂ + Zn(NO₃)₂ + Na₂CO₃ → Cu-ZnO(s) + 2NaNO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O
• Iron-Copper Catalysts: Used in water-gas shift reactions, iron(III) nitrate and copper(II) nitrate can
be coprecipitated with ammonium hydroxide to form iron-copper hydroxide.
Applications: Coprecipitation is frequently employed to create bimetallic catalysts that exhibit

enhanced activity and selectivity due to close interaction between different metal species. This
technique is particularly useful in catalysis for processes such as selective oxidation and reforming
reactions.
▎3. Deposition Precipitation
Definition: Deposition precipitation involves the deposition of metal particles onto a support
material from a solution containing dissolved metal precursors.
Chemical Perspective: In this technique, metal ions are reduced and deposited onto the surface of a
support material, often resulting in nanoparticles or thin films. The reduction can be facilitated by
various agents or through thermal treatment.
Examples:
• Platinum on Activated Carbon: A common catalyst for fuel cells is platinum deposited on activated
carbon. Platinum(IV) chloride can be reduced in the presence of activated carbon to form platinum
nanoparticles on the carbon surface.
PtCl₄ + 2C → Pt₍ₛ₎ + 4Cl⁻ + 2C
• Silver on Silica: Silver nanoparticles can be deposited on silica gel for use in antimicrobial
applications. Silver nitrate is reduced using sodium borohydride while in contact with silica.
Applications: Deposition precipitation is widely used in heterogeneous catalysis, particularly in

automotive catalytic converters, where noble metals like platinum and palladium are supported on
alumina or ceria to facilitate oxidation reactions. The control over particle size and distribution
directly affects the catalytic efficiency.
4. Impregnation
Definition: Impregnation is a method where a porous support material is soaked in a solution

containing metal precursors, allowing the metal to enter the pores of the support.
Chemical Perspective: The process typically involves dissolving metal salts in a solvent and
immersing the porous support material in this solution. After solvent evaporation, the metal salts
remain within the pores and can be reduced to their metallic form through heat or chemical
reduction.
Examples:
• Vanadium Pentoxide on Alumina: Vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) can be impregnated onto alumina
to create catalysts for selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
V₂O₅ + Al₂O₃ → V₂O₅/Al₂O₃(s)
• Nickel on Al₂O₃ for Reforming: Nickel nitrate can be impregnated onto alumina to prepare
catalysts used in steam reforming of methane.
Applications: Impregnation is utilized to achieve high metal loadings while preserving the structural
integrity of the support. It is commonly applied in industrial processes such as hydrogenation,
oxidation, and reforming reactions, where specific metal characteristics are crucial for catalytic
activity.
▎5. Sol-Gel Process
Definition: The sol-gel process is a chemical route for producing solid materials from small molecules
through hydrolysis and polymerization reactions.
Chemical Perspective: In this method, metal alkoxides or metal salts undergo hydrolysis to form a
colloidal suspension (sol). As the sol evolves into a gel, it transitions from a liquid to a solid state
through network formation. The general reaction can involve:
M(OR)ₙ + nH₂O → M(OH)ₙ + nROH
where M represents a metal atom and OR denotes alkoxy groups.
Examples:
• Silica-Based Catalysts: Tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) can be hydrolyzed to produce silica gels that
serve as supports for various catalysts.
• Zirconia Catalysts: Zirconium alkoxides can be used in sol-gel processes to create zirconia-based
catalysts with high thermal stability for applications in catalytic converters.
Applications: The sol-gel method allows for precise control over composition and microstructure at
the molecular level. It is particularly useful for preparing catalysts with high surface area and
porosity, essential for enhancing catalytic activity in processes such as oxidation and hydrogenation
reactions.
▎6. Ion Exchange
Definition: Ion exchange is a process where ions from a solution are exchanged with ions on a solid
resin or support material.
Chemical Perspective: In catalyst preparation, ion exchange involves passing a solution containing
desired metal ions through a resin that has been preloaded with other ions (often H⁺ or Na⁺). The
desired ions replace the original ions on the resin:
R⁺ + Mⁿ⁺ → RMⁿ⁺ + R⁺
where R⁺ represents the ion on the resin and Mⁿ⁺ is the incoming metal ion.
Examples:
• Exchanging Cations on Zeolites: Zeolites can be treated with solutions containing transition metal
ions (e.g., Cu²⁺ or Ag⁺) to create ion-exchanged catalysts used in selective oxidation reactions.
• Ion Exchange Resins for Acid Catalysis: Strong acid cation exchange resins (e.g., sulfonic acid
groups) can be used as catalysts in esterification reactions by exchanging protons with reactants.
Applications: Ion exchange techniques are often employed to modify supports or enhance catalytic
properties by introducing specific ions that improve activity or selectivity in catalytic processes. This
method is particularly useful in environmental applications, such as wastewater treatment and air
purification.

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▎1.

BaCl₂ + Na₂SO₄ → BaSO₄(s) + 2NaCl

Ni(NO₃)₂ + 2NaOH → Ni(OH)₂(s) + 2NaNO₃

Cu(NO₃)₂ + Zn(NO₃)₂ + Na₂CO₃ → Cu-ZnO(s) + 2NaNO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

Applications: Coprecipitation is frequently employed to create bimetallic catalysts that exhibit

▎3. Deposition Precipitation

PtCl₄ + 2C → Pt₍ₛ₎ + 4Cl⁻ + 2C

Applications: Deposition precipitation is widely used in heterogeneous catalysis, particularly in

Definition: Impregnation is a method where a porous support material is soaked in a solution

V₂O₅ + Al₂O₃ → V₂O₅/Al₂O₃(s)

▎5. Sol-Gel Process

M(OR)ₙ + nH₂O → M(OH)ₙ + nROH

where M represents a metal atom and OR denotes alkoxy groups.

▎6. Ion Exchange

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