FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT

AERODYNAMICS
• DEALS WITH THE MOTION OF
AIR AND THE FORCES ACTING ON
BODIES MOVING RELATIVE TO
THE AIR
• YOU CAN LEARN WHY AND HOW
AN AIRPLANE FLIES
• UNDERSTANDING HOW AN
AIRPLANE FLIES BEGINS WITH..
•FOUR
FORCES OF
FLIGHT
FOUR
• LIFT
FORCES OF FLIGHT
• UPWARD FORCE CREATED BY THE EFFECT OF AIRFLOW AS IT PASSES OVER AND UNDER THE WING
• SUPPORTS THE AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT
• WEIGHT
• OPPOSES LIFT
• CAUSED BY DOWNWARD PULL OF GRAVITY

• THRUST
• FORWARD FORCE WHICH PROPELS THE AIRPLANE THROUGH THE AIR
• VARIES WITH THE AMOUNT OF ENGINE POWER BEING USED
• DRAG
• BACKWARD
• RETARDING FORCE
• LIMITS THE SPEED OF THE AIRPLANE
DURING UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
(STRAIGHT AND LEVEL, CONSTANT
AIRSPEED)
THE FOUR FORCES ARE:
• IN EQUILIBRIUM
 VECTORS
• ARROWS WHICH SHOWS THE
FORCES ACTING ON AN
AIRPLANE
• MAGNITUDE = ARROW’S
LENGTH
• DIRECTION = ARROW’S
ORIENTATION
RESULTANT
• FORMED WHEN 2 OR
MORE FORCES ACTING ON
AN OBJECT AT THE SAME
TIME
• VERTICAL + HORIZONTAL
• DIAGONAL DIRECTION
• 2 OPPOSING FORCES
• =ZERO MAGNITIUDE
LIFT
• KEY AERODYNAMIC FORCE
• OPPOSES WEIGHT
• STRAIGHT AND LEVEL, UNACCELERATED
FLIGHT
• WEIGHT AND LIFT ARE EQUAL
• STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM
• NEITHER GAINS OR LOSES ALTITUDE
• IF STATIONARY IN RAMP:
• STILL IN EQUILIBRIUM
• AERODYNAMIC FORCES ARE NOT A FACTOR
• CALM WIND
• EQUAL ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• ON UPPER AND LOWER SURFACES (WING)
NEWTON’S LAW OF FORCE AND MOTION
• SIR ISAAC NEWTON
• PHYSICIST
• MATHEMATICIAN
• HELPS EXPLAIN THE CREATION
OF LIFT BY AN AIRFOIL
 ST
1 LAW
• A BODY AT REST TENDS TO
REMAIN AT REST
• A BODY IN MOTION TENDS TO
REMAIN MOVING AT THE SAME
SPEED AND SAME DIRECTION
 ND
2 LAW
• WHEN A BODY IS ACTED
UPON BY A CONSTANT
FORCE, RESULTING
ACCELERATION IS:
• INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL
TO THE MASS OF THE BODY
• DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO
THE APPLIED FORCE
• FORCE = MASS X
ACCELERATION
 RD
3 LAW
• FOR EVERY ACTION
THERE IS AN EQUAL
AND OPPOSITE
REACTION
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
• DANIEL BERNOULLI
• SWISS MATHEMATICIAN
• DESCRIBES THE BASIC
PRINCIPLE OF AIRFLOW
PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL
• AS VELOCITY OF FLUID(AIR)
INCREASES, INTERNAL
PRESSURE DECREASES
SPEED
INCREASES;
PRESSURE
DECREASES

HIGHER to
LOWER
pressure!
AIRFOIL
•Any surface which provides AERODYNAMIC FORCE
when it interacts with a moving stream of air
•As an airfoil moves through the air, it ALTERS the
airflow around it
•DESIGNED TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF BOTH NEWTON’S
LAW AND BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
PARTS OF AN AIRFOIL
Curvature
-lengthens airflow path
-airflow speeds up!

Upper Camber
Leading Edge
MEAN CAMBER LINE

CHORD LINE
Trailing Edge
Lower Camber

MEAN CAMBER LINE- line between the UPPER CAMBER and the LOWER CAMBER equally distant
CHORD LINE- straight line joining the LEADING EDGE and the TRAILING EDGE
ANGLE OF ATTACK

•Angle between the RELATIVE

WIND and the CHORD LINE
•As AOA INCREASES, LIFT
INCREASES until a certain point.
COEFFICIENT OF LIFT(MAX)

CLmax
LIFT!

RD
NEWTON’S 3 LAW
LOW PRESSURE

LIFT
HIGH PRESSURE
RELATIVE WIND
Higher VELOCITY
Normal VELOITY
STALLS
• CAUSED BY THE SEPARATION OF
AIRFLOW FROM THE WING’S
UPPER SURFACE
• FOR A GIVEN AIRPLANE:
• STALL ALWAYS OCCURS AT THE SAME
ANGLE!
• REGARDLESS OF
• AIRSPEED
• FLIGHT ATTITUDE
• WEIGHT
• THIS ANGLE IS THE CRITICAL ANGLE OF
ATTACK
 THE BOUNDARY LAYER
• THIN LAYER OF AIR NEXT TO THE SURFACE OF AN
AIRFOIL
• SHOWS A REDUCTION IN SPEED DUE TO AIR’S
VISCOSITY/STICKINESS
• DESCRIBED AS
• LAMINAR
• SMOOTH LAMINATIONS OF AIR
• SLIDING OVER ONE ANOTHER
• TURBULENT
• PRESSURE GRADIENT
• CHANGE IN PRESSURE MEASURED ACROSS A GIVEN
DISTANCE
• HIGH PRESSURE TO LOW PRESSURE MOVEMENT
• ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT
• LOW PRESSURE TO HIGH PRESSURE
• A.P.G. EXISTS AT THE POINT WHERE THE LOCAL
VELOCITY OF THE AIR AT THE SURFACE IS ZERO
• STALL
• RESULTS WHEN THE AIRFLOW SEPARATES FROM THE
SURFACE OF THE AIRFOIL
• OCCURS WHEN AOA IS EXCEEDED
 • RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LENGTH AND THE WIDTH
OF A WING
ASPECT RATIO • ONE OF THE PRIMARY FACTORS IN DETERMINING
LIFT/DRAG CHARACTERISTICS
• WING SPAN(WINGTIP TO WINGTIP) = ASPECT RATIO
AVERAGE CHORD
• HIGHER ASPECT RATIO = HIGHER LIFTING EFFICIENCY
• EXAMPLE:
• GLIDERS (20-30) ASPECT RATIO
• TRAINING AIRCRAFTS (7 – 9)
WING AREA PLANFORM
• TOTAL SURFACE AREA OF • REFERS TO THE SHAPE
THE WINGS OF THE WINGS WHEN
• MUST BE SUFFICIENT TO VIEWED FROM ABOVE
SUPPORT THE WEIGHT OR BELOW
OF THE AIRPLANE • EACH PLANFORM
DESIGN HAS
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
• 1. ELLIPTICAL
• SLOW SPEEDS
• MINIMUM DRAG FOR A GIVEN
ASPECT RATIO
• DIFFICULT TO CONSTRUCT
• STALL CHARACTERISTICS NOT AS
FAVORABLE AS RECTANGULAR WING
• 2. RECTANGULAR
• NOT AS EFFICIENT AS THE ELLIPTICAL
• STALL STARTS AT THE WING ROOT
• ADEQUATE STALL WARNING AND
AILERON EFFECTIVENESS
• 3. TAPERING
• DECREASE IN DRAG
• INCREASE IN LIFT
• GOOD COMPROMISE FOR LOW
SPEED AIRCRAFT
• GOOD STALL CHARACTERISTICS
• COST EFFECTIVE
• WEIGHT REDUCTION
• INCREASED ASPECT RATIO
• 4. SWEPTBACK AND
5. DELTA
• HIGH SPEED
EFFICIENT
• LOW SPEED
PERFORMANCE
DEGRADED BY
DESIGN
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
• FIXED
• ANGLE BETWEEN THE WING
CHORD LINE AND A LINE PARALLEL
TO THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS OF
THE AIRPLANE
• EX:
• WING TWIST/ WING WASHOUT
• WINGTIP HAS LOWER AOI THAN
WING ROOT
• PREVENTS UNDESIRABLE STALL
CHARACTERISTICS
• STALLING ON THE WINGTIP FIRST
PROGRESSING TO THE WING ROOT
• REDUCED AILERON EFFECTIVENESS
• CONTROL ALONG THE
LONGITUDINAL AXIS MAY BE
IMPOSSIBLE
STALL STRIPS
• ENSURES POSITIVE
CONTROL DURING STALL
• CONSISTS OF 2 METAL
STRIPS ATTACHED TO THE
LEADING EDGE OF EACH
WING NEAR THE FUSELAGE
• DISRUPTS THE AIRFLOW
AT HIGH AOA
• CAUSING THE WING AREA
DIRECTLY BEHIND THEM TO
STALL BEFORE THE
WINGTIPS STALL
PILOT CONTROL OF LIFT
• DETERMINED BY AIRCRAFT DESIGN FACTORS
• CHANGING THE AOA
• AIRSPEED
• CHANGING THE SHAPE OF THE WING
• FLAPS
• ANYTHING YOU DO TO INCREASE LIFT..
• DRAG ALSO INCREASES!!!
• DRAG IS ALWAYS A BY-PRODUCT OF LIFT!
• CHANGING AOA
• PILOT HAS THE DIRECT CONTROL
• INCREASING AOA
• INCREASES LIFT
• CHANGING AIRSPEED
• PILOT HAS DIRECT CONTROL
• THE HIGHER THE AIRSPEED, THE GREATER THE LIFT!
• LIFT IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF THE AIRPLANE’S SPEED!

• EX:
• AIRPLANE AT 200 KNOTS
• 4X THE LIFT VS AIRPLANE AT 100 KNOTS
• (AOA AND OTHER FACTORS ARE CONSTANT)
HIGH-LIFT DEVICES
• INCREASE EFFICIENCY OF THE
AIRFOIL AT LOW SPEEDS
• MOST COMMON:
• TRAILING-EDGE FLAPS
• INCREASE LIFTING EFFICIENCY OF THE
WING
• DECREASE STALL SPEED
• ALLOWS THE AIRPLANE TO FLY AT
REDUCED AIRSPEED WHILE MAINTAINING
SUFFICIENT CONTROL AND LIFT FOR
SUSTAINED FLIGHT
• RETRACTING FLAPS INCREASES STALL
SPEED!!!
FLAPS
• ABILITY TO FLY AT SLOW SPEEDS IS IMPORTANT DURING:
• APPROACH
• WITH FULL FLAPS AIRPLANES CAN FLY AT A STEEP DESCENT ANGLE WITHOUT GAINING
AIRSPEED
• LANDING PHASES
• ALLOW TOUCHDOWN AT SLOWER AIRSPEED
• “CONFIGURATION”
• POSITION OF THE LANDING GEAR AND FLAPS
• CLEAN CONFIG
• GEARS UP
• FLAPS UP
• DIRTY/LANDING CONFIG
• GEARS DOWN
• FLAPS DOWN
 FLAPS
•LOWERING THE FLAPS:
•AFFECTS CHORD LINE
•INCREASES AOA
•FOR THE SECTION
OF THE WING
WHERE FLAPS ARE
ATTACHED
TYPES OF FLAPS
• PLAIN
• ATTACHED TO THE WING BY A
“HINGE”
• INCREASES EFFECTIVE CAMBER
• CHANGES CHORD LINE
• SPLIT
• HINGED ONLY AT THE LOWER
PORTION OF THE WING
• INCREASES LIFT, BUT GREATER DRAG
• BECAUSE OF TURBULENT WAKES IT
CAUSES
TYPES OF FLAPS
• SLOTTED
• SIMILAR TO PLAIN FLAP
• CHANGES THE CAMBER AND CHORD
LINE
• ALLOWS PORTION OF THE HIGHER
PRESSURE (LOWER CAMBER) TO TRAVEL
THROUGH A SLOT
• INCREASES VELOCITY OF AIFLOW OVER
THE FLAP
• PROVIDES ADDITIONAL LIFT
• ACCELERATES UPPER SURFACE AIRFLOW
• DELAYS AIRFLOW SEPARATION AT HIGHER
AOA
TYPES OF FLAPS
• FOWLER
• ATTACHED TO THE WING BY
• TRACK
• ROLLER SYSTEM
• MOVES REARWARD AND
DOWNWARD
• REARWARD MOTION
• INCREASES
• TOTAL WING AREA
• CAMBER
• CHORD LINE
FLAPS
• AS FLAPS ARE EXTENDED
• AT FIRST, PRODUCES LARGE AMOUNT OF
LIFT
• “BALLOONING”
• ONCE FLAPS REACH MIDPOINT OF THE
EXTENSION
• SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN DRAG
PRODUCED
• SMALL INCREASE IN LIFT
❖ BECAUSE OF LARGE INCREAE IN DRAG BEYOND
HALF-FLAP EXTENSION,
❖ MOST MANUFACTURERS LIMIT THE TAKEOFF
SETTING TO HALF FLAPS OR LESS
VORTEX GENERATORS
• SMALL AIRFOIL-LIKE SURFACES
• VORTICES ARE FORMED AT THE
TIP OF THESE GENERATORS
• ADD ENERGY TO THE BOUNDARY
LAYER
• REDUCES STALL SPEEDS
• INCREASE TAKEOFF AND
LANDING PERFORMANCE
LEADING EDGE FLAPS
• INCREASE LIFT AT SLOW SPEEDS
• USED TO INCREASE WING CAMBER
• PROVIDES ADDITIONAL LIFT
• 1. FIXED SLOTS
• 2. MOVABLE-SLATS
• CONDUCT FLOW OF HIGH ENERGY AIR
BENEATH THE WING INTO THE
AIRFLOW ON THE UPPER SURFACE OF
THE WING
• DELAYS AIRFLOW SEPARATION
• ON HIGHER AOA
WEIGHT
• FORCE OF GRAVITY WHICH ACTS
VERTICALLY DOWNWARD
THROUGH THE CENTER OF THE
AIRPLANE TOWARD THE CENTER OF
THE EARTH
• NOT CONSTANT
• VARIES WITH:
• EQUIPMENT INSTALLED
• PASSENGER
• CARGO
• FUEL LOAD
• TOTAL WEIGHT DECREASES AS FUEL IS
CONSUMED
THRUST
• FORWARD-ACTING FORCE
• OPPOSES DRAG
• PROPELS THE AIRPLANE
• PROVIDED WHEN ENGINE TURNS
THE PROPELLER
• MASS OF AIR MOVES THROUGH
THE PROPELLER (ROTATING
AIRFOIL)
• ACCELERATES OPPOSITE IN THE
DIRECTION OF THE FLIGHT PATH
DURING STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL
UNACCELERATED FLIGHT..
• THRUST AND DRAG ARE EQUAL
• IN ORDER TO ACCELERATE..
• INCREASE THRUST BY USING THROTTLE TO
INCREASE POWER
• THRUST EXCEEDS DRAG
• HOWEVER, ACCELERATION IS ACCOMPANIED BY
INCREASE IN DRAG
• AIRPLANE CONTINUES TO ACCELERATE ONLY WHEN
THRUST EXCEEDS DRAG
• WHEN DRAG AGAIN EQUALS THRUST..
• AIRPLANE CEASES TO ACCELERATE
• MAINTAINS CONSTANT AIRSPEED
• HOWEVER, NEW AIRSPEED IS HIGHER THAN
PREVIOUS ONE!
DRAG
• OPPOSES THRUST
• LIMITS THE FORWARD
SPEED OF THE
AIRPLANE
• CLASSIFIED AS:
• A. PARASITE
• B. INDUCED
A. PARASITE DRAGS
 • PARASITE DRAG
• CAUSED BY ANY AIRCRAFT
SURFACE WHICH DEFLECTS OR
INTERFERES WITH SMOOTH
AIRFLOW AROUND THE
AIRPLANE
• 3 TYPES:
•1. FORM DRAG
• RESULTS FROM TURBULENT WAKE
• CAUSED BY SEPARATION OF
AIRFLOW FROM THE SURFACE OF A
STRUCTURE
• RELATED TO BOTH SIZE AND SHAPE
• PROTRUDES INTO THE RELATIVE
WIND
•2. INTERFERENCE
DRAG
• OCCURS WHEN VARIED CURRENTS
OF AIR OVER AN AIRPLANE MEET
AND INTERACT
• TWO OBJECTS ADJACAENT TO ONE
ANOTHER MAY PRODUCE
TURBULENCE 50% TO 200%
GREATER THAN SEPARATED PARTS
• EXAMPLES:
• MIXING OF AIR OVER:
• WING AND TAIL SURFACES
• SURFACE BRACE STRUTS AND
LANDING GEAR STRUTS
REDUCING
INTERFERENCE
DRAG
• WING FAIRINGS
• REDUCES INTERFERENCE
DRAG BETWEEN THE
WING AND THE FUSELAGE
• RETRACTABLE LANDING
GEARS
• REDUCES INTERFERENCE
DRAG BETWEEN WING
AND FUSELAGE
• 3. SKIN FRICTION DRAG
• CAUSED BY THE ROUGHNESS OF THE
AIRPLANE’S SURFACE
• UNDER A MIRCROSCOPE, IT MAY BE QUITE
ROUGH
• THIN LAYER OF AIR CLINGS TO THESE
ROUGH SURFACES
• CREATES SMALL EDDIES
• CONTRIBUTES TO DRAG
• SOLUTION:
• GLOSSY FLAT FINISH TO SURACES
• ELIMINATING RIVET HEADS AND ROUGHNESS
B. INDUCED DRAG
INDUCED DRAG
• GENERATED BY
AIRFLOW
CIRCULATION
AROUND THE WING
AS LIFT IS CREATED
• COMPONENT OF LIFT
ACTING IN A
REARWARD
DIRECTION
WINGTIP VORTICES
• HIGH PRESSURE (LOWER SURFACE)
JOINS THE LOW PRESSURE (UPPER
SURFACE) AT THE TRAILING EDGE
AND WING TIPS
• CAUSES A SPIRAL OR VORTEX WHICH
TRAILS BEHIND EACH WINGTIP
WHENEVER LIFT IS PRODUCED
• HAVE THE EFFECT OF DEFLECTING
THE AIRSTREAM DOWNWARD
• CREATING AN INCREASE IN
DOWNWASH
• WING OPERATES IN AN AVERAGE
RELATIVE WIND WHICH IS INCLINED
DOWNWARD AND REARWARD NEAR
THE WING
• INDUCED DRAG INCREASES
AT SLOW SPEEDS
• HIGH AOA

• PARASITE DRAG INCREASES

AT HIGH SPEEDS
• LOW AOA
TOTAL DRAG
• SUM OF PARASITE AND
INDUCED DRAG
• L/D MAX
• LOW POINT ON THE TOTAL
DRAG CURVE
• DRAG IS MINIMIZED
• AIRSPEED WHERE LIFT:DRAG
RATIO IS MOST FAVORABLE
GROUND EFFECT
• ASSOCIATED WITH REDUCTION OF INDUCED DRAG
• EARTH’S SURFACE ACTUALLY ALTERS THE 3-DIMENSIONAL AIRFLOW
PATTERN AROUND THE AIRPLANE
• CAUSES A REDUCTION IN WINGTIP VORTICES
• DECREASE IN UPWASH AND DOWNWASH
• GROUND EFFECTS RESTRICTS DOWNWARD DEFLECTION OF
AIRSTREAM
• INDUCED DRAG DECREASES
• WHEN WING IS AT HEIGHT EQUAL TO ITS WING SPAN..
• INDUCED DRAG DECREASES!
GROUND EFFECT
• TAKEOFF
• AIRPLANE MAY BECOME AIRBORNE BEFORE REACHING
RECOMMENDED TAKEOFF AIRSPEED
• AIRPLANE MIGHT SINK BACK TO SURFACE
• INDUCED DRAG IS DECREASED = LIFT AND THRUST IS NOT
SUFFICIENT TO HAVE A CLIMB OUT
• WAIT FOR THE RECOMMENDED TAKEOFF AIRSPEED!!!
• LANDING
• MAY CAUSE “FLOATING” WHEN AIRCRAFT IS WITHIN ONE
WINGSPAN ABOVE THE SURFACE JUST BEFORE
TOUCHDOWN
• BECAUSE INDUCED DRAG DECREASES AND EXCESS SPEED (FLARE)
= FLOAT!
• POWER REDUCTION IS REQUIRED DURING FLARE TO HELP
THE AIRPLANE LAND!!!
Question and Answer
• What are the four forces?
• When are the four forces balanced?
• What is the main cause of lift?
• What happens when you increase your angle of attack?
• What opposed Thrust?
• What are the different types of drag?