ASIAN JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
VOL. 24 (4) : 2022
CONTENTS
627–632 PHYSIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF CRAMBE SEEDS SUBMITTED TO DESICCATION WITH
GLYPHOSATE AND STORED IN PAPER BAGS
—GEVALDO BARBOSA DE OLIVEIRA, AMANDA MARIA LEAL PIMENTA, FLAVIA SOARES AGUIAR, ANDREIA MÁRCIA
SANTOS DE SOUZA DAVID, NELSON DE ABREU DELVAUX JÚNIOR, FLAVIO PINTO MONÇÃO, SAMY PIMENTA, MARIA
JOSIANE MARTINS, LUCAS JESUS LEAL PIMENTA, ADALBERTO MENDES LOPES, BRUNO RAFAEL ALVES RODRIGUES,
CARLOS AUGUSTO MATRANGOLO,KÊNNIA KAROLLINE GONÇALVES PEREIRA, CLEISSON DENER DA SILVA, ALAN
RAMOS DOS SANTOS, JOSIANE CANTUÁRIA FIGUEIREDO, ELIENE ALMEIDA PARAIZO, FLÁVIO CANTUÁRIA RIBEIRO
AND I CARO MOREIRA PERALTA

633–641 AGRONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF FORAGE CORN CULTIVARS IN HIGH AND LOW

PHOSPHORUS
—WEDER FERREIRA DOS SANTOS, MICHELE RIBEIRO RAMOS, LAYANNI FERREIRA SODRÉ SANTOS, DEBORA RODRIGUES
COELHO, JOENES MUCCI PELUZIO, LEONARDO ALVES LOPES, CÍCERO ANTÔNIO SOBREIRA FIDÉLIS, MARIA DILMA
DE LIMA, ANTÔNIO HENRIQUE C AMILO R IBEIRO, JOSÉ PAULO O LIVEIRA DE CASTRO, A DRIANO SILVEIRA BARBOSA
AND FERNANDO B ARNABÉ CERQUEIRA

642–645 QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF TOMATO GENOTYPES UNDER PROTECTED ENVIRONMENT

—MAMTA, N.S. DHILLON AND G. SINGH
646–649 EFFECT OF FYM AND ZINC ON GROWTH, YIELD ATTRIBUTES AND PRODUCTIVITY
PARAMETERS OF WHEAT (TRITICUM AESTIVUM L.)
—ADITYA KUMAR, SUSHIL DIMREE, RAVINDRA SACHAN, CHANDRA SHEKHAR, KRITAGYA GANGWAR AND MANDEEP
KUMAR
650–664 POST HARVEST EQUIPMENTS IN TUBER CROPS- REVIEW
—HEMASANKARI PALANI, S.K. NANDA, M.S. SAJEEV, J.T. SHERIFFUDIN AND G. PADMAJA
665–668 HYBRID PURITY ANALYSIS OF RICE USING MICRO SATELLITE MARKERS
—D. SHASHIBHUSHAN, T. PRADEEP AND RAVI KIRAN REDDY K.
669–672 GROWTH, YIELD AND QUALITY AS AFFECTED BY NANOCHITOSAN AND BIOCAPSULES IN
KINNOW MANDARIN (CITRUS RETICULATA)
—RAJVEER GURJAR, SAKET MISHRA, VIJAY BAHADUR AND SAMEER DANIEL
673–676 GENETIC DIVERGENCE AND CLUSTER ANALYSIS FOR YIELD ATTRIBUTING TRAITS IN ELITE
LINES OF CHILLI
—SHWETA TIWARI, KANCHAN BHAN, YOGENDRA SINGH, SHIV RAMAKRISHNA AND NIDHI PATHAK
677–680 IMPACT OF FOLIAR SPRAY OF BIOREGULATORS IN TERMINAL HEAT STRESS CONDITION ON
TEST WEIGHT, OIL CONTENT AND SEED VIABILITY OF MUSTARD (BRASSICA JUNCEA L.)
—ABHISHEK PATI TIWARI AND C.B. SINGH GANGWAR
681–683 EVALUATION OF NATIVE BIOCONTROL AGENTS FROM RICE FIELDS OF ASSAM
—PRANAMIKA SHARMA AND L.C. BORA
684–689 STUDIES ON PREPARATION AND SHELF LIFE OF GUAVA (PSIDIUM GUAJAVA L.) CANDY CV.
ALLAHABAD SAFEDA
—UJJWAL SINGH, SAKET MISHRA, GAURAV SINGH VISHEN AND RAJA KUMAR
690–692 A STUDY ON ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES INFLUENCING DRUG ADDICTION
—PRIYANSHU SINGH, GAYTRI TIWARI AND KAVITHA KIRAN
693–702 EFFECT OF SELECTED MINIMAL PROCESSING TECHNIQUES IN CASSAVA TUBERS
—HEMASANKARI PALANI, M.S. SAJEEV, S. SUNDARESAN, S.K. NANDA AND PADMAJA
703–706 IN VITRO EVALUATION OF AYURVEDIC DRUGS AGAINST PATHOGEN ALTERNARIA SOLANI
CAUSING LEAF SPOT DISEASES IN TOMATO
—P.J. MAHAJAN, K.S. RAGHUWANSHI, S.G. BORKAR AND N.A. KADAM
II CONTENTS

707–712 BIOSURFACTANT PRODUCTION BY ENDOPHYTIC ISOLATES FROM RHIZOMES OF ZINGIBER

ZERUMBET
—HARSHA K., SHALIMA M.V. AND ASWATI R. NAIR
713–717 EVALUATION OF SESAME VARIETIES FOR RESISTANCE TO SESAME LEAF ROLLER AND
CAPSULE BORER, ANTIGASTRA CATALAUNALIS (DUP.)
—AJAY KUMAR YADAV, AKHTER HUSSAIN, SANJU PIPLODA AND SUMITRA CHOUDHARY
718–727 RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY FOR OPTIMIZATION OF FLAKING PROCESS FROM
PROCESSING OF SELECTED PADDY HYBRID
—HEMASANKARI PALANI, P.C. VENGAIAH, ISRP. SARMA, B.C. VIRAKTAMATH AND RAVINDRA NAIK
728–734 STUDY OF RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION PATTERN AND ITS VARIABILITY IN BIDAR REGION,
KARNATAKA, INDIA
—VISHWANATH, G.V. VENKATARAMANA AND N. PRABHAKARAN
735–740 ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF RADISH LEAVES EXTRACTS PRODUCED BY MICROWAVE
ASSISTED AND CONVENTIONAL EXTRACTION METHODS
—PARMAR A. AND GENITHA I.
741–745 SERO-PREVALENCE OF BLUE TONGUE VIRUS IN SMALL RUMINANTS OF THE STATE OF
ASSAM
—N.N. BARMAN, D.P. BORA, T.K. DAS, S.K. BISWAS, S.M. GOGOI, P. PATHAK AND S.A. ARIF
746–750 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES IN VEGETABLE PRODUCTION SYSTMES
—JYOTHSNA J., SURAJ LUTHRA AND AYISHA SIDHIKA M.
751–756 A SPECTRUM OF BACTERIAL SEPSIS IN COVID-19 POSITIVE AND NON COVID-19 PATIENTS
– AN INDIAN MONOCENTER RETROSPECTIVE STUDY
—R. PREETHY, U. SUNDERESH KAMAL CHANDER, D. ARUNA, MUTHUVEL E. AND SONTI SULOCHANA
757–761 STUDIES ON PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND NUTRACEUTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHIA
(SALVIA HISPANICA L.) SEED AND OIL
—M. ABDUR RAHMAN, A.K. SINGH, R.N. SHUKLA AND K.S. GADHE
762–766 STORAGE STUDIES OF FUNCTIONAL YOGURT DRINK MADE WITH MEDIUM CHAIN
TRIGLYCERIDE OIL AND ITS QUALITY ATTRIBUTES
—KUSUMA N. WADED AND V. R. SINIJA
767–770 DEVELOPMENT OF BULLOCK DRAWN DIGGER ELEVATOR FOR HARVESTING POTATO
—ASHOKSURAJ B. S., SRINIVAS YARRAKULA, K. N. HANUMANTHARAJU AND ABDUL REHMAN
771–774 INFLUENCE OF NUTRIENTS SOURCE ON RADIAL GROWTH OF MACROPHOMINA
PHASEOLINA (TASSI.) GOID
—M. SURYA PRAKASH REDDY, M. SANTHA LAKSHMI PRASAD, SUBHASH SRI SANJAY MALEMPATI, JAWAHARLAL AND
K.T. RAMYA
775–781 IDENTIFICATION OF PUTATIVE MUP DURING ESTRUS PERIOD IN FEMALE RAJAPALAYAM
BREED DOG BY MALDI-TOF ANALYSIS
—T. R AJAGOPAL, A. DHIVYA, T.R. GAYATHRI, N. M URUGANANTHAM , S. SELVARANI , P. PONMANICKAM , S.
MUNIASAMY AND G. ARCHUNAN
782–787 DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF VALUE ADDED GUAVA-PAPAYA CHEESE
—SONU PRABHA, V.M. PRASAD AND VIJAY BAHADUR
788–794 FEATHER MEAL PREPARATION FROM CHICKEN FEATHERS AND ITS APPLICATION
—S.A. KATE, P.S. NIKAM, N.M. PAWAR, N.A. AHIRE, M.P. JAGTAP, V.R. WADJIKAR, P.M. GIRI AND P.B. KHADKE
795–802 A REVIEW ON ETHNOBOTANICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF VITEX
NEGUNDO L.
—RANJEET KUMAR, RAHUL KUMAR, JAGDISH SINGH, SWARAN LATA AND JOGINDER SINGH
803–806 PHYSICO–CHEMICAL, NUTRITIONAL AND SENSORIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RAGI PASTA
ENRICHED WITH RICE AND GUAR GUM
—KUNAL SINGH AND GENITHA IMMANUEL
 CONTENTS III

807–810 EFFECT OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS ON ROOT DEVELOPMENT OF DRAGON FRUIT

CUTTINGS [HYLOCEREUSUNDATUS L. (HAWORTH)]
—RAVIKANT, R.S. VERMA, VIPNESH SINGH, RUBEE LATA AND DHARMRAJ MEENA
811–816 DETECTING FIVE YEAR WISE RAINFALL TRENDS OF KALAYAN KARNATAKA, INDIA
—VISHWANATH AND G.V. VENKATARAMANA
817–822 PHYSICO–CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BLENDED BEVERAGES (RTS) PREPARED FROM
GUAVA AND PINEAPPLE
—VAMSI KRISHNA NADELLA, DEVI SINGH, VIJAY BAHADUR, ATUL YADAV, SATYENDRA NATH AND S.K. SRIVASTAVA
823–835 DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF FRESH CASSAVA TUBER AT 2-2.90 GHZ MICROWAVE FREQUENCY
—HEMASANKARI PALANI, S.K. NANDA, K., T. MATHEW, JOE JACOB, V.S. SANTHOSH MITRA AND J.T. SHERIFFUDIN
836–842 ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES (IAPS) - IMPLICATION FOR
MANAGEMENT
—A. DEVKOTA, A. SAHU AND R.K. DAS
Asian Jr. of Microbiol. Biotech. Env. Sc. Vol. 24, No. (4) : 2022 : 650-664
© Global Science Publications
ISSN-0972-3005
DOI No.: http://doi.org/10.53550/AJMBES.2022.v24i04.005

POST HARVEST EQUIPMENTS IN TUBER CROPS- REVIEW

HEMASANKARI PALANI*, S.K. NANDA1, M.S. SAJEEV2, J.T. SHERIFFUDIN3 AND G. PADMAJA4

*Division of Crop Utilization, ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute,

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
1
PC, CIPHET AICRP Co-coordinator, ICAR-CIPHET, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
2,3
ICAR-CTCRI, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
4
ICAR-CTCRI, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

(Received 29 July, 2022; Accepted 9 September, 2022)

Key words : Tuber crops, Washing, Peeling, Chipping, Drying, Starch, Post harvest

Abstract–Mechanization is important in tuber crop post harvest unit operations to process the freshly
harvested cassava and other tuber crops before getting spoilt. Cassava tubers are rich in its starch content
and can also be used in the edible form. Post harvest equipments in tuber crops includes washers, both
mechanical washers and manual washing, then peeling using a manually operated peeling knife and a
mechanical peeler for major tuber crop, Cassava, abrasive peeler, then size reduction equipments, slices,
chips and graters using cassava chipping machine, manually operated including hand, pedal operated and
mechanically operated cassava chipping machine, strip cutter including cuber and sorter, grater pulverizor,
dryer of manual method including sun drying, hand dryer, mechanical driers of solar drier, electrical drier,
equipments in starch extraction including rasper, starch settling units of hydrocyclones and centrifuges for
the starch industry. In this paper all the post harvest equipments developed both in India and abroad had
been given to know all the equipments and machineries developed so far in the post harvest technology of
tuber crops. This paper also clearly explains the necessity for all these equipments in tuber crop post harvest
technology to minimize the post harvest technology losses, that is usually 10%.

INTRODUCTION processing and product marketing. Surveys indicate

that rapid post-harvest root deterioration and low
Cassava is one of the most important energy sources root dry matter content are broadly recognized
in the diet of the people in the tropics, that is storage constraints that limits farmers income from cassava.
roots provide 8% or more of the minimum calories The processing constraints that limits farmers
requirements for more than 750 mi. tonnes people. It income from cassava. The processing constraints
has also been under consideration as a starch or include mechanization, pollution control and
energy crop in developed countries such as economic use of by products.
Australia. National average yields vary widely, from India had achieved self sufficiency in food during
1.5t/h in Sudan to more that 32t/ha in Fiji. Most the past decade and the country must now turn its
cassava is grown in areas where annual mean attention to post harvest practices in order to store
temperature is above 20 oC and rainfall exceeds and utilize the produce produced in times of need
700mm/y. Much cassava is grown without irrigation most effectively and efficiently. The post production
in tropical areas with a pronounced dry period. phase of agriculture experienced heavy losses of the
Cassava is one of the crops included in a priority list food item (5-50%). These losses are due to
by IBSNAT (International Benchmark Sites Network insufficient handling, storage, transport, processing
for Agro technology Transfer) an organization and marketing infrastructure facilities. The extent of
established to stimulate and co-ordinate research loss depends on the type of food products. ie.-5-15%
into cropping systems. CIAT survey results estimate in durables, 20-30% in semi perishables and 30-50%
that a 21% potential increases in economic yield is in perishables. These post harvest losses amounts to
possible through improvements in quality, be 21,500 crores for durables 2,400 crores for semi

(*Scientist (SS)(AS & PE), 1Principal Scientist, (AS&PE), 2,3Principal Scientist, (AS&PE), 4Principal Scientist and HD&PS)
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 651

perishables and 52,500 crores for perishables. The washing is done by small and cottage level
tropical tuber crops played a vital role in providing processors, while mechanical root washers, having a
food security and rural employment in the tropical capacity of 10-20t/h are used by medium scale
countries. They include cassava, sweet potato, yams, factories. In the traditional method of manual
aroid species viz. Colocasia esculenta, Xanthosoma washing the average capacity of each person in
sagittifolium, Amorphophallus paeonilfolius, Alocasia performing the task is 125kg/h in washing. Washing
macrrohiza, Crytoperma chamissionis are five minor can be done using washing tanks or flowing water.
tuber crops viz. Coleus parviflorus, Pachyrrhizus
Mechanical Washers
erosus, Maranta arundinaceae, Psopocarpus
tetragonolobus and Canna edulis. Tuber crops, being It is a perforated cylindrical tank immersed in water.
perishable deteriorate rapidly after harvest and are A spiral Brush is attached at the central axis of the
often until for food or feed within a few days. About tank, which propels the roots and they are subjected
20-30% of the total production is lost annually due to vigorous scrubbing in order to remove all dirt. Jet
to varied reasons both during harvest and post of water is sprayed counter current to the flow of the
harvest phases. Losses appear at different stages roots giving an efficient washing.
namely during harvest, improper transport and
Drum Washers
handling, storage, distribution and use of inferior
processing technologies causing both qualitative It consists of a rotary wooden or perforated drum
and quantitative losses. Post harvest handling is with an interior pipe, which sprays water on the
very important at the farm level as it influences the roots. It is about 3-4 m long and 1m diameter and
quality of the products produced from them. mounted inside a concrete tank. Washing is done by
Cassava is grown in an area of 16.37m.ha globally the auction of water sprayed assisted by the abrasion
with an annual output of 164.75m.tonnes of tubers. of the roots both against one another and against the
The major cassava producing countries are Nigeria, side of the cylinder drum and when they come out
Congo, Brazil, Thailand and Indonesia. As far as at the other end, they are clean and partially peeled.
productivity countries are Nigeria, Congo, Brazil, Dirty water and skin are periodically drained out
Thailand and Indonesia. As far as productivity is through the small opening in the concrete tank.
concerned, India ranks first in the world accounting In Philippines two root crop washers are used
to about 24.5t/ha. In India, cassava is mainly viz. Visca root washer and the PRCRTC root washer.
cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and The Visca root washers is mainly for sweet potato
Andhrapradesh producing 6m. tonnes. Cassava is only, but can be used for cassava also. It is made
the most widely cultivated tuber crops and 25% of from an empty oil drum equipped with a rotating
the cassava produced are lost at the post harvest wooden frame holding brushes. The oil drum is cut
level. These losses may be due to external agents at an angle of 270 o C and the small portion is
(insects and predators), physical factors (handling, removed and is replaced by wire mesh semi circular
transportation and storage condition) or net. The axis carrying the brushes is rotated inside
physiological origin. The poor shelf life of tubers the drum. Water is placed inside the oil drum
necessitates the immediate utilization after portion. It is manually operated and has a capacity
harvesting or processing into value added products. of 300kg fresh roots per hour (Tabinan et al., 1985).
Tuber crops owing to the high starch content has The PRCRTC (Philippines Root Crop Research and
vast applications in food, feed and industrial sectors. Training Centre) had developed a washer that has a
The major post harvest unit operations involved in rotary drum and a water basin. It is also manually
food, feed or industrial products consists of operated with a washing capacity of about 300-
washing, peeling, size reduction, starch extraction 500kg/h.
and drying. Peeling: Traditional cassava is peeled by hand and
the yield is about 200 kg cassava/day. CTCRI peeling
Washing
knife has an average output of kg/h.
Soil should be removed from cassava roots before Peeling can be of three types, viz.,
processing. Washing is also done to reduce the 1. Manual peeling can be inefficient and result in
cyanide content. Washing through moving water is high losses.
the best method for soil removal. Bitter cassava 2. Mechanical peeling by abrasion in a rotating
cultivars should be intensely washed. Manual drum with water added to flush loose peel.
652 HEMASANKARI ET AL

3. Lye, roots immersed in solution of sodium cutting blades are fixed along the circumference of
hydroxide. the rotor with a blade angle of 50. TNAU has
4. Steam, roots exposed to steam under pressure. developed a cassava peeler that consists of a
5. Combination of lye and steam peeling. cylindrical rotor fitted with a number of cutting
The feasibility of peeling cassava (Manihot blades. The peeling efficiency of the machine is 83%
esculenta) by immersing the tubers in a lye solution and it has an average production of 950 kg/h. The
was investigated. Response surface methodology peeling machine developed consists of a partially
was used to determine the effects of concentration immersed cylindrical perforated drum or a U
and temperature of the solution and immersion time trough with a series of paddles or a spiral brush
on peeling efficiency. Complete removal of the peel attached to a central rotating shaft. As the roots are
from the cassava was achieved with a lye propelled forward the combined action of high
concentration of 9-14%, temperature of 85-98 oC and pressure water gets and abrasion of the tubers
an immersion time of 4-7min. Manual peeling of the against the wall and against each other removes
roots is tedious and time consuming. Still it is most of the skin. A model power operated cassava
practiced in small scale industries. Peeling is peeler, developed at TNAU was evaluated at 5
accomplished manually in small scale industries different rotor speeds with size sorted and unsorted
with the help of a special peeler knife having a tubers. Peeling efficiency and capacity increases
broad based U shape. The peeling knife developed with the speed of the rotor. The optimum capacity of
at CTCRI, has an average output of 113.5kg/h the peeler, the peeling efficiency and the
comparable to that of the traditional knife. The effectiveness of peeling were 540 kg/h and 0.57
additional labour cost per tonne of tubers peeled by respect - ively. (Sheriff et al., 1995)
the improved knife (Rs.3/basket) of 55-60kg
Abrasive Peeler
unpeeled tubers is about Rs.12/- only. Flesh loss with
the improved knife is only 1.38% compared to the It consists of a drum that is coated inside with coarse
5.70% flesh loss by the traditional knife. The cost of carborundum grit. Water is fed into the drum
the additional tuber loss by the traditional knife or through the axis. Tubers are put inside the drum,
in other words the saving of tuber flesh by the peeled by rotating the drum manually. Peeling may
improved knife is nearly Rs.106/- at the factory rate take 2-15min.The peeling machine consists of a
of Rs.145/-per bag (70 kg of tubers). The traditional drum of expanded metal attached to the inside
knife costs Rs.5/- each and 2 or 3 knives are disposed surface of a framework of small pipes. The drum is
by a labourer each week, with the minimum cost of mounted eccentrically on a shaft inside surface of a
operation being Rs.10/- The cost of the improved framework of small pipes. The drum is mounted
knife is estimated at Rs.15/- and its blades can be eccentrically on a shaft. Inside the drum, four
replaced or sharpened at the same interval with the abrasive cylinders of expanded metal are mounted
cost of operation of Rs.1.50 per week (Balagopalan, and driven by a planetary gear arrangement to
2000). rotate at 4 times the rpm of the main drum. To
TNAU had developed a cassava peeler, that operate, whole cassava tubers and some abrasives
consists of a cylindrical rotor fitted with a number of are loaded into the drum, that is rotated at 40rpm.
cutting blades. It comprises of a rotor of 25cm Faster peeling of the tuber is achieved by the
diameter and 30cm length. The cutting blades that shaking motions of the drum and faster rotation of
scrap off the tuber surface during its operation, have the abrasive cylinders. Peeling achieved at about 300
been fixed along the circumference of the rotor with kg/h is so thorough that hand trimming is
a blade angle of 50. Performance of the machine was eliminated.
evaluated in terms of flesh loss and peeling Peeling cum washing machine developed in
efficiency for sized and unsized roots. For unsized Nigeria works in the principle of abrasion.
roots, the flesh loss was 12.95% and peeling (Nwokedi, 1984). The machine is an oval chamber
efficiency was 52.90% at 1150rpm, capacity was 362 that has holes cut along the walls and is lined with
kg/h and effectiveness of the machine was 0.457. For sharp wire gauze. Cassava roots are loaded in the
sized tubers at 1150 rpm, 3.67% flesh loss and chamber that is mounted on two mild sheet rods,
59.33% peeling efficiency and 549 kg/h capacities 35cm in diameter, attached to either end. The rods
were achieved. The machine has a peeling efficiency allow the chamber to rotate clockwise. The left rod
of 83% and an average capacity of 950 kg/h. The is connected to a 5hp electric motor by means of a V
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 653

belt pulley. Thirty balls coated with wire gauze are on four legs. A rotating horizontal disc at the bottom
added to the chamber. The machine is mounted at of the drum carries the knives assembly. A pair of
33R. The angle permits through sharp edges of the bevel gears is provided to operate the machine
chamber balls to carry out effective abrasive peeling. manually. The capacity of the machine is 120 kg/h
The roots are cleaned as they are being peeled the for producing 6-9 mm thick chips manual chipping
chamber passing through a water filled pan produces 24 kg/h for 12.5 mm thickness. Cost of the
underneath it. The peeling efficiency is 80% when machine is Rs.6000/-
set for a particular specific size range. The machine’s Breakage of chips will be about 2-5%. The pedal
rate for unsized roots was 15 kg/h, for sized samples operated chipping machine is a modified version of
was as high as 500-1000 kg/25 min. This rate does the hand operated one with a provision of a pivoted
not include the time spent in cutting the cassava pedal to transmit the power to the cutting disc
roots into straight chunks about 80-100 mm or through suitable belt and pulley drive mechanism. A
sorting the cut pieces. trimming knife is also provided on the frame to
Peeling efficiency index, measured as the ratio of remove the woody neck portion of the tubers before
peeled and unpeeled root was found to be 45% for feeding into compartments Capacity varies from
unsized roots and for sized roots, it was 68%. 83kg/h to 768 kg/h for chip thickness of 0.9 mm to
Peeling capacity was 800-1000 kg in 25 minutes of 6.9 mm. The cost is Rs. 5376/- could be saved per
operation for sized roots. In Indonesia, cassava roots year if the conventional hand chipping is replaced
are peeled manually. In Malaysia and Thailand roots by this machine.
are neither washed nor peeled before chipping Motorised cassava chipper consists of 2
(Mahurung, 1974). The peeler consists basically of a concentric rows of cylinders of 10 and 17 cm
cylindrical knife assembly and a solid cylinder, both diameter. The chipper with motor is installed on a
mounted parallel and 20 mm apart on an inclined brick masonry foundation with a sloping chute
frame (Odigboh, 1976) serving as outlet for chips. The capacity is 286 kg/h
Size reduction equipments: The bulkiness of for producing 2.5 mm thick chip 655 kg/h for 5.3
cassava tubers pose a great problem in mm and 1091 kg/h for 9.9 thick. A motorized cassava
transportation these tubers from the farm to the chipper was designed, fabricated and tested. The
market or factory sites. Chipping operation makes capacity of the chipper is 270kg/h. The cost of
the bulky roots more manageable while the chipping was estimated as Rs.18/t.
increased surface area of sliced roots allows faster A pedal operated cassava chipping machine
drying. Moreover, the high perishability of the (Khurup et al., 1995) consists of a feeder assembly to
cassava tubers and the unfavourable market prices accommodate tubers of varying shapes and sizes, a
prevailing at the time of harvest can be overcome by driving mechanism to transmit the power from the
primary processing of the tubers into chips, flour pedal to the disc carrying the blade assembly and
and starch. Size reduction can be of 3 types, the frame. The overall dimensions of the machine
1) Slice for snack food products. are 1170 mm × 930 mm × 950 mm and weight is
2) Chip for French fry cut. 72kg. The capacity of the machine ranges from 83
3) Grate for starch extraction and for some kg/h to 768 kg/h as the chip thickness was changed
traditional products. from 0.9 mm to 10 mm. The maximum capacity of
There are various chipping machine, both hand 768kg/h was observed at 6.9 mm chip thickness. The
operated and pedal operated. The output from rate of manual chipping ranged from 10.7kg/h to
manual chipping has been found to vary from 11 to 26.7kg/h as the average thickness of chips was
37 kg/h at a chip thickness of 2.7 to 12.5 mm. An varied from 2.7 mm to 9.8 mm. Cost of operation of
improved cottage type cassava type cassava slicer is the machine is Rs.18.80/h with a profit of Rs. 5376/
developed in Philippines (Hachero, 1957) and this annum.
can be used for sweet potatoes also. Both cylindrical The Malaysian chipping machine consists of a
and disc type power operated cassava graters along rotating circular steel plate of 12 mm thick and 100
with the manual cassava graters are used in Ghana. cm diameter to which 4 or 6 blades are attached. The
(Lartey, 1990). The CTCRI hand operated chipping capacity of this machine is 1000 kg/h when operated
machine consists of two concentric mild steel drums by manual feeding with two men. The blade consists
with the annular space divided into compartments of 1.15 mm steel plate that is corrugated at the
for feeding the tubers and the machine is supported cutting edge. The rotor is vertically mounted on the
654 HEMASANKARI ET AL

driving shaft and driven by a 3 hp electric motor use of a rotating disc and a connecting rod. The disc
with a belt drive mechanism at a required disc speed in turn is rotated by a chain connected to pedal
of 500 rpm. The machine produces strips about power. Then the root crop slabs are fed into the
6mm wide and 3.6 mm thick with a small cuber sorter the reciprocating blades cut the slabs
percentage of fine particles. into cubes and together with a set of electors,
In Malaysia, a mechanical cassava chipper with discharge the cubes to the reciprocating sorter. The
4.5hp gasoline driven motor that will process 2t cuber sorter is operated by only one person. The
chips/h is used for the chipping operation average cubing output is 55 times faster than the
(Malaysian Department of Agriculture, 1974). In the manual cubing capacity of 3.27kg/h (Felix Amestoso
thai chipping machine, cutting blades are made up and Augustin Dignos, 1991).
of a thin circular plate, cut and formed to produce A strip cutter was also developed with a capacity
cutting elements throughout the surface. The of 86 kg/h. It is similar in construction with that of
rotating notched disc is mounted on a wooden the cuber, sorter, the only difference is in the
frame equipped with a hopper. The chips or shreds thickness and length of cuts. The slicer developed to
produced are irregular in shape. In Thailand the produce cassava chips of various thickness and
chipping machine used to make chips has a recovery different orientation has a capacity of 72 kg/h. The
rate of 40% (Poonsook Atthasampunna, 1990). only difference from that of a strip cutter is the
The Nigerian Chipping machine consists of an absence of an ejecting mechanism and the multiple
assembly of 3 knives held in slots of metallic cubing blades in the blade assembly. The recovery
cylinder. It is mounted horizontally about which a rate of the slicer is 95% of the raw material.
hopper is attached. Another cylinder of small The grater pulverizer developed by the Visca has
diameter placed parallel with 2.5 mm gap and they a capacity of 50 kg/h. The cutting surface of the
are rotated in opposite direction with lesser speed grater was provided with punctures arranged in
(4:1). Roots are fed through the hopper to the gap straight lines along the axis of rotation and placed
between the cylinders and chips removed from the one inch apart. This grater functions as a pulverizer
table by the knives are flung below through the gap also.
and guided down by the bottom part of the hopper. In Myanmar, the peeled roots are cleaned and
This machine produces chips of 3 to 7.5 cm length then sliced into 2 cm size chips by mounted blade
and the turn out is 225 kg/h. Power sources is by 1hp machines (Thun Than, 1990). In Philippines pedal
electric motor. operated chipper/grater with a cylindrical cutter
The cassava chipping machine consists of head assembly, housing two kinds of blades, one for
mechanisms for slicing and dicing roots, in addition chipping and one for grating is developed. The unit
to the feeding, power and drive units. Performance can chip 400-500 kg/h of fresh roots/h and grate 115-
at motor speeds between 360 and 400 rpm was rated 120kg roots/h at normal pedaling speeds (Tabianan
satisfactory with the dimensions of the sliced et al., 1985).
product (chip) near the desired value of 25 mm. The The cassava grater developed at Philippines
best chip geometry was obtained at a motor speed of consists of a stand, cover, blade, funnel like
400rpm with a throughput of 0.27kg/s(970kg/h) attachment and handle. The grater has a capacity of
(Nigerian chipping machine) 12 kg of roots/h thus being 200% more efficient than
The PRCRTC pedal operated root crop chipper the native graters. On the other hand, upto 76 kg of
consists of a cutter head assembly is cylindrical in roots /h could be grated by increasing the gear ratio
form and has two kinds of blades, one for grating to 4:1 and the blade diameter to 31 cm. This machine
and other for chipping. Chipping blade produces can extract as much as 20% of the starch in the roots.
longitudinal strips of chips. The machine can chip Vietnamese farmers prefer to use a simple
about 500 kg/h operated by a single man. A pedal chipping knife for size reduction of tuber crops.40-
operated cuber sorter of capacity 181 kg/h is 60% of the cassava production is processed into
developed by Visca. The cuber sorter has a wooden dried cassava chips. In south pacific countries, chips
frame, blade assembly, power transmission system of Xanthosoma sagittifolium are made. Simple hand
and the vibrating sorter. The wooden frame houses grater (kitchen type) stationary type power grater
the blade assembly at the top while the vibrating are used in Ghana (Cervinka, 1972). The tractor
sorter is located directly below the blade assembly. drawn cassava grater is used to permit the operation
Power is transmitted to the blade assembly with the to be undertaken in the fields. The grater is mounted
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 655

on the tractor 3 point hitch and the drum is driven of alternate punches 1cm apart are made on each
from the PTO shaft. The length of the grating drum groove along 8 equidistant radial lines. The grooved
is 30R, the diameter 10" and the revolutions are 800- plate is fixed into a wooden or steel plate support to
1200rpm. The capacity of the hopper is 120-140lb. that the crank handle or a pulley is attached. The
This amount of cassava roots is processed in 1-2min. power driven unit is provided with a 0.37kw(0.5hp)
In Ghana a locally manufactured chipper that can electric motor. Chipping reduces fermenting and
chip 1 to 1.5t chips/h and a grater of 1.5 to 2t/h is drying time by more than 50% (Jeon and Halos,
developed for cassava processing. The advantages 1991).
are, A variety of mechanical cassava grater, powered
1) A cassava grader driven by tractor can work on either by electric motors or small internal
different cassava farms. combustion engines, are used in Nigeria. This paper
2) The capacity of the grater is high. describes a mathematical model that simulates
3) The grater is of a simple design and easy to optimum cassava grating systems according to the
operate. processing capacity and power source of the cottage
A vast array of chipping, grating and slicing industry. A computer program written in a basic
machines have been developed for root and tuber language computes the most appropriate size of
crops from manually operated chippers. (Output of grater, compares the costs of various grating systems
1.200 kg/h the continuous process equipment used (fixed cost, variable cost and timeliness cost) and
in large starch extraction plants, capable of selects the least cost grating system. The model was
processing 200 t/day. Yam chips are produced in a tested on selected cassava cottage processing
similar way to potato chips. Processed cassava is one industries with capacities of upto 10ha crop area in
of the staple foods in Africa. As cassava production Bida, Nigeria. The cost of grating generally
is rapidly increasing and needs immediate (within decreased as the crop area increased from 1 to 10ha.
48h) processing to prevent deterioration, the A motorized cassava chipper was designed,
introduction of a cassava mash pulverizer is fabricated and tested. The capacity of the chipper is
required. A rotary drum pulverizer for cassava mash 270kg/h. The chip recovery was assessed at 92% for
was able to handle over 125 kg of mash per hour to 1mm chips at 295 rev/min. The cost of chipping was
produce a quality and refined powdery dough. The estimated as Rs.18/t (Balasubramanian et al., 1993).
efficiency of the machine is 98% at a capacity of In Zaria, a simple man powered cassava root grinder
307.3kg/h. Recommendations are made to improve is used to make cassava chips (Lee, 1974). Two low
the applicability of the machine to developing areas. cost cutting mechanism (a manual press and a disc
Energy requirement in mechanical chipping of cutter) were designed to produce rectangular
tapioca says that the cutting energy per unit area for cassava bars, the optimum geometric figure found.
cassava was observed to be minimum at about 37.5 The disc cutter produces the bars at a rate of 240kg/
of the knife bevel angle. The studies on the effect of h that operated by a bicycle pedal mechanism or
knife velocity indicated that the cutting energy per 500kg/h when motor driven (Rao, 1974). There are
unit area was minimum at a velocity between 2.25 two ways to grind cassava with a motorized
and 2.75 m/ s and optimum shear angle was machine (costly advanced technology) and by hand.
reported to be 83.The manually operated machine An easily constructed intermediate method was
has a capacity of 68 kg/h for unsoaked tuber and designed made from bicycle parts plywood iron
over 10 kg/h for soaked tubers. The power driven water pipe and old hacksaw blades.
unit has a capacity of about 1000 kg/h with Cubing of root crops was attempted by Orias,
minimum amount of sub standard chips. Operating 1984 using three designs, a shearing lever, a dice
speed based on capacity rating and quality of chips puncher and a press. The shearing lever cuts roots
is 250-300 rpm. cross sectionally before cutting them into squares,
The chipping machine consists of the chipping while the dice puncture and press cutter have blades
mechanism, a feed tray and an optional collection arranged in grids for cutting cubes from pre cut
box for the chips. The chipping mechanism, a feed slabs. Guards and Truong, 1986 reported another
tray and an optional collection box for the chips. The cuber using a steel shaft machine in that ten circular
chipping mechanism is a plain GI sheet, G16 cut into flanges served as slicing blades spaced at ½”
a circular plate, 35cm diameter and pressed to form intervals and flat bars serving as dicing blades
alternate 4 mm deep concentric grooves. Two rows arranged as spokes of a wheel rotating
656 HEMASANKARI ET AL

perpendicularly with the slicing blades. The device 170x90x5cm, the loading rate is 10-16kg/m2 and the
used precut slabs as the starting material for slicing, drying time for the process was10-12h.
followed by dicing.
Hand drying method
Slicer
Cassava is cut into four halves, hung on a rope and
Using the basic operation of the Visayas state college dried for 2 to days. The factors such as chip size,
of agriculture(VISCA) developed strip cutter, a shape and loading rate influence the drying. By
slicer was designed. The main difference is the combination sun drying with either solar heated air
absence of an ejecting mechanism and the multiple drying or the use of mechanical dryers, dependence
cubing blades in the blade assembly. The gravity on the weather is reduced.
feed for roots to be sliced was adopted because only
Solar drier
the blade assembly was changed. The capacity of the
slicer at normal pedaling speed of 60rpm is 72kg/h It consists of a solar collector(m2) constructed on a
with a recovery of about 95% of the raw material. concrete base and 20cm thick bed of fine stones, a
centrifugal fan(1.5hp,0.38m 3/min air flow) and a
Grater Pulverizer
drying bin of 2m 2 floor area. The centrifugal fan
Existing graters use metal sheets punctured all ever draws air through the solar collector and passes it
their surfaces to serve as the cutting surface. Due to through a 30 cm diameter duct into the plenum
clogging the cutting becomes less effective during chamber of the drying bin. The loading rate is
sustained operation and makes the cutting surface 125kg/m2 and drying can be completed in 45h.
more difficult to clean. To overcome this, the cutting
Electrical drier
surface of the grater was provided with provided
with punctures arranged in straight lines along the It consists of a centrifugal blower with ducts,
axis of rotation and placed one inch apart . The insulated heater box and drying chamber. The
hopper assembly together with the clearance drying chamber is equipped with a perforated GI
adjuster mechanism was made to open for easier sheet floor. The drying temperature is 65-70 oC in 8-
cleaning after operation. The grater could produce 10h to 500 kg chips in 20-24 h from 65-70% mc to 12-
grater 150kg/h using a 0.5hp motor. 14%. The overall cost of the system is Rs.30,000.
300kg batch size is optimum for one batch per day.
Drying:
CTCRI has developed an electrically operated dryer
Fresh tubers cannot be stored for a longer time that has a holding capacity of 1m3 and is suitable for
without spoilage. To overcome this the roots need to drying upto 500 kg of fresh chips. Moisture content
be processed into some form of dried product with can be brought down from 65-74% to 12.2-13.8%
longer storage life. The most common thing is to within 24h of drying.
convert the tubers into dried chips. There are many
Solar cabinet drier
types of driers available.
It consists of a rectangular cabinet preferably
Sun drying
insulated and covered with a roof of glass. Holes are
Sliced tubers of cassava are dried in the open air present in the base and upper part of the cabinet.
under sunlight by spreading in a single layer on Perforated drying trays are positioned within the
cemented floor, bamboo mat, rock surface or cabinet. The insolation passes through the roof and
sometimes even on bare earth. The chips should be is absorbed on the blackened interior surfaces that
turned periodically during the drying period until are then heated and warm the air within the cabinet.
the moisture content reaches 13- 15%. Drying takes The warmed air rises by natural convection and
about 2-5days depending upon the weather passes out of the upper holes. Fresh air in the mean
condition. time enters through the base holes. The length of the
Cassava chips are spread out on wood framed cabinet should be 3 times the width to minimize the
trays with a base of chicken wire or fine mosquito shading effect of the sides.
screens. The trays are placed at an angle of 25-30 by
Biomass energy assisted drying
supporting them on a bamboo frame of posts. The
drying rate is enhanced by stirring the chips by The system consists of a double cylinder drying bin
means of hand pushed wooden rake. The tray size is with one tonne holding capacity, an agricultural
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 657

waste fired furnace and blower and cyclone ash the mc of 65-74% to 12.2-13.8% by drying for 24h. In
separator. The roof of the drying shed is designed to Kenya, precooked ready to use cassava flakes were
serve as the solar collector to tap supplemental heat. produced using a single drum drier. By this process,
Cassava chips can be dried in 20h from 67-69% to the mc of the raw tuber was reduced 12 fold, weight
12-13% mc. reduction was 4 fold. Final product moisture could
be reduced by raising the steam pressure or
Visca Natural Convection dryer
increasing the retention time of the product on the
The main feature of this drier is the heat exchanger drum surface. The drum dried products stored well
that is made of a used oil drum placed directly at a moisture content of 5% or less at 25R c. The
below the drying compartment. It is directly product can be consumed after dehydration with
connected to the furnace and the chips are loaded. In warm water/milk and salt to taste. Dehydration of
the drying chamber there are two 10 layer screen sweet potato roots is a traditional practice. The roots
trays and each can load 5kg of chips. This type of are cut into pieces and spread out in the sun to dry.
drying is practiced in Philippines. In Indonesia, fresh roots are soaked in 8 to 10% of
Batch driers that can be constructed simply and salt solution for about 1hour before cutting into
cheaply can be powered by locally available sources slices and sun dried. In Indonesia a prototype drier
of fuel (eg. coal, diesel, plant byproducts etc) the suitable for village cooperatives was designed. It
drying temperature should not exceed the consisted of a cabin 5m long, 2.4m wide and 2.4m
gelatinization point of the starch contained in the high with movable trays, a vapour compression
roots, about 50-60R c. For cassava artificial drying system, a heat pump, ducts and an instrumentation
results in a final product with a higher cyanide and control system. High quality dried cassava chips
content than a naturally dried one. In Philippines, can be obtained with the drying period reduced to
drying cassava chips in a forced air dryer at 47R c 40h depending on the size of the chip. In China,
and 60R c for 6h showed removal of 25-30% of the many thousands of tonnes of sweet potato are dried
bound cyanide compared to 10-15% decrease every year in the form of chips by traditional sun
brought about by faster drying at 80R c and 100R c. drying. In Taiwan, pressing of sweet potato chips to
In Uganda both solar and sun drying of cassava extract a high percentage of juice before drying to
chips are practiced. The natural convection drier save fuel is recommended. A solar drier for potatoes
produced clean, mold free cassava chips in 2.5-3 that could be adapted for use with sweet potato has
drying days. In Uganda a drying study was been developed at Inter - national Potato Centre,
conducted in a wood fired deep bed drier. This Lima, Peru. Cooked, shredded potatoes are placed
dryer dries cassava chips from 64.5% to 10.83% on a shaded screen oriented towards the wind and
mc(wb) in 34h, sun drying took 150h to dry chips the moisture is reduced by about 45% in 18hours.
from 59.63% to 10.83% mc(wb). Reorientation to direct sunlight, indirectly with
When a comparative study of solar and open sun solar heated air or in a combined direct and indirect
drying of cassava chips in Uganda was made, the mode. In Kualampur dehydration of tapioca is done
studies revealed that both the wire mesh and reed by mechanical and artificial heat dryers (Toh., 1973).
mesh tray driers performed well in the drying of In Germany manioc was dried under natural
cassava chips in good weather and at loading rates conditions and solar drying was considered the best
upto 20-25kg/m2. The performance of the natural manioc is dried in the drier with air flowing through
convection drier produced clean, mold free cassava and across the layer, taking with the requirements of
chips in 2.5- 3drying days (Wilfred Odogola, 1963). drying under practical conditions, particularly solar
In India, the sliced chips are usually sun dried on drying. Optimum drying air and manioc parameters
cement floors, bamboo mats, rock surfaces etc. The were determined (Germany). In the Atlantic coast of
recovery of dried chips is usually 38-40% of the Columbia a through circulation solar heated air
weight of fresh roots. In India, sweet potato flour is drier is used for drying cassava chips. This includes
produced by dehydration, can also be produced by a bottom ventilated drying bin, centrifugal fan and
spray drying and cabinet drying of the peeled sliced solar collector (Rupert Best et al., 1984).
roots. In Columbia solar drying units have been set up
CTCRI had developed an electrical dryer with a for drying cassava. Drying cassava chips were so
holding capacity of 1m3 that is suitable for drying faster with wire baskets, placed at 30 cm from the
upto 500 kg of fresh chips. It is possible to reduce ground, facilitating air circulation. Drying so even
658 HEMASANKARI ET AL

faster if the foil is painted black, the basket so placed most conditions, the drying process was found to be
in a vertical position and RH is lower that 75%. The diffusional in nature, phase II being slower that
experiments proved that the best drying rate was phase I. Towards the end of drying internal
attained with rect - angular pieces 5 cm long and resistance to water movement rather than external
1cm2 across. A through circulation solar heated air factors controlled the rate.
dryer developed at CIAT, Colombia consists of a In order to improve the quality of sweet potato
solar collector with an area of 10m2 set up on a flakes, Chang and Chan, 1987 used response surface
concrete base and 20 cm thick bed of fine stones, a methodology to find out the optimal preheating
centrifugal fan of 0-38 m3/min air flow and a drying condition of sweet potato strips. If sweet potato
bin of 2 m2 floor area. The centrifugal fan draws air strips were preheated at 78 oC for about 35 min
through the solar collector and passes it through a before steaming at 100 oC for 20 min bulk density of
30cm diameter duct into the plenum chamber of the the flakes was increased and dispersability of
drying bin. The system can dry 125kg/m2 in 45h. The rehydrated sweet potato pastes was improved.
solar collector gives an average increase of only 1 to Cassava chips are generally of higher quality that
3R c in air temperature corres - ponding to pellets, and both the size and shape of the chips are
reduction of 4.4 to 9.6% in RH. In Columbia drying very practical with regard to the time required for
units have been set up f or drying cassava. A passive sun drying. Thin slices (2 mm) spread over black
crop drier (pit drier) for maize and cassava was painted floors can be dried on sunny days within 8h
developed that uses a drum furnace as a heat or less, roughly chipped cassava takes several days
exchanger that is placed in a pit under the drying to dry with detrimental results on quality and
bed. A study was conducted to improve the passive economic considerations.
crop drier (Purwadaria, 1993). In USA, a vertical type of natural drier consisting
In Columbia solar drying units have been set up of parallel wire panels was the most efficient. The
for drying cassava. Drying cassava chips were so vertical position of the layer and adequate product
faster with wire baskets, placed at 30cm from the geometry permits the air to move through the
ground, facilitating air circulation. Drying so even product creating turbulence. Horizontal elevated
faster if the face is painted black, the basket so mesh trays ate loss efficient than the vertical drier
placed in a vertical position and RH is lower that but more so than conventional system of drying
75%. The experiments proved that the best drying cassava on concrete floors. In USA, solar
rate was attained with rectangular places 5cm long dehydration of sweet potato chips are done that
and 1cm2 across. A through circulation solar heated takes in 12 to 15 h. Osmosal process of dehydration
air dryer developed at CIAT, Columbia consists of a gives good quality sweet potato slices. To produce
solar collector with an area of 10m2 set up on a dehydrated flakes, thicker slices (13 mm) are
concrete base and 20cm thick bed of fine stones, a blanched in steam for about 30 min and then
centrifugal fan of 0-38 m3/min airflow and a drying pureed.
bin of 2 m2 floor area. The centrifugal fan draws air A sun drier for cassava (and other) chips exists at
through the solar collector and passes it through a the vaini (one of the south pacific country) research
30cm diameter duct into the plenum chamber of the station but it is little used. In W. Africa, a variety of
drying bin. The system can dry 125 kg/m2 in 45h. late yam with small tubers and white flesh. Dioscorea
The solar collector gives an average increase of only cayenensis rotundata are used for the manufacture of
1 to 30 in air temperature corresponding to dried chips intended for the preparation of a special
reduction of 4.40 to 9.80% in RH. In Columbia paste. Yam flour is most popular in W. Africa.
drying units have been set up for drying cassava. Tubers are peeled, sliced into pieces and dried in the
In Malayman, the drying characteristics of sun for several days and then pulverized by
cassava chips using the autolytic method of cyanide pounding in a mortar and then sieved and thus yam
analysis observed decreased cyanide ranging from flour will be made. Yam chips are produced in a
49 to 93% for 31 cultivars, by drying whole at 70- similar way to potato chips. Peeled tubers are sliced
80R c for 48h. In Malayman, the drying and kept in the sun for several days to make chips.
characteristics of cassava chips were studied using In Benin, the yams are peeled and immersed whole
artificial heat. Variables studied were air in the water then brought gradually upto a
temperatures (55, 66 and 77R C) air velocity (31, 61 measured maximum temperature measured in heart
& 8m/min) and bed depth (5, 8 and 10 cm) under of the chips is 59 oC. Pre blanching is done before
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 659

drying. The chips are dried under the sun for 6- a range of drying conditions. It was found that the
8days. In a process developed at CFTRI Mysore modified page equation best described the thin layer
corms are peeled, cut into thick slices, washed, air drying of sweet potato slices down to a moisture
soaked overnight in Water and then washed again content of 10%db (Diamante et al., 1991).
immersed in 0.25% potassium bisulphate solution Various shapes and sizes of roots are cut
for 3h. manually and dried on different media. Chip drying
The slices are then blanched in hot water, sun time could be greatly shortened by using a black
dried and tunnel dried at 57 to 60 oC ground sieved drying floor or perforated shelf drier. Drying time is
and then packed (Ghosh et al., 1988). For edible greatly influenced by chip shape and size slices and
aroids’ the process developed at CFTRI, Mysore strips produced by the Malaysian cutting machine
corms are peeled, cut into thick slices, washed, were optimum for drying efficiency. Small chips in
soaked overnight in water and then washed again the form of slices and strips with a moisture content
immersed in 0.25% potassium bisulphate solution of 12-14% were found best for pelleting process.
for 3 h. The slices are then blanched in hot water sun A study on the application of a heat pump as a
dried and tunnel dried at 57 to 60 oC ground, sieved heat source for drying cassava chips was carried out
and then packed. Tapioca chips dipped in sodium and a prototype drier suitable for village
hypo chloride (0.5%) for 3 minutes then washed cooperative was designed. It consists of a cabin 5 m
with fresh water and dried up at 70 oC may have 90- long, 2.4 m wide and 2.4 m high movable trays a
100days shelf life. In Nigeria, 1996 drying is done on vapour compression system heat pump ducting
open trays on platforms, tray placed under shade, instrumentation and a control system. High quality
unprotected concrete slabs by the road throughout dried cassava chips were obtained with a drying
the day of solar dryers. Under natural conditions period reduced to 40h depending on the size of the
drying of cassava chips in solar dryers is the most chip (Suwona, 1991).
promising method. The raw materials for gruel making were made
A new Philippines designed root crop dryer is from sweet potato flour traditionally in chambers
described, root drying heat is supplied by and using solar energy (Guatamala) All the cassava
combustion of Waste derived fuel. From 50 to 60kg samples under observation were considered dry
coconut husk is burned over 7-8h to dry a 100kg then the moisture content was below 15% as
batch of fresh root chips. Alternate rotation of trays recommended by CIAT, 1991 & the total cyanogens
promotes uniform drying. Cassava chips were dried content had been reduced by atleast 80%. Drying
in a wood fired deep bed crop dryer with a cassava chips in a forced air dryer at 47 oC and 60 oC
maximum capacity for one tonne of fresh cassava showed removal of 25-30% of the bound cyanide
chips. The deep bed dryer dries cassava chips from compared to 10-15% decrease brought about by
64.57% to 10.83% mc(wb) (Augustine Dzisi and faster drying at 80 oC and 100 oC (Cooke, 1983 and
Joseph wirth, 1970). An air dehumidifying system Maduawa and Adewale, 1980) using the autolytic
comprising a heat pump and a solid moisture method of cyanide analysis observed decreased
absorbed was designed and experiments to cyanide ranging from 49 to 95% for 31 cultivars by
determine the drying rate of various crops using this drying whole at 70-80 oC for 48h. Cooke, 1983 noted
system were carried out. It was found that the RH of that losses during dehydration determined by the
ventilated air could be reduced from 85% to 15%. enzymatic method were smaller than those analysed
Coefficient of drying rate were established for crops by the autolytic or distillation methods CTCRI dryer
including radishes, sweet potatoes and mushrooms capacity 500 kg of chips within 18h.
and the moisture content of buck wheat was In Thailand it was found that black concrete
reduced from 21.9% to 9.9% in the first 30min. surfaces were more efficient than ordinary concrete,
(Taharazako Morito Wei, 1990). but more uniformly dried and better looking chips
The effect of air dry bulb temperature air RH, air were obtained then using trays with bamboo netting
velocity and sample thickness on the thin layer air or chicken wire. Artificial drying (thermetically
drying of sweet potato slices was investigated. The controlled hot plate) is more reliable than sun
drying rate curves consisted of 2 approximately drying but requires a higher initial investment.
linear falling rate periods and contained no constant Drying time was influenced by chip shape and six
rate period. Several mathematical models were regression equations for calculating length of time
fitted to the drying rates of sweet potato slices under for different drying techniques are available from
660 HEMASANKARI ET AL

the authors (Than and Lohani, 1978). economically viable. The drying period for chips is
In experiment at the Asian Institute of very short and the moisture content is rarely
Technology (Thailand) cassava chips of various reduced below 19%. The influence of the size of the
shapes and sizes (circular, rectangular, cubical and cassava chips on the duration is also an important
slices and Malaysian cutters were sun dried to –14% variable. The use of black body or solar reflecting
mc on cement floors black concrete floors or air paint offers the possibility is drying in a shorter
dried in perforated (Mar-July) and wet season (Sep- time.
Oct) although drying it was considered A study was made of the parameters affecting the
impracticable at present because of high cost. drying and pelletizing of cassava chips in order to
Drying time was greatly reduced in the other types obtain a product with constant optimal quality
the black concrete floor and perforated shelf driers, under condition typical of rural areas in Thailand
the later giving uniform drying at low costs while and similar agro economic regions of south east asia.
eliminating the need for frequent turning or chips Various shapes and sizes of roots were cut manually
but was impracticable on a large scale. Hence black and dried on different media. It was found that chip
concrete floor was suggested as a compromise drying time could be greatly shortened by using a
between drying efficiency and practiced feasibility. black drying floor or perforated shelf drier. Drying
Drying efficiency was best with slices or strips and time is greatly influenced by chip shape and size
smaller thinner slices or strips are recommended to slices.
improve the efficiency of sun drying. There was no Chips produced by the Malaysian cutting
difference in drying efficiency between seasons heat machine were optimum for drying efficiency
transfer by convection in wet season appeared to noticeable differences were found in drying
compensate for the heat transfer by the conduction efficiency due to season (Mahmud Cong. Thanh.
in the hot season (Thanh Muttamara, Lohani, 1978) 1977).
Cassava tubers (sliced) are usually dried in the
Equipments in starch extraction
open air under sunlight by spreading in a single
layer on cement floors, bamboo mats, rock surfaces The input of raw materials to starch factories can be
or sometimes on bare earth. Chips dry better on from 24 to 1500 tons per day in the smaller countries
rocks because they dry white in colour and take less and Europe to nearly double the figure in the USA.
time. Depending upon the weather conditions, it Milling can be done to extract the starch from the
takes 2-5 days to dry the cassava chips. tuber mills are of the hammer type rotating between
Contamination by air borne dust, dirt and debris 1000 and 1500 rpm. They may be equipped with
cannot be entirely avoided during sun drying, upto 6 sets of hammers arranged radially on a rotor,
especially on windy days. Sun drying is carried out with a semi circular perforated plate as an anvil.
by many methods, exclusively on cement drying Generally two mills are placed in series to obtain a
floors in Malaysia and Thailand. The overall heat high starch yield, the mill having an anvil plate of
efficiency during sun drying of cassava chips was larger perforation than the second. Perforations can
estimated to be 11- 14% Main cost of sun drying was vary between 5 and 5 mm in diameter. This is
labour costs. overpowered for the duty, robust in construction
The possibility of using artificial heat drying, a and is inclined to fragment the starch granules.
combination of artificial and sun drying and a Generally raspers are used for extracting starch
mechanical dewatering and artificial heat drying is from the tubers. Rasping is an operation that is done
practiced. The results of the implements conducted to disrupt the cellular structure of the plant material
in Thailand indicate that the most adequate chips to release the starch from its fibrous matrix. The
are those in the form of strips and slices (0.52, 0.1- conventional rasper consists of a wooden drum with
0.2cm thick respectively and that the total drying steel shaft and cast iron ends. The metal sheet
period required to obtain an optimal mc(approx. having protrusions facing outside is fixed around
14%) is 4.5,10,12 & 14h for the artificial method, the drum. This drum rotates inside a housing and
black concrete, tray drier and plain concrete the rasped material passes through the metallic
respectively. It was found that the drying systems sheet of specified thickness of holes to the sump
did not affect the pellet quality. In Thailand, sand below. There are two types of rasping namely
and waste products are added to the chips to primary rasping and secondary rasping.
minimize the drying time and to make the process The raspers are in some ways similar to hammer
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 661

mills the vital difference being that the hammers are successfully milled in a normal wheat flour roller
replaced with a multitude of fine saw blades. These mill with very high conversion rates (90% or more)
are set in a rotor revolving at about 1000 rpm. The Small scale hammer mills generally give lower
action of the blades in freeing the starch is more conversion rates.
efficient than that of the hammer mills fibre strands Larger water powered raspers can be used where
remain larger and are more easily sieved out. Starch running water is available. The water wheel is
granules are also less liable to impact damage.In rotated by a flywheel and driving belts to a pulley
larger factories, it is usual to mince roots to a on the shaft of the rasping drum. The drum 20-30
standard size before milling. This reduces the peak cm in diameter, is either attached to a primitive
horse power demands at the mill or rasp due to wooden construction or fitted into a rasping table.
large roots. The operator, seated at the table, presses the roots
CTCRI had developed a rasper that has a hopper, against the drum and the shelf before it drops into
a mild steel rotating drum with saw toothed blades, the trough.
a motor of 2hp and a chute for collecting the rasped Engine driven raspers are used then the
material. The dimensions of the rasping drum is 250 production rises to 10 tonnes of fresh roots a day.
mm diameter and 300 m length. Thirty numbers of The machine has a rotor of 50 cm in diameter with
blades with 25 teeth each are fixed along the the number of groves milled longitudinally to fit the
circumference of the drum to crush the tubers in rasping blades. The number of saw teeth on the
presence of water. The overall dimensions of the blades varies from 10 to 12 per cm according to the
machine are length water supply. The average need. The blades are spaced 6-7mm apart on the
output of the prototype is 218.3 kg per hour. The rotor. The rotor is fitted into a housing in such a way
average of water required for rasping is 338.4l/h that the rasping surface forms part of the back wall
with a tuber to water ratio of 1:1.55. of the receptacle for the roots. The power required to
Use of hydrocyclones and centrifuges for the drive rasper of this kind is 20-30hp.
starch industry for extraction or had become In the secondary rasper the identification of the
common. TNAU had designed and fabricated a saw blades should be somewhat finer about 10 per
centrifugal separator that is driven by a 3hp motor. cm (25 to 27 teeth per inch) as compared with
This has a capacity of extracting about 20 kg of about 8-10 per cm (19 to 26 teeth per inch) for the
starch per hour. An inexpensive portable cassava primary rasper. The overall rasping effect is raised
root rasper, driven by a 0.25hp electric motor to for over 90% by the secondary rasper. In a rasper
handle 100-110 kg roots per hour for small scale used in larger factories the housing is equipped with
industry is used in Philippines. In Malaysia the adjustable breasts with sharp steel edges for the
starch extraction is mainly by two systems one using control of rasping fineness. A machine for peeling
sedimentation and the other uses centrifugal and crushing cassava roots that weighs 1200 kg is
separation. In peninsular Malaysia the bulk of the used. Average input is 800 kg/h of fresh roots,
starch is produced by traditional sedimentation average output is 550-600 kg/h. The machine
techniques but recently centrifugal separator is and requires 4 people for operation. It can process roots
refiners are adopted. The starch recovery rate of 10-40 cm length and 5-12 cm thickness. The roots
averages around 17% with a range of 13-22% than are trimmed off at the ends and then introduced
sedimentation techniques are used and 20-30% with vertically between a toothed disks that split them off
partial centrifugal methods. The residue or refuse in 4 long pieces. These pieces are put by hand into
produced during screening accounts for about 20% the next part of the machine there they are squeezed
of the fresh weight (Chan et al., 1983) sweet potato between 2 revolving rollers to strip the skin from the
starch extraction in Korea is by the tank pulp. The upper roller presses the pulp against the
precipitation method and dry the starch water with lower roller, that is a straight sided Cylindrical grid.
natural solar heat. Only a few factories have modern (Herblot, 1978)
facilities with centrifugal machines and instant About 14-20% starch is extracted on a small scale
driers rotary system with water injection and then from cassava roots in the Philippines. Rudimentary
separating the extracted starch from the fibre and equipment for this process is described including a
other root components. Separation may be through motor driven peeler a thin root pulverizer (grater) a
centrifugal action, sedimentation in tanks or in a copper screen wood on concrete settling tanks and
system of channels. Small sized cassava chips can be aluminium sheet driers. A flash drier is preferable
662 HEMASANKARI ET AL

since the starch is pulverized at the same time. parallel press. Reductions in moisture content of
(Kuizon, 1958). 20% are common by taper press. Nozzle type
Rapid removal of the fruit water and is soluble separators are employed in the refining stages of
and replacing this with pure water should be done plants producing all commercial starches. A simple
to prevent the deterioration of the pulp. This stage nozzle machine may be used for starch
includes sedimentation washing of the starch in concentration. Dilute starch slurries may be
tanks or on settling tables sitting and in some of the concentrated upto rates of 70 m3 per hour unit to
medium and larger factories centrifuging. The obtain concentrations upto 270 g/l of starch and
removal of water is done by draining, centrifuging losses in the effluent of as little as 1-2 g/l.
and drying. The nozzle machines can be fitted with water
There are methods available to separate starch washing facilities also. This machines forms the
granules from the slurry after the screening step that basis of starch refining plants and they are normally
include, Conventional sedimentation 1) Use of installed in series of three or four with the wash
starch tables 2) Use of centrifuge and 3) Use of water arranged to flow in counter current to the
hydrocyclones starch. Typical flows through machines are upto
Application of centrifuges for the rapid 55m3/h of starch slurry containing 60% starch with
separation of starch was reported and thoroughly wash water rates upto 15 m3/h. Peeler centrifuges
reviewed the various dewatering techniques of operate on a horizontal axis. The machine consists of
cassava starch milk and explained about the various rotating drum mounted on a horizontal axis.
centrifuges used in the modern extraction Machines with rotor diameters upto 1500 and
Hydrocyclones have been recently suggested as a 1600mm normally have the bearing mounted on one
practical alternative in solid liquid separations side of the rotor. Larger machines with rotors upto
involving biological materials and suspensions and 2500mm have bearings mounted on either side of
it can compete well with centrifugation and the drum to give greater mechanical rigidity. Local
filtration. The cost of the hydro - cyclone developed conditions, local preferences, local raw materials
was Rs. 5775/- and the operational cost of the and the available capital, influence the design and
hydrocyclone to concentrate 1m3 of starch milk was operation of the plant.
found to be Rs. 1.50/-Sedimentation method is the Conical screen centrifuge consists of a rotating
most common method used for starch granule cone fitted with a fine perforated plate screen and
separation process. Rapid separation of starch can mounted on a horizontal axis. The feed of material is
be achieved through the use of centrifuges. The to the back of the cone where it is picked up on
advantages of using starch tables are shorter time of acceleration vanes and spread over the conical
contact with fruit water and purer quality of starch. screen. By the action of centrifugal force the retained
Use of hydrocyclone is the recent development and solids slide over the screen and fall away over the
it is inexpensive. outer edge. The liquid and fine solids are drained
There are machines for fibre washing also. In away through the screens. Wash water may be
principle and appearance the machine resembles a introduced on to the solids on the screen by means
centrifugal pump but the impeller blades are of spray nozzles. A typical rotor diameter would be
hollow. The liquor contact faces the inside curves of 500- 600 mm and speed of rotation 1450 rpm.
the impeller blades are surfaced with perforated Starch extraction from disintegrated manioc can
plate, thus due to the rapid changes of direction of be made by fitting slotted plates to the centrifuge
the slurry as it slides across the plates, centrifugal having a width of 125-250 micron. Capacities range
forces are generated that force starch slurry to pass from 2t/h of manioc or 3t/h of potato on two
through the plates and coarse fibre to proceed to the machines to 8t/h of manioc or 12t/h of potato on five
blade tips. The latter is collected in a chamber machines. In both cases the extracted pulp leaving
surrounding the impeller and is discharged through the extractor would have a moisture content of 85-
a flange at the base, the former escapes from the 90% with a negligible starch content. Fine fibres that
sides of the blades and is kept separate passing out pass forward with the starch in the first extraction
via another flange. The above machine is used in the process can be removed by using rotating screens
potato starch industry. with a fine perforated plate fitted with an aperture
The machines used to dewater product is the size of 80- 115 micron.
screw press. There are two types,taper press and the
 Post Harvest Equipments in Tuber Crops - Review 663

CONCLUSION R. Balasubramanian, D. 1993. Design, development

and evaluation of a cassava chipper. Agricultural
Effective post harvest management practices, should mechanization in Asia. Africa and Latin America. 24(1):
be adopted to reduce the post harvest losses. By this 60-64, Dept. of Agril. Engg., Ohio State University,
atleast 50% of the post harvest losses can be 2073, Neil Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
prevented using appropriate post harvest Best, R. Alonso and velez, C. 1984. The development of a
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hideler. F.S. and Rncon. H., Eds.International potato
of time saving energy efficient implements at post centre, CIP, Lima, Peru, 373.
harvest level will increase the availability of tubers Cervinka, V. 1972. Tractor mounted cassava grater
year round. The measures implements to be used developed in Ghana. World Crops. 24(1) : 45.
should be made possible at the farm site itself to Chan, S.K., Khelikuzaman, M.H., Tan, S.L., Goh, S.L. and
prevent the losses in handling and storage. Portable Lo, N.P. 1983. A special report on cassava in
equipment’s have to be developed. The equipment’s peninsular Malaysia with particular reference to
that are to be developed should be globally production techniques, MARDI, serdang, Selangor,
85-92pp.
competitive and serve small scale starch processing
Chan, K.L. and Chiang, W.C. 1987a. Optimal preheating
sectors of the country. condition and carbohydrate change during
Tuber crops are the most efficient converters of processing of sweet potato flakes. Journal of Chinese
solar energy. Cassava produces 250x103 kcal/h and Agricultural Chemistry Society (in Chinese 25(4) : 435-
sweet potato 240 x103kcal/ha as compared to 170 444, In product development for root and tuber
x103kcal/h for 310 x103kcal/ha for wheat and 200 crops,vol.I –Asia International Potato Centre(CIP)
x103kcal/h for maize. hence if proper measures are Visayas state college of agriculture.
taken to prevent the wastage and improve the Cooke, R.D. 1976. An enzymatic assay for the total cyanide
content of cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz). J. Sci.
quality of the product, tuber crops can surely meet
Fd. Agric. 29 : 345-352. In: Tropical Root Crops –Post
the demands of the ever growing population. Harvest Physicology and Processing, edited by I.Uritani
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