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RESOURCE CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES (RCTS) IT’S USED IN

AGRICULTURE {Sustainable Agriculture Volume II (ISBN: 978-93-88901-51-2}
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Sustainable Agriculture Volume II
(ISBN: 978-93-88901-51-2)
Editors
Dr. Anil Bhogave Dr. Nandita Jena
Anand Niketan College of Agriculture, Department of Crop Physiology,
Anandwan, Warora Faculty of Agricultural Sciences,
Dist. Chandrapur, Maharashtra SOA DU, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Dr. Manoj Kumar Dr. Archana Verma

Department of Entomology, Department of Agricultural Chemistry,
PG College of Agriculture, Amar Singh College, Lakhaoti,
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural Bulandshahr, U.P.
University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar
2023
First Edition: May, 2023
ISBN: 978-93-88901-51-2
© Copyright reserved by the Editor
Publication, Distribution and Promotion Rights reserved by Bhumi Publishing, Nigave Khalasa,
Kolhapur
Despite every effort, there may still be chances for some errors and omissions to have crept in
inadvertently.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically,
mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
publishers.
The views and results expressed in various articles are those of the authors and not of editors or
publisher of the book.
Published by:
Bhumi Publishing,
Nigave Khalasa, Kolhapur 416207, Maharashtra, India
Website: www.bhumipublishing.com
E-mail: [email protected]
Book Available online at:
https://www.bhumipublishing.com/book/
PREFACE
We are delighted to publish our book entitled "Sustainable Agricultural
Volume II". This book is the compilation of esteemed articles of acknowledged experts
in the fields of basic and applied agricultural science.
The Indian as well as world population is ever increasing. Hence, it is
imperative to boost up agriculture production. This problem can be turned into
opportunity by developing skilled manpower to utilize the available resources for food
security. Agricultural research can meet this challenge. New technologies have to be
evolved and taken from lab to land for sustained yield. The present book on agriculture
is to serve as a source of information covering maximum aspects, which can help
understand the topics with eagerness to study further research. We developed this
digital book with the goal of helping people achieve that feeling of accomplishment.
The articles in the book have been contributed by eminent scientists,
academicians. Our special thanks and appreciation goes to experts and research
workers whose contributions have enriched this book. We thank our publisher Bhumi
Publishing, India for taking pains in bringing out the book.
Finally, we will always remain a debtor to all our well-wishers for their
blessings, without which this book would not have come into existence.
Editors
CONTENT
Sr. No. Book Chapter and Author(s) Page No.

1. RESOURCE CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES (RCTS) IT’S USED 1 – 16
IN AGRICULTURE
Parmeswar Dayal, Megha Kumari, Pradeep Kumar,
Sunil Kumar Prajapati, Sumit Sow and Dhruvendra Singh Sachan
2. NATURAL FARMING: WAY TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 17 – 24
Meenu, Sintu Malik and Gulab Singh
3. RELEVANCE OF SOIL (SOLUM) DEPTH IN AGRICULTURE 25 – 34
Supriya K, Shilpa and Kavyashree C
4. AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY: INSECT 35 – 43
PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR GRAIN STORAGE
Ritu Pandey and Yogesh Kumar
5. MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF ROOT CROPS (CARROT, RADISH 44 – 49
AND BEET ROOT) AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Manoj Kumar, Amit Kumar,
Chandreshwar Prasad Rai and Shirish Kumar
6. MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF BRINJAL, OKRA AND THEIR 50 – 58
MANAGEMENT
Manoj Kumar, Surendra Prasad, Amit Kumar,
Shirish Kumar and Chandreshwar Prasad Rai
7. VIRTUAL WATER: EXPLORING THE HIDDEN COSTS OF 59 – 63
GLOBAL WATER FOOTPRINTS
Suresh Kumar K A
8. MULTIGENE ENGINEERING IN PLANTS 64 – 72
Raghavendra V. C, Premsagar S. P,
Yashaswini R, and Alluri Hema Latha
9. RICE FOODBORNE DISEASE DETECTION USING MACHINE 73 – 79
LEARNING
Jyoti D. Bhosale
10. OPTIMAL ALLOCATION OF FERTILIZERS AND IRRIGATION 80 – 84
FOR MAXIMIZING FARM INCOME
Om Prakash Maurya, Lalit Kumar Verma,
Pukhraj Singh and Chaman Singh
11. ROOT CROPS AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE 85 – 90
LIVELIHOOD OF TRIBAL PEOPLE IN ODISHA
Nandita Jena
12. WASTE MANURE AND ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION 91 – 94
Ravindra B. Tembhurne
(ISBN: 978-93-88901-51-2)
RESOURCE CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES (RCTS) IT’S USED IN

AGRICULTURE
Parmeswar Dayal*1, Megha Kumari1, Pradeep Kumar2, Sunil Kumar Prajapati1,
Sumit Sow3 and Dhruvendra Singh Sachan2
1Division of Agronomy,
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India

2Department of Agronomy,
Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,

Kanpur, (U.P.)-208002, India
3Department of Agronomy, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University Pusa,
Samastipur - 848-125, Bihar, India

*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract:
The current trends and future directions in the use of resource conservation technology in
agriculture. The first of all examines the key resource conservation technologies currently in use
in agriculture, including conservation tillage, integrated pest management, precision agriculture,
and water-saving irrigation techniques. The benefits and challenges of each technology are
discussed, along with case studies that illustrate successful implementation. Continuous use of
conventional farming practices with conventional tillage and burning crop residues has degraded
the soil resource base and intensified soil degradation with a concomitant decrease in crop
production capacity. Further, escalating fuel, fertilizers, and other input costs; necessitates the
effective use of resources in agriculture. The CA technologies involving no- or minimum-tillage
with direct seeding and bed planting, residue management, and crop diversification have the
potential for improving productivity and soil quality, mainly by soil organic matter build-up.
Conservation agriculture systems appear to be appealing options to achieve sustainable and
intensive crop production under different agroecological environments because they use
available resources efficiently and maintain soil fertility. However, there is a need for wider scale
testing of these new technologies under diverse production systems, as the CA technologies are
site-specific, and therefore appraisal of CA is important to have significant adoption.
Keywords: Conventional tillage, Cover crops, Diversification, Precision farming, Zero tillage.
Introduction:
Resource conservation technology refers to a set of tools and techniques that can be used
to reduce the consumption of natural resources, minimize waste, and promote sustainable
development. With growing concerns about the environmental impact of human activities, there
is an increasing need for the development and adoption of resource conservation technologies.
Broadcast seeding and harvesting measure yields were common features of ancient agriculture.
Whereas, substantial yield gain through greater use of improved seeds, irrigation, chemical
fertilizer, pesticides, and mechanization (Foresight, 2011) was the main thrust of modern
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Bhumi Publishing, India
agriculture. Therefore, today’s agriculture is an energy-intensive farming system (Khan et al.,

2010). Though the modern technology model succeeded in achieving targeted food demand, it
has contributed to environmental problems such as loss of biodiversity and soil fertility,
salinization, and water scarcity (McIntyre et al., 2009). Conventional or modern agriculture has
largely been characterized by tillage which includes, soil loosening and leveling for seedbed
preparation, mixing fertilizer into the soil, weed control, and crop residue management (Hobbs et
al., 2008). However, continuous use of conventional farming practices with conventional tillage
(CT) and burning crop residues has degraded the soil resource base (Montgomery, 2007) and
intensified soil degradation by about 67%, with concomitant decreases in crop production
capacity (World Resources Institute, 2000). More recently, yield growth has been diminishing,
which is especially true for rice in Asia (Pandey et al., 2010). The current scenario of escalating
fuel, fertilizers, and other input costs; necessitates the effective use of energy and other vital
resources in agriculture. Without a new and more sustainable boost to productivity, agricultural
supply will hardly be able to keep pace with the rapidly rising demand caused by population and
income growth and changing consumer preferences (Foresight, 2011). Today’s real agricultural
challenges are resource fatigue with declining factor productivity, decreasing human resources,
and rising costs and socioeconomic changes (Erenstein, 2011; Gathala et al., 2011a). Thus, there
is a dire need for energy, water, and labor-efficient alternate system that helps to sustain soil and
environmental quality, and produce more at less cost (Jat et al., 2011; Gathala et al., 2011b).
The CA technologies involving no- or minimum- tillage with direct seeding and bed
planting, residue management (mainly residue retention), and crop diversification (Gupta and
Sayre, 2007) have the potential for improving productivity and soil quality, mainly by soil
organic matter (SOM) build-up (Bhattacharyya et al., 2013a, b). The RCTs bring many possible
benefits including reduced water and energy use (fossil fuels and electricity), reduced
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil erosion and degradation of the natural resource base,
increased yields and farm incomes, and reduced labor shortages (Pandey et al., 2012). CA was
originally designed as a response to the
What is conservation agriculture?
Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land
while regenerating degraded lands. It promotes the maintenance of a permanent soil cover,
minimum soil disturbance, and diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and
natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased
water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production. another term of
CA principles is universally applicable to all agricultural landscapes and land uses with locally
adapted practices. Soil interventions such as mechanical soil disturbance are reduced to an
absolute minimum or avoided, and external inputs such as agrochemicals and plant nutrients of
mineral or organic origin are applied optimally and in ways and quantities that do not interfere
with, or disrupt, the biological processes
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Why choose RCT:
❖ A resource is any natural or artificial substance or energy which can be used for the
benefit of mankind.
❖ Natural resources are those which exist in the environment naturally, that is, they are not
created by humans. They are soil, water, sunlight, the wind, plants, coal etc.
❖ To support life by supporting ecological balance
❖ To ensure that future generations will be able to access the resources.
❖ To preserve biodiversity.
❖ To make sure the human race survives.
Conservation agriculture (CA) has four principles:
(i) The minimizing mechanical soil disturbance and seeding directly into untilled soil to
improve soil organic matter (SOM) content and soil health.
(ii) Enhancing SOM using cover crops and/or crop residues (mainly residue retention).
This protects the soil surface, conserves water and nutrients, and promotes soil
biological activity.
(iii) Diversification of crops in associations, sequences, and rotations to enhance system
resilience that complements reduced tillage and residue retention by breaking cycles
of pests and disease (FAO, 2010)
(iv) Controlled traffic that lessens soil compaction. CA avoids straw burning, improves
soil organic carbon (SOC) content, enhances input use efficiency, and has the
potential to reduce GHGs (Bhattacharyya et al., 2012a, b).
Need for conservation agriculture (CA) in future prospect:
At present, the challenge for agricultural scientists is to increase food production to meet
the food security needs of the ever-growing population of the world. However, such production
increases must be accomplished sustainably, by minimizing negative environmental effects and,
equally important, providing increased income to help improve the livelihoods of those
employed in agricultural production. There are several key issues in this equation on which there
is almost unanimous consensus. The demand for food is still increasing, not only to meet food
security for a growing population but to provide nutritional security as well. Most of the sources
of productivity growth viz. improved varieties, fertilizer, and water used in the last 40 Green
Revolution years are already being exploited. Future sources of productivity growth will be more
complex and harder to find. To maintain ecological balance for supporting life and to make the
resources available for the present and future generations. Competition for surface and
groundwater resources will be more severe as domestic and industrial needs will compete for
them. The shrinking agricultural land is because of urbanization and its use for other purposes.
Expansion is possible in some parts of the world, but the quality of the new land may be less than
that already in use for agriculture Fossil fuels will be more costly, adding to production costs
directly as well as indirectly. GHGs will increase with subsequent effects on climate, especially
an increase in severe climatic events such as drought, floods, etc. This will make the challenge
more difficult and complex. One obvious way to accomplish this sustainable food production
3
objective is to make more efficient use of the natural resources that are needed to produce food;
this includes soils, water, air, inputs, and people.
RCTs for conservation agriculture (CA)
Zero tillage:
No-till farming (also known as zero tillage or direct drilling) is an agricultural technique
for growing crops or pasture without disturbing the soil through tillage. Zero tillage (ZT)
involves the use of a tillage implement that creates a narrow slot for the seed and does not disturb
or turn over the soil in the process of planting the crop. The traditional approaches of ploughing
which include 3-4 tillage operations are completely skipped. Hence, the cost of production is
reduced and timely planting of crops (wheat) is ensured. Another benefit of earlier sowing under
ZT is that Phalaris minor, an herbicide-resistant weed in wheat, is less competitive than when
wheat is sown late under conventional tillage (CT), (Malik et al., 2002). Evidence on yield
effects of zero tillage is highly variable (Giller et al., 2009). Where zero tillage is combined with
mulching, a commonly described pattern is for yields to fall initially (Baudron et al., 2011), and
then to increase over the subsequent decade or so, eventually exceeding yields in conventional
tillage-based agriculture (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2011). In addition, ZT has a direct mitigation
effect as it converts the greenhouse gases like CO2 into O2 in the atmosphere and enriches soil
organic matter (Venkateswarlu and Shanker 2009). However, the potential of CA for storing C
depends on antecedent soil C concentration, cropping system, management duration, soil texture,
slope and climate (Luo et al., 2010).
Crop residue cover:
Crop residues are the parts or portion of a plant or crop left in the field after harvest, or
that part of the crop which is not used domestically or sold commercially or discarded during
processing. A vast potential is available to efficiently recycle crop residues, especially in the
rice-wheat belt of Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, where it is burnt in situ. CA
practices require a critical level of crop residues with the objective, to protect the soil against
weather aggressions and water erosion, to maintain soil moisture (Lal 1997), to suppress weed
growth, and to provide shelter and food for the soil biota (Blanchart et al., 2006). Crop residues
are also an important source of nutrients and maintain or enhance soil chemical, physical and
biological properties and prevent land degradation. The importance of crop residue cover as part
of the CA system has been emphasized by several researchers (Govaerts et al., 2009; Hobbs et
al., 2008). However, the decomposition rate and release of N from residues depend on soil,
climatic conditions, and the C: N ratio of plant residues (Prasad and Power, 1991). Nonetheless,
there can be negative aspects to crop residue retention. For example, Govaerts et al. (2007), in
Mexico, found an increased incidence of disease with retained residue, but the benefits from
increased infiltration and water availability outweighed the disease factor.
Cover crops:
Keeping the soil covered is a fundamental principle of CA. Crop residues are left on the
soil surface, but cover crops may be needed if the gap is too long between harvesting one crop
and establishing the next. Cover crops may fulfill additional agronomic, ecological, or
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economical functions in CA systems that can supplement those performed by the main
commercial crops (Hartwig and Ammon 2002; Seguy et al. 2003). They may also contribute to
the mineral nutrition of the main crop(s) through nitrogen fixation in the case of legumes, mulch
mineralization or manure returns from animals that feed on them. Part of the biomass they
produce may contribute to farm incomes, e.g. additional grain production for human food or as
extra fodder resources. Besides their above-ground functions, cover crops fulfill important
functions below the ground. Their root systems contribute to preventing or remediating soil
compaction, tapping soil moisture from deeper horizons below the root zone of the main crops or
recycling nutrients such as nitrates, K, Ca, and Mg that are easily leached to deeper soil horizons
(Barthes et al. 2005). There are various crop alternatives to be used as vegetative covers, such as
grains, legumes, root crops, and oil crops. The vegetative cover also protects the soil against the
impacts of raindrops; keeps the soil shaded; and maintains the highest possible moisture content.
Precision farming:
Precision agriculture refers to the application of precise and correct amounts of inputs
like water, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. at the correct time to the crop for increasing its productivity
and maximizing its yields. The benefits of so doing are twofold i) the cost of production be
possible by combining variable nitrogen application and targeting subsoiling to headlands for a
crop of wheat in the UK. An average benefit of £38.60 ha-1 was reported by Schmerler and
Basten (1999), when wheat was grown on a farm scale trial, where both seed and agrochemical
rates were varied.
Use of GPS and GIS systems:
Widespread adoption of SSNM technologies based on soil testing requires extensive soil
sampling and analysis which could be a hindrance considering the available infrastructure. The
use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) and
mapping can provide the right support as acost-effective alternative. The GPS makes it possible to
record the in-field variability as geographically encoded data. Information collected from
different satellite data and referenced with the help of GPS can be integrated to create field
management strategies for chemical application, cultivation, and harvest (Liaghat and
Balasundram 2010).
However, GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes
(Burrough and McDonnell 1998). These technologies enable the coupling of real-time data
collection with accurate position information, leading to the efficient manipulation and analysis
of large amounts of geospatial data. Studies conducted under AICRIP in UP, West Bengal, and
Assam indicated significant variations in crop responses, soil nutrient supplies, nutrient uptake,
rice productivity, and nutrient use of efficiency with sufficient yield gaps between farmers’
practices and recommended fertilizer dose. Studies on such spatial variability in farmer’s fields
are limited. In the coming few years precision farming may help Indian farmers to harvest the
fruits of frontier technologies without compromising the quality of the land.
5
Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM):

The nutrient Management and recommendation process in India is still based on response
data arranged over large domains. The SSNM provides an approach for need-based feeding of
crops with nutrients while recognizing the inherent spatial variability. It involves monitoring of
all pathways of plant nutrient flows/supply and calls for a judicious combination of fertilizers,
bio-fertilizers, organic manures, crop residues, and nutrient-efficient genotypes to sustain
agricultural productivity. It avoids indiscriminate use of fertilizers and enables the farmer to
dynamically adjust the fertilizer use to fill the deficit optimally between nutrient needs of the variety
and nutrient supply from natural resources, organic sources, irrigation water, etc. It aims at nutrient
supply at optimal rates and times to achieve high yield and efficiency of nutrient use by the crop.
SSNM approach involves three steps – establishing attainable yield targets, effectively using
existing nutrient sources, and application of fertilizers to fill the deficit between demand and supply
of nutrients.
Leaf Color Chart (LCC):
An LCC developed in Japan is used to measure the green color intensity of rice leaves to
assess the nitrogen requirements by a non-destructive method (Nachimuthu et al, 2007), and is
being standardized with a chlorophyll meter. In hybrid as well as inbred rice, N management
through LCC proved superior to locally recommended N application in three splits. It was found
possible to curtail 20-30 kg of fertilizer N/ha without sacrificing rice yield when N is applied as
per LCC values. N application at LCC<3 in Basmati and at LCC<4 in coarse and hybrid rice was
found optimum. Moreover, in LCC-based N management, basal application of N can be skipped
without any disadvantage in terms of grain yield, and agronomic, physiological or recovery
efficiency of fertilizer N.
Laser land leveler:
Laser leveling is a process of smoothening the land surface (± 2 cm) from its average
elevation using laser-equipped drag buckets to achieve precision in land leveling. Precision land
leveling involves altering the fields in such a way as to create a constant slope of 0 to 0.2%. This
practice makes use of large horsepower tractors and soil movers that are equipped with global
positioning systems (GPS) and/or laser-guided instrumentation so that the soil can be moved
either by cutting or filling to create the desired slope/level. (Walker et al. 2003). showed that the
use of RCTs, including zero tillage, laser leveling, and bed and furrow planting, reduced
irrigation water applications between 23 and 45% while increasing yield.
Crop rotation and cropping system:
Use of crop rotations or intercropping is considered vital in CA systems (Calegari 2001),
as it offers an option for higher diversity in plant production and thus in human and livestock
nutrition, and pest/weed management that is no longer realized through soil tillage. Legumes
grown in rotation can provide a range of benefits to the agro-ecosystem, including increases in
subsequent crop yields and reductions in input costs due to nitrogen fixation and reductions in
crop diseases (Pannell, 1995); An effective crop rotation in a cropping system is not only helps
to increase the crop productivity and soil fertility but also improve the water use efficiency by
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reducing weeds, providing conducive micro-climate for plant growth and development, reduction
in soil thermal regime and improving physical properties of the soil. An efficient cropping
system can contribute to a great extent to sustain agriculture. Saxena 2008 found that weed
infestation was least in pearl millet-mustard rotation as mustard residue on decomposition
released S-containing volatile compounds, which were effective in controlling weeds.
Diversification/Intensification:
A shift from sole cropping to a diversified/ intensified farming system is highly
warranted. The increased cropping intensity/diversification is intended to minimize risk, improve
biodiversity and diversify income sources and enhance resource sustainability. It will be a key
strategy for future gains in crop production. Short-duration pulses, oilseeds, and other high-value
crops will find their definite niche as sequential or intercrops, rather than replacing the major
cereal crops having higher yield stability (IIFSR 2015). Hence, an increased cropping intensity
will contribute substantially to additional demands for food and cash crops. Pigeon pea, the most
important wet-season grain legume crop in south Asia has shown potential for rice crop
diversification in Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). Similarly, bio-intensive diversified cropping
systems would enable small and marginal farmers to utilize limited land and water resources in a
more efficient manner.
Integrated Farming Systems:
Integrated Farming Systems hold a special position in conservational agriculture as in this
system nothing is wasted, the byproduct of one system becomes the input for the other. For
example, crop residues from the field can be used for animal feed, while manure from livestock
can enhance agricultural productivity by improving soil fertility as well as reducing the use of
chemical fertilizers (Gupta et al., 2012). Moreover, the system helps poor small farmers, who
have very small land holdings and a few heads of livestock diversify farm production, increase
cash income, improve the quality and quantity of food produced, and exploit unutilized
resources. Animals play a key and intercept the runoff. Prolonged retention of rainwater on the
land surface increases the amount of water entering the soil. The effective methods of in-situ
water harvesting are summer ploughing, broad bed and furrows, ridges and furrows, random tie
ridging, and compartmental bunding. In-situ moisture conservation does not confine to land
shaping carried out during cropping season, it encompasses off-season tillage and contour
farming as well.
Off-season tillage or summer ploughing:
Proper off-season tillage maintains higher stored moisture and thereby secures optimum
stand. It is done either by the country plough or by blade harrow during the non-crop season after
the harvest of the kharif crop depending on the amount of rainfall. Essentially it is meant to open
the soil for more water intake with rain. Enhancing the water-use efficiency of crops Water-use-
efficiency by crops can be improved by the selection of crops and cropping systems based on
available water supplies and increasing seasonal Evapotranspiration (ET). The latter can be
achieved by the selection of irrigation method, irrigation scheduling, tillage, mulching, and
fertilization.
7
Bed planting:
Bed planting, another RCT, has the potential to conserve significant quantities of water
(30–50%) (Kukal et al., 2005). Other benefits of bed-planting include, reduced seed rates,
conserved rainwater, facilitated mechanical weed control, minimized lodging in the wheat crop
(Gupta et al., 2000); cost reduction, and conservation of resources (Lichter et al., 2008).
Fertilization application practices are also easily performed by trafficking in the furrow bottoms
and the fertilizers can be banded through the surface residues, reducing thereby potential nutrient
losses (Limon-Ortega et al., 2002) under permanently raised bed planting. The raised bed
planting technique also provides an opportunity for crop diversity through the inclusion of
different crops as well as the feasibility of inter or relay cropping, thereby opening avenues for
generating alternate sources of productivity growth through efficient use of resource base. Bed
planting is widely adopted in the Indo- Gangetic Plains, proved to be a successful conservation
technology. In Pakistan, Akbar et al. (2007) reported about 36% water saving for broad beds and
about 10% for narrow beds compared to flat sowing, and 6% increased grain yield of wheat and
33% of maize. However, the use of direct dry seeding on flat and raised beds while resulting in
considerable water savings generally had negative impacts on rice yield (Choudhury et al., 2007;
Humphreys et al., 2010).
Direct seeded rice (DSR):
The shortages of labor and water, and soil fertility issues are causing an increasing
interest in shifting from puddling and transplanting to DSR. According to Pandey and Velasco
(2005), low wages and adequate availability of water favour transplanting, whereas, high wages
and low water availability favour DSR. The recent shift from transplanting to DSR in Southeast
Asian countries has been caused by labor shortages and rising wages (Pandey and Velasco,
2005). DSR can reduce the labor requirement by 50% compared with transplanting (Santhi et al.,
1998). The DSR system provides incentives for saving water (Humphreys et al., 2005). In
Northwest India, about 35– 57% water savings have been reported in research experiments in
DSR sown into unpuddled soils (Singh et al., 2002). Direct-seeded and transplanted rice grown
on raised beds decreased water use by 12–60% when compared with flooded, transplanted rice in
the IGP (Gupta et al., 2003).
System of Rice Intensification (SRI):
At present, SRI methods have been adopted in almost 50 countries, including major rice-
producing nations such as India, China, Vietnam and the Philippines (Uphoff, 2012). The
principles of SRI originate from experiments conducted by farmers in Madagascar to improve
rice productivity for resource-poor producers. Today, SRI is usually understood as a package of
possible practices, which have to be adapted to local conditions (Stoop, 2011). SRI produces
higher yields with less water and seeds (Barah, 2009; Zhao et al., 2009). Moreover, studies found
rice under SRI to be more robust against extreme weather events, pests, and diseases due to
improved plant vigor and root strength (Stoop et al., 2002). Alternating irrigation aims to tackle
various challenges such as the loss of soil quality and water scarcity, whereas early transplanting
and wide spacing are both meant to boost tillering (Thakur et al., 2010). However, a few studies
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identified higher labor requirements of SRI as a constraint to adoption (Senthilkumar et al.,
2008). Other studies showed that higher labour inputs occurred only in the early phase of
adoption; labour requirements seem to decrease with growing SRI experience (Barrett et al.,
2004; Uphoff, 2012).
Drip irrigation:
It is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the soil at very
low rates (2-20 liters/hour) from a system of small-diameter plastic pipes fitted with outlets
called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that only part of the soil in which
the roots grow is wetted (Figure 60), unlike surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves
wetting the whole soil profile. Drip irrigation is most suitable for row crops. Drip irrigation is
adaptable to any farmable slope. It has 85-90% WUE
Furrow irrigated raised beds (FIRB):
In this method of sowing FIRBs are made and keep 15cm distance rows and 55cm width
and 30cm wide furrow between two beds. It saves about 20 –30 % water saving.
Use of Nano fertilizers:
Nano fertilizer refers to a product that delivers nutrients to crops in one of three ways:
The nutrient can be encapsulated inside Nano-materials such as nanotubes or Nanoporous
materials. Coated with a thin protective polymer film. Delivered as particles or emulsions of
nanoscale dimensions. It is Slow, targeted, and efficient release becomes possible. In some cases,
the nanoparticles themselves can be used.
Green Seeker:
It is an integrated optical sensing, variable rate application & mapping system that
measures a crop's nitrogen requirements. The yield potential for a crop is identified using a
vegetative index known as NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) and an environmental
factor. The technology was developed at Oklahoma State University, USA, and licensed to N
Tech Industries in 2001 (http://www.ntechindustries.com). It offers a more efficient and precise
way to manage crop input i.e. nitrogen.
Happy Seeder Technology:
It is a machine that can sow seeds and fertilizer in a single operation at the right place
without any kind of tilling or soil disturbance. This machine can work easily with every type of
crop residue with a load of 10-12 tonnes without any problem. It has 9 tines which means that it
can seed nine rows in one operation. It needs a minimum of 45HP double clutch tractor and its
weight is around 750kg. This machine can cover 10-15 hectares.
Advantages of RCTs
➢ Saving of resources :- 60-85%
➢ Yield advantages by :- 3-17%
➢ Increase in profit by :-11-45%
➢ Lower specific cost :- 8-27%
➢ Saving in irrigation water :- 4- 38%
➢ Reduced weed population :-10-48%
9
Machinery Development and CA

The real success of CA in South Asia started with the development of second-generation planters
including the precise seed metering and furrow opening system in addition to seeding in the loose
and standing residue. At present four machines are tested for seeding direct-seeded rice and
wheat: double disc colters, punch planter/star wheel, rotary disk drill (RDD), and turbo happy
seeder. Though the major emphasis was on CA-based RCTs, viz. zero/ reduced tillage, direct-
seeded rice, crop residue management, and crop diversification through raised bed planting but for
realizing the full potential of the technologies, the other RCTs like new tools and techniques for
nutrient management, viz. LCC, SPAD, GreenSeeker, etc., nutrient use efficient genotypes,
integrated crop (ICM) and pest management (IPM), laser aided land leveling, etc. were also
integrated by layer, one above the other to ‘divisible in application’ such as to provide options to
the farmers as per their resource endowments.
Future prospects:
Integrating concerns of productivity, resource conservation, quality, and the
environment is now fundamental to sustained productivity growth. CA/RCTs offer a new
paradigm for agricultural research and development different from the earlier one, which mainly
aimed at achieving specific food grains production targets. A shift in paradigm has become a
necessity in view of widespread problems of resource degradation, which accompanied past
strategies to enhance production with little concern for resource integrity. However, for realizing
potential benefits, the full CA involving all the key elements in a systems perspective is to be
developed and adopted at the farm level. The following researchable issues are identified for the
future: The availability of machinery/equipment for the promotion of RCTs is a prerequisite for
achieving the targets of agricultural production. There is a need to on produce suitable ZT drills
for loose straw conditions. Standardization of the metering system for the seeding/planting of
pulses, oil seeds, rice, and wheat needs to be worked out to have an accurate seeding rate.
Availability of implementation at economical cost is the major constraint in the promotion of
bed planting of crops
➢ Development of low power requiring tools for tillage and crop establishment practices
with the least disturbances to soil/ soil cover (in situ crop residues), especially under
conditions of small farms.
➢ For alleviation of subsoil compaction due to the indiscriminate movement of heavy
traffic in the field, systematic research work on controlled traffic ZT drills needs to be
initiated.
➢ Long-term effects of mechanization and RCTs on crop, soil, biodiversity, and climate in
various production systems and agroecology for the profitability and
➢ sustainability of different cropping systems should be the future agenda of research under
the natural resource management programs.
➢ Designing long-term experiments to study the impact of conservation agriculture on soil
health, water, and nutrient use efficiency, C sequestration, GHG emission and ecosystem
services.
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(ISBN: 978-93-88901-51-2)
➢ Region-specific interventions for crop- diversification through substitution/
intensification and matching production technologies.
➢ Identification and standardization of new cropping, intercropping, and novel farming
system combinations including livestock and fisheries, which can be economically viable.
➢ Developing complete package of practices for CA for prominent cropping systems in
each agro-ecological region, particularly in rainfed and dryland ecosystems.
➢ Site-specific nutrient management/ balanced nutrient supply systems and precision input
management for intensive major cropping systems to optimize resource use and enhance
efficiencies.
➢ Discouraging the burning of residues and utilizing them gainfully for CA in improving soil
health and reducing the environmental pollution. In regions where crop residues are
used for animal feed, some amount of residues should be recycled into the soil.
➢ Development of cost-effective technologies for in-situ crop residue management and
efficient application of different kinds of fertilizers and herbicides.
➢ Promoting conservation agriculture practices, especially in water harvesting, nutrient,
pest, and disease management.
➢ Developing crop varieties to produce more root biomass to improve the natural soil
resource base.
➢ Evolving efficient water and soil management practices in addition to the identification
of crops and varieties with high water use efficiency.
➢ With the use of herbicide-tolerant crops, weed resistance is becoming a serious problem
for many CA farmers worldwide. The development of economically viable strategies to
prevent and manage herbicide resistance under such a situation should be a major
research area.
➢ Farmer’s involvement in participatory research and demonstration trials can accelerate the
adoption of CA. Improvement in coordination among various stakeholders (research,
extension service, farmers, service providers, agricultural machinery manufacturers, etc.)
for the transfer of technologies will play a pivotal role in accelerating the adoption of new
interventions.
Conclusion:
Resource conservation technology has emerged as a potential tool for enhancing resource
use efficiency, crop productivity, and profitability. Improvements in land and water productivity
are an important interdisciplinary approach and are only possible by choosing the appropriate
resource conservation technology depending upon the region. Resource Conservation practices
resulted in better soil aggregation, and soil biological health and provided a favorable impact on
the rhizosphere for crop growth and productivity. RCT which form the basis for CA has the only
solution to save soil, water, and other natural resources. Indian agriculture is likely to suffer
losses in long run due to heat, erratic weather, and decreased irrigation availability. Adaptation
of laser land leveling direct seeded rice (DSR), bed planting, and zero tillage (ZT) are among the
common RCTs and mitigation strategies that can help minimize negative impacts to some extent.
11
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NATURAL FARMING: WAY TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Meenu*, Sintu Malik and Gulab Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bhiwani, CCSHAU, Hisar
Abstract:
There is a tremendous increase of chemicals fertilizers and pesticides in conventional
farming from last few decades which has harmful effects on soil, human and animal health. The
soil is becoming unfertile day by day. Chemical farming is not good for the environment also
and causing economic loss to the farmers, so, there is a need for alternative farming system
which not only sustainable but also ensures food security and safety. In such situation, natural
farming can be a way to recover from this type of health and environmental problems. Most of
the inputs in natural farming are made by the farmers using the residue of their farms and
animals. No input is purchased from outside the farm which is also beneficial from economic
perspective also. The four main principles used in natural farming are Bijamrit, Jivamrit,
Achhadan and Wapsa. In natural farming, different leaf extracts are used for insect pests and
disease management. Thus the quality of farm produce is also increased as all the practices in
natural farming are completely chemical free.
Keywords: environmental problems, health, natural farming
Introduction:
Agriculture in its prevailing form requires farmers to rely heavily on inorganic external
chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides. They contaminate groundwater and other water
dependent ecosystems, reduce soil fertility over time and contribute to biodiversity loss in
farmlands (Aktar et al., 2009 and Singh, R. (2000). Small holdings are a critical source of
livelihoods in developing countries that produce about 80 per cent of the food consumed (The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, 2015). Agriculture, today, accounts for almost 70
per cent of the world’s freshwater consumption (Clay, J. 2004). Prevailing agricultural practices
such as mono-cropping decreases soil moisture content, causing tremendous stress on water
resources. Alternative low cost farming practices are much needed for sustainable development
goals and ensuring food security. Natural farming is one of the low-cost farming practice which
cuts off the input costs and yields higher. Masanobu Fukuoka, popularised natural farming. He
was a Japanese Scientist. Firstly, he practiced natural farming on his own farm which was
situated in island of Shikoku. He was known for his natural farming and re-vegetation of
desertified lands. He was a proponent of no-till, herbicide and pesticide free cultivation methods
from which he created a particular method of agriculture, commonly referred to as "natural
farming" or "do-nothing farming"
Many people think that when we practice agriculture, nature is helping us in our
efforts in agriculture production. This is only human-centred viewpoint. Instead of this, we
receive only what nature provides to us. In India, noted agriculturist Subhash Palekar has
helped popularise natural farming practices across the country for which he was honored with
17
Padma Shri in 2016 (Anon., 2016). Natural farming has been popularised in southern India. It
was firstly evolved in Karnatka (Kumar, N. 2012). Natural Farming is chemical-free farming
method that is considered to be an agroecology-based in which integration of crops, trees and
livestock is done which promotes functional biodiversity (LVC, 2010; Rosset and Martinez-
Torres, 2012).
Role of micro-organisms in improving soil health is well known to us. Microbes provide
crucial ecosystem services. The microbiota in the soils in which they grow provide nitrogen,
phosphorus and other essential nutrients. Microbes are known to produce 50% of the oxygen and
at the same time eliminate same proportion of CO2. They also eliminate about 90% of methane
gas. Nicole et al (2015). Beneath the imprint of one’s foot, extending down into the soil, are 300
miles of mycorrhizal fungal hyphae. In healthy soil, these fungi together with the full coteries of
soil microbes help in regeneration, resilience and revitalization of soil system making all needed
nutrients available to the plants through fixation, decomposition, solubilization and
mineralization (Michael Phillips, 2017).
The four pillars of natural farming
The four pillars of Natural Farming, like jivamrit, Bijamrit, Achhadan and whapsa aims
to enhance nature’s efforts and eliminate use of external resources, debt and dependency (Table-
1). Jivamrit meaning ‘life tonic’, jivamrit is made from, cow dung, urine, water, jaggery, legume
flour and soil. It is fermented microbial culture. Soil act as inoculum of local micro-organisms.
Jivamrit promotes microbial activity and organic matter in the soil. Jivamrit also inhibits fungal
and bacterial growth which are known to cause diseases, jivamrit significantly increases
earthworm activity. Dung and urine of indigenous cows (Bos indicus) is found to be superior
microculture compared to that of introduced European breeds (Palekar, 2005).
The practices of Natural Farming include the addition of microbial cultures to enhance
decomposition and recycling of nutrients; use of local seeds instead of hybrid ones,
multicropping, trees and cows of native breeds); effective spacing of crops, water conservation
by mulching, intercropping and crop rotations. Mulching has huge positive effect on Soil
Organic Carbon content due to enhanced soil and water conservation, lower average and
maximum soil temperatures under mulch than in unmulched soil surface, return of biomass to the
soil, increase in soil biodiversity, and strengthening of the nutrient cycling mechanisms (Lal and
Kimble, 2000).
Preparation of Jeevamrit: - Put 200 litres of water in a barrel - Add 10 Kg fresh local
cow dung - Add 5 to 10 liters aged cow urine - Add 2 Kg of Jaggery (a local type of brown
sugar) - Add 2 Kg of pulses flour and - Add a handful of soil from the bund of the farm. Stir the
solution well and let it ferment for 48 hours in the shade. Jeevamrit is ready for application. The
200 litres of Jeevamrit is sufficient for one acre of land. During the 48-hour fermentation
process, the aerobic and anaerobic bacteria present in the cow dung and urine multiply as they
eat up organic ingredients (like pulse flour and jaggery). Jeevamrit can be applied at the time of
sowing or with every irrigation or as 10% foliar spray. The preparation is stored up to a
maximum of 15 days and used in the field either through spray or mixing with irrigation water.
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Jivamrit enhances the available earthworms activity which. Using polycropping and different
mulches with trees, crop biomass helps in soil moisture conservation & adds to organic carbon
also. Seed treatment with cow dung, urine and lime based formulations. Ensuring soil fertility
through cow urine, cow dung, undisturbed soil, pulses flour & jaggery concotion Jeevamrit
Beejamrit Mulching Whapsa to the individual plant. Jeevamrit can also be applied through drip
irrigation system.
Table 1: Four pillars of natural farming
Sr. Method Preparation Benefits
No.
1 Jivamrit It is made from cow-dung It provides nutrients, but it also acts a
(20kg), urine (5-10 L), catalytic agent which promotes activity
jaggery (20kg) and flour of microorganisms in soil, as well as
(2kg) and is applied to increases earthworm activity. It also
crops with each irrigation helps to prevent from fungal and
cycle. bacterial diseases.
2 Bijamrit It is basically made up of It is a seed treatment, equipped in
water (20 L), cow dung protecting young roots from fungus as
(5kg), urine (5 L), lime well as from soilborne and seed-borne
(50g) and a handful soil. diseases.
3 Acchadan It can be done by soil It conserves soil moisture, by reducing
Mulching mulch, straw mulch. evaporation
4 Wapsa The irrigation should be It is condition where air molecules and
moisture reduced and irrigation water molecules present in soil.
should be practiced at
noon in alternate furrows.
Proponents of Natural Farming argue that the dung of indigenous cow and small quantity
of undisturbed soil has huge number of diverse microorganisms which help in increasing the bio-
availability of nutrients to the plants. Soil is a complex ecosystem hosting bacteria, fungi, plants,
and animals (Bonkowski et al., 2009; Muller et al., 2016). Soil microbes metabolize recalcitrant
forms of soil-borne nutrients to liberate these elements for plant nutrition. In natural ecosystems,
most of the nutrients like N, P, and S are in bound in soil. They are minimally available for the
plants. Micro-organisms present in the soil help these molecules to depolymerise and be
available to the plants. So Jivamrit aims to increase these microbial activities so that the nutrients
can be available to the plants (Jacoby et al., 2017). Many different bacterial genera such as
Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Kluyvera spp., Morgarella morganii, Pasteurella spp., Providencia alcaligenes,
Providencia stuartii and Pseudomonas spp. from cow dung were isolated by Sawant et al.
(2007). Gupta et al. (2016) reported microorganisms present in cow dung have increase soil
fertility through phosphate solubilization. 219 bacterial strains were isolated by Lu et al. (2014)
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from cow dung, out of which 59 isolates showed nematicidal activity against more than 90% of
the tested nematodes.
Pest control
Pest control solutions According to natural farming adopter farmers, when chemical
fertilizers are applied to the crops, the vegetative growth of the crop is very good and lush green.
This attracts the insects/ pests to the crops. While in case of Jeevamritha, the leaves colour is not
that much green, and therefore, menace of pests is limited. However, when infestation occurs,
the farmers prepare different types of formulations (Kashayam) made up of locally available
plant materials to control the pests. Some of these are (Table 2):
1. Neemastra is the most commonly used pest controlling solution which is prepared by the
farmers. Cow dung, cow urine, neem leaves, and water are used for preparing the neemastra.
The neem leaves are grinded into paste and added with water. The solution is directly
applied to plants without any further dilution. For this, 5 kg of neem paste is added with
around 2-3kg of dung, 10-20 litres of cow urine, handful of soil. The solution is fermented
for about 48 hours. It was found that the farmers are making the solution ranging from 100-
200 litres depending upon their usage and crops grown. Committment of State Government
Knowledge (Experiential learning) Extension (Champion farmer) Ownership (Women
SHGs).
2. Brahmastra is prepared from five types of bitter leaves. Neem leaves are used along with the
other bitter-tasting leaves, like custard apple, chillies, etc. these leaves are crushed and
added to 20-30 litres of cow urine and boiled for about 2-3 hours. The solution is cooled for
about 12 hours and is filtered using fine cloths. The solution is further diluted with about 15
litres of water for every 1 litre of Brahamastra. The farmers are using 10-20 litres of cow
urine and 5kg of neem leaves in preparing Brahmastra.
3. Agniastra is prepared by adding 5 kg of neem paste with around 1 kg of tobacco leaves, 0.5
kg of chillies and 0.5 kilo of garlic paste. These are added in about 25- 30 litres of cow urine
and is cooled down for about 24 hours. The solution is then filtered and used. The solution is
diluted before applying in the field for every half litre of Agniastra about 15 litres of water is
added. Agniastra is considered to be effective against insects which live inside plant parts
like Leaf Roller, Stem Borer, Fruit borer, Pod borer. The pest controlling solutions were also
made available to the farmers at NPM (Nutrients Pest management) shops in Andhra
Pradesh. Apart from the abovementioned solutions, there are other pest controlling solutions
being used by the farmers. It is being used by the farmers mainly in the paddy crop.
4. Tutikada rasam is prepared from datura leaves and cow urine. The leaves are boiled in cow
urine for 2-3 hours and is cooled then it is filtered using a cloth.
5. Dashparini Kashyam It is prepared from ten types of plant leaves. The leaves of Neem,
Agele marmelos, Calotropis, Senna auriculata, Papaya, Custard apple, Gauva, Vitex
negundo, castor, Pomegranate, Nerium, Ocimum, Aloe vera, Tobacco, Datura, Lantana
camara and Pongamia pinnata are used in preparing the solution. Green chilli and garlic are
also crushed and added and mixed with 20 litres of cow urine. It is kept up to 45 days for
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fermentation. The solution is filtered and sprayed after dilution. In about 8-10 litres of
solution 100 litres of water is added for dilution.
Table 2: Pest management in natural farming
Sr. Name of Pest Composition Benefits
No. Mgt. Formulae
1 Agniastra It composed of 10 L local cow urine, 1 kg It is effective against
Tobacco, 500gm of Green Chilli, 500gm of the pests like leaf
Local Garlic, 5kg Neem leaves pulp roller, stem borer,
(crushed in urine). For spraying, 2 L fruit borer, pod
Brahmastra is taken in 100 L water. borer.
2 Brahmastra It is prepared by neem leaves, custard apple It is used to control
leaves, guava leaves, lantern camellia all of sucking pests,
leaves, pomegranate leaves, papaya leaves fruit borer, pod
and white dhatura leaves crushed and boiled borer.
in urine.
3 Dashparni ark Neem leaves–5 kg, Vitex negundo leaves-2 It can be applied as a
kg, Aristolochia leaves - 2 kg, Papaya foliar spray to
(Carica papaya)- 2 kg, Tinospora cordifolia control insect pest.
leaves- 2kg, Annona squamosal (Custard
apple) leaves- 2kg, Pongamia pinnata
(Karanja)leaves- 2kg, Ricinus communis
(Castor) leaves- 2 kg, Nerium indicum- 2
kg, Calotropis procera leaves-2 kg, Green
chili paste2 kg, Garlic paste-250 g, Cow
dung-3 kg, Cow urine-5 lit, Water-200 lit.
4 Neemastra It is made up of local cow urine (5 L), cow It is used for sucking
dung (5kg) and neem leaves and neem pulp pests and mealy bug.
(5kg) fermented for 24 hrs.
Other principles of natural farming

Vermicomposting:
It is not suggested in natural farming because Eisinea feotida which is an exotic species
of earthworm, is uded in vermicomposting and there are no quality-control measures in India to
test vermicompost. This species is known to carry toxic heavy metals in its body.
Intercropping
This is primarily how Natural Farming gets its “Zero Budget” name. It doesn’t mean that
the farmer is going to have no costs at all, but rather that any costs will be compensated for by
income from intercrops, making farming a close to zero budget activity. Palekar explains in
detail the crop and tree associations that work well for the south Asian context.
21
Contours and bunds

To preserve rain water, Palekar explains in detail how to make the contours and bunds,
which promote maximum efficacy for different crops
Cow dung
Accroding to Palekar, dung from the Bos indicus (humped cow) is most beneficial and
has the highest concentrations of micro-organisms as compared to European cow breeds such as
Holstein. The entire Natural Farming method is centred on the Indian cow, which historically has
been part of Indian rural life.
In natural farming growing of multiple crops with very low costs allows the farmers to
earn throughout the year (Babu, 2008). This helped them to phase out loans. As one Natural
Farming farmer said: In Natural Farming our expenses are very low. It doesn’t matter what the
yield is, farmers still make a profit because costs are negligible. Plus they have added intercrops
to this so they get income from many crops, not just one. Yield is not an important concept for
us.
Table 3: Organic farming v/s Natural farming
Organic Farming Natural Farming
Specific • Farmyard manure • Indigenous cows
components • Vermicompost • Jeevamrit and FYM
used • Biofertilizers • Ghanajeevamrit
• Panchgavya • Beejamrit
• Hybrid Seeds/High • Mulching
yielding varieties • Inter/mixed/polycrops
• Management of Insect- • Seeds of local cultivars
pests and Diseases with • Management of insect-pests and
Biological agents diseases with home made
materials
Merits • Chemical free • Regular and better farm income
• Eco-friendly from intercrop
• Assurity of market price • Low production cost
• Less use of FYM/Inputs
• Improved family health due to
no use of chemicals
• Improved soil health
Demerits • Huge quantity of FYM • Need of indigenous cows, dung
• Yield reduction during and urine
conversion period • Yield risk
• Products are expensive • Labour practices
• Stringent procedure • There is no established market
for natural products
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Conclusions:
Studies on existing farming situation has illustrated a demand for an alternative to current
agricultural practices. The high input systems which include chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc.
characterize Indian agriculture can lead to negative financial, environmental, and social
outcomes. Natural Farming combat these issues by presenting an alternative appraoch to
conventional agriculture. There is a need of more field research on natural farming. To our
knowledge there are no peer-reviewed studies which examine how natural farming changes soil
composition, particularly in the long term. Long-term, peer-reviewed studies to fill knowledge
gaps are essential for scaling up of Natural Farming. Preliminary data suggest that Natural
Farming will not be a blanket solution that will achieve the same outcomes for everyone, and this
is perhaps the most important consideration moving forward.
References:
1. Anonymous. 2016. “Venkaiah Naidu congratulates farmer on winning Padma Shri”. Indian
Express
2. Aktar, M., Sengupta, D., & Chowdhury, A. (2009). “Impact of pesticides use in
agriculture: their benefits and hazards”. Interdiscip Toxicol. 2(1): 1–12.
3. Bonkowski M, Villenave C and Griffiths B. (2009). “Rhizosphere fauna: the functional and
structural diversity of intimate interactions of soil fauna with plant roots”. Plant Soil. 321,
213–233.
4. Singh, R. (2000). “Environmental Consequences of Agricultural Development: A Case
Study from the Green”. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 82 (1-3), 97-103.
5. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity. (2015). TEEB for Agriculture & Food:
An Interim Report. Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme.
6. Clay, J. (2004). A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices Island Press.
World Agriculture and the Environment.
7. Kumar, Nanda (2012). “Subash Palekar’s zero budget no-till rice farming”.
8. Babu, R. (2008). Action research report on Subhash Palekar zero budget natural farming.
Mysore: Administrative Training Institute
9. Gupta, K. K, Aneja K. R, and Rana Deepanshu (2016). Current status of cow dung as a
bioresource for sustainable development. Bioresources and Bioprocessing (28). Online
article.
10. Jacoby R, Peukert M, Succurro A, Koprivova A and Kopriva S (2017). The Role of Soil
Microorganisms in Plant Mineral Nutrition-Current Knowledge and Future Directions.
Frontiers in Plant Science.
11. Lu Hao, Xin Wang, Ke-Qin Zhang, Youyao Xu, Liang Zhou, Guohong Li (2014)
Identification and nematicidal activity of bacteria isolated from cow dung. Annals in
Microbiology, Ann Microbiol 64:407–411.
12. Muller D.B., Vogel C., Bai Y., Vorholt J.A. (2016). “The plant microbiota: systems-level
insights and perspectives,”. Annual Review of Genetics . 50: 211–234.
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13. Palekar, S. (2005). The philosophy of spiritual farming I. 2nd ed. Amravati: Zero Budget
Natural Farming Research, Development & Extension Movement, Amravati, Maharashtra,
India.
14. Nicole D, McFall-Ngai M and Zhao L. (2015). Microbiology: Create a global microbiome
effort. Nature 526: 631–634.
15. Phillips M. (2017). Mycorrhizal Planet: How Symbiotic Fungi Work with Roots to Support
Plant Health and Build Soil Fertility. Chelsea Green Publishing, Vermont, USA.
16. Rosset PM and Martinez-Torres ME. (2012). Rural social movements and agroecology:
Context, theory and process. Ecology and Society, 17(3):
17. Sawant AA, Hegde NV, Straley BA, Donaldson SC, Love BC, Knabel SJ, Jayarao BM.
(2007) Antimicrobial-resistant enteric bacteria from dairy cattle. Appl Environ Microbiol,
73:156–163.
18. LVC (2010). La Via Campesina. Sustainable peasant and family farm agriculture can feed
the world. La Via Campesina, Jakarta, Indonesia.
19. Lal R and Kimble JM (2000). Tropical Ecosystems and the Global C Cycle (Chapter 1). In:
Global Climate Change and Tropical Ecosystems (Eds.) R Lal, JM Kimble and BM
Stewart. CRC Press, pp. 3-32.
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RELEVANCE OF SOIL (SOLUM) DEPTH IN AGRICULTURE

Supriya K*, Shilpa and Kavyashree C
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584104 (Karnataka), India
Abstract:
The chapter defines about the importance of soil (solum) depth, its role in controlling
the various factors in agriculture. Soil depth is a critical attribute of any soil, and determines
rooting, moisture and nutrient storage, mineral reserve, anchorage, and a range of conditions
that affect plant growth, or land suitability for any utilization type. In general, soil texture, pH,
organic matter and all primary macronutrients observed significant variation with soil depth.
The surface layer possesses higher content of majority soil parameters. There is good evidence
that in many drought environments, rooting depth is positively related to soil exploration and
greater acquisition of water from deep soil strata. Evidence exists that deep rooting is also
important in terminal and intermittent drought scenarios that are more common in rainfed
agriculture. Deep plant roots directly and indirectly support fauna and microbial communities,
and are important for soil water extraction, reducing nutrient loss, and soil carbon sequestration.
Understanding the soil fertility on depth-basis is an important management tool in assessing the
nutrient requirement of the crops. Soil processes, soil properties, and microbial communities are
depth dependent, and for a more complete understanding, soils should be studied to a greater
depth.
Keywords: Soil depth, Soil processes, Soil properties, Microbial communities, Effective root
zone, Carbon sequestration
Introduction:
Soil depth defines the root space and volume of soil from where the plants fulfil
their water and nutrient demands. It is a critical attribute of any soil, and determines rooting,
moisture and nutrient storage, mineral reserve, anchorage, and a range of conditions that affect
plant growth. Soil structure and texture, infiltration, organic matter, microbial biomass,
temperature, soil colour, bulk density and compaction are also affected. Soil depth plays an
important role in crop production having influence on seed germination, effective root zone,
soil fertility, stable carbon storage, moisture conservation, regulating runoff and soil erosion.
Nutrient storage and availability is significantly affected by the depth of the soil, and are
important for agricultural production and plant growth (Yost and Hartemink, 2019). Lilienfein
et al. (2001) found that more than 40% of the total nutrient stored for cropping and pastures
were in the top 30 cm of soil. About two-thirds of the nutrient for deep-rooting plants and trees
is found in the top 2 m of soil, but there are large differences between soil types. Many soils are
deep, yet soil below 20 cm remains largely unexplored. In general, the ability to exploit water
in deep soil strata is clearly advantageous and has been posited as a central element of ideotypes
for breeding more drought-tolerant crop (Lynch and Wojciechowski, 2015). Exotic plants can
25
have shallower roots than native species, so their impact on microorganisms is anticipated to
change with depth. The composition and network structure of both fungal and bacterial
communities will change according to increasing depth, and diversity and enzymatic function
will decrease. In most soils, the concentration of SOC decreases with depth, and there is
potential to sequester SOC with depth. Dissolved organic matter, bioturbation, plant roots, and
root exudates are the main sources of organic carbon input into deeper soil horizons (Rumpel
and Kogel-Knabner 2011). As SOC inputs move deeper in the soil, the turnover rate decreases.
Climate change will thus affect SOC stocks in deeper soils.
Depth of soil profile refers to the top to parent material or bedrock or to the layer of obstacles
for roots. It differs significantly for different soil types. It is one of the basic criterions used in
soil classification.
Classification of soil depth:
• Very shallow (< 25 cm)
• Shallow (25-50 cm)
• Moderately deep (50-90 cm)
• Deep (90-150 cm)
• Very deep (> 150 cm)
The soil is arranged in layers or horizons during its formation. These layers or horizons are
known as the soil profile. It is the vertical cross-section of the soil, made of layers running
parallel to the surface. Soil profile helps in determining the role of the soil as well. It helps one to
differentiate the given sample of soil from other soil samples based on factors like its colour,
texture, structure, and thickness, as well as its chemical composition.
Fig. 1: Soil profile

The soil profile is composed of a series of horizons or layers of soil stacked one on top of
the other. These layers or horizons are represented by letters O, A, E, C, B and R.
• The O-Horizon: The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is mainly
composed of organic materials.
• The A-Horizon or Topsoil: This layer is rich in organic material and is known as humus
layer. The topsoil is soft and porous to hold enough air and water. This layer consists of
microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria, etc.
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• The E-Horizon: This layer is composed of nutrients leached from the O and A horizons.
This layer is more common in forested areas and has lower clay content.
• The B-Horizon or Subsoil: It is the subsurface horizon, present just below the topsoil
and above the bedrock. It is comparatively harder and more compact than topsoil.
• The C-Horizon or Saprolite: This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made up
of broken bedrock. This layer is also known as saprolite. The geological material present
in this zone is cemented.
• The R-Horizon: It is a compacted and cemented layer. Different types of rocks such as
granite, basalt and limestone are found here.
Importance of soil depth in agriculture:
• Seed germination: Deeper placement of seeds results in delayed germination, due to
lower soil temperatures or result in poor germination or seed injury.
• Effective root zone: In a normal soil with good aeration and without restrictive layers, a
greater portion of roots of most plants remains within 45 to 60 cm surface.
• Soil fertility: Deeper soils generally can provide more water and nutrients to plants than
shallow soils.
• Stable carbon storage: Most organic carbon is stored in the upper 30 cm of soil because
the surface is where biological activity is most active. Soils do contain carbon below this
depth, but deeper carbon is generally of inorganic nature in aridic soils.
• Moisture conservation: With the increasing depth, the fluctuation of water content
decayed gradually or even disappeared.
• Reduces runoff: Areas with deep soil depth will have greater capacity to absorb and
store water thereby reduces runoff.
• Prevents soil erosion: Soil depth decreases as a result of soil erosion and soil erosion is
a serious threat to soil quality and productivity.
• Soil sampling: In shallow rooted crops, soil sampling is done upto 15 cm depth but in
deep rooted crops, it is recommended to collect samples upto 30 cm depth of soil.
Influence of soil depth on various soil parameters:
1. Soil structure: Soil structure is defined by the way individual particles of sand, silt,
and clay are assembled. Single particles when assembled appear as larger particles.
These are called aggregates. Aggregation of soil particles can occur in different
patterns, resulting in different soil structures. Granular structure is most common in
surface soil layers, especially those with adequate organic matter. Columnar structure
is often found in soils with excessive sodium, due to the dispersing effects of sodium,
which destroys soil structure, rendering the soil effectively sealed to air and water
movement. Platey structure has the least amount of pore space and is common in
compacted soils.
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Fig. 2: Types of soil aggregates

2. Soil texture: Soil texture (such as loam, sandy loam or clay) refers to the proportion
of sand, silt and clay sized particles that make up the mineral fraction of the soil.
Texture often changes with depth so roots have to cope with different conditions as
they penetrate the soil. A soil can be classified according to the way the texture
changes with depth. The 2 profile types are:
• Uniform- same texture throughout the soil profile
• Texture-contrast- abrupt texture change between the topsoil and subsoil.
3. Infiltration: Infiltration is the process of water entry into a soil from rainfall or
irrigation. Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which a soil in any given
condition is capable of absorbing water. The rate of infiltration is primarily controlled
by the rate of soil water movement below the surface and the soil water movement
continues after an infiltration event, as the infiltrated water is redistributed. Infiltration
and percolation play a key role in surface runoff, groundwater recharge,
evapotranspiration, soil erosion, and transport of chemicals in surface and subsurface
waters. Water moves more quickly through the large pores in sandy soil than it does
through the small pores in clayey soil, especially if the clay is compacted and has little
or no structure or aggregation. The steeper the slope, the lesser is the infiltration and
more runoff occurs. As slope increases, infiltration decreases. Infiltration of soil is
rapid near wetting zone before reaching the saturated zone. Beyond saturated zone, it
declines.
4. Water and nutrient storage: Deeper soils generally can provide more water and nutrients
to plants than more shallow soils.
Globally, the ranking of vertical distributions among nutrients was shallowest to deepest
in the following order: P > K > Ca > Mg > Na = Cl = SO4.
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Fig. 3: Physical classification of soil water

On the basis of interaction of water molecules with soil along the depth, soil water can be
classified into three types:
• Gravitational water
• Capillary water
• Hygroscopic water
Gravitational water: This is a free form of water which is held loosely in soil. Majorly,
these are seen in the soil’s macropores. Very little quantity of gravitational water is made
available to plants as they quickly drain the water down the table in all, excluding the
majority compact of soils. Hence, plants are not able to use this water as much as they move
rapidly out of the soil.
Capillary water: It is the water that is contained in the micropores of the soil, in the soil
pore spaces precisely. This water, which composes the soil solution, is loosely held around
the particles of soil. It is the main water available to plants as they are trapped in the soil
solution. Capillary water is retained in the soil by capillary action (force) which is less than
the atmospheric pressure. Thus, capillary water is retained in soil as the properties of surface
tension (adhesion and cohesion) of the soil micropores are more strong than the
gravitational attraction or gravitational force. But, since soil tends to dry out, the size of the
pore increases and gravity begins to turn the capillary water into gravitational water, thus
moving it down.
Hygroscopic Water: This form of water makes for a fine film wrapping particles of water
and is typically not readily available to plants. It is found not only in pores but also on the
surface of soil particles. These are tightly held in soil and cannot be eliminated except for
over drying at 105 ℃. Hygroscopic water is tightly bound to soil by adhesion properties,
which causes some water only to be consumed by the roots of plants. As this form of water
is seen on the particles of soil and not in pores, only some types of soils composed of
several pores (such as clays) will comprise a high percentage of it.
29
Fig. 4: The effects of soil depth on soil properties and microbial groups
5. Organic matter: Soil organic matter (SOM) is largely concentrated in the top 30 cm
of the soil, but there is growing evidence that deeper soil horizons have the capacity to
sequester high amounts of SOC despite the concentrations in the subsoil.
The subsoil carbon sequestration may be achieved by higher inputs of fairly stable
organic matter to deeper soil horizons. Generally, organic matter content decreases
with increasing depth from the surface.
6. Temperature: Soil temperature is an important property that is essential for many soil
processes and reactions that may include, but are not limited to, water and nutrient
uptakes, microbial activities, nutrient cycling, root growth, and many other processes.
Soil temperature properties change by the radiant, thermal and latent energy exchange
processes that take place at the soil surface. As the depth of soil increases, amplitude
of temperature decreases. After a depth of 0.4 m, there is no diurnal variation of soil
temperature. Annual variation of soil temperature with depth. After a depth of 4 m, the
soil temperature becomes constant.
7. Microbial biomass: The microbial biomass (fungi: bacteria) ratio declined
significantly with depth, while the ratio of Gram-positive to Gram-negative bacteria
increased with depth in both ecosystems. Microbial community composition showed
significant differences among soil depths and between ecosystems. SOM content is
highly correlated with bacterial abundance along soil depth. With increasing soil
depth, soil aeration and organic matter decreases, thus decrease the microorganism
population. This indicates that surface soil is rich in microorganism population since
the entire environment such as organic compound, aeration, temperature, etc.
8. Soil colour: With depth below the soil surface, colours usually become lighter,
yellower, or redder. Colour can be used as a clue to mineral content of a soil. Iron
minerals, by far, provide the most and the greatest variety of pigments in earth and
soil.
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Soil colour is usually due to 3 main pigments:
• Black - from organic matter
• Red - from iron and aluminium oxides
• White - from silicates and salt.
9. Bulk density and compaction: Bulk density typically increases with soil depth since
subsurface layers have reduced organic matter, aggregation, and root penetration
compared to surface layers.
The densification of soil mass is commonly known as compaction. Soil
compaction can influence plant height by preventing normal root development. Soil
compaction decreases soil fertility and increases soil erosion. Soil compaction values
increase with the measurement depth when the soil layer being measured is between 0
and a certain depth. When the measurement is carried out for a soil layer of 0.1 m, the
soil compaction increases with the increase in soil layer depth upto 0.4 m.
Influence of soil depth on crops:
1. Germination of crops: Deeper sowing sometimes ensures crop survival under
adverse weather and soil conditions. Planting too shallow may result in poor
germination due to low soil moisture retention near the soil surface or seed injury due
to insects or disease. Similarly, if placement is too deep, seed may have delayed
germination due to lower soil temperatures or result in poor germination or seed
injury. Good seed depth 1.5 to 2.0 inches or even deeper is recommended in dry
conditions to ensure good moisture availability for successful seed germination. The
majority of weed seeds lying below about 5 cm soil depth remain dormant and act as
source for future flushes of weeds. Weed seeds fail to germinate with increasing soil
depth.
2. Type of crops: Soil depth can greatly influence the types of plants that can grow in
them. Deeper soils generally can provide more water and nutrients to plants than more
shallow soils. Furthermore, most plants rely on soil for mechanical support and this is
especially true for tall woody plants (e.g., shrubs, trees).
Depending on the soil depth, crops are classified as follows:
• Shallow rooted (12-18 inches) – rice, onion, potato, radish.
• Moderately deep rooted (18-24 inches) –wheat, groundnut, chilli.
• Deep rooted ( > 24 inches) – cotton, maize, jowar.
3. Effective root zone depth: The maximum depth in soil strata, in which the crop
spreads its root system and derives water from the soil is termed as effective root zone
depth. It is the depth within which most crop roots are concentrated, which was
estimated as ∼50–100 cm for wheat, maize, barley and canola, as ∼60–70 cm for peas,
as ∼120 cm for alfalfa. Some crops, such as irrigated pasture, citrus, bananas,
avocados and low-chill stone fruit develop a mass of shallow roots with only a few
roots penetrating deeper into the soil. The extraction of water from the root zone is
31
about 40% in the upper quarter, 30% in the second quarter, 20% in the third quarter
followed by 10% in the fourth quarter.
Fig. 5: Effective root zone

Table 1: Effective root zone depth of different crops
Sl. No. Crop name Root zone depth (cm)
1 Cabbage 50
2 Rice, potato, small vegetables 60
3 Green beans 70
4 Tobacco, sweet pepper 80
5 Artichoke, banana, dry beans 90
6 Maize, pulses, soybean, sugarbeet, tomato 100
7 Barley 110
8 Alfalfa, spring wheat 120
9 Citrus, cotton, sorghum (grain) 140
10 Table grapes, wine grapes, sugarcane (ratoon) 150
11 Mango, date palm 200
4. Moisture and nutrient availability: Moisture is important for root growth and nutrient
uptake. Adequate moisture will improve uptake of nutrients by diffusion and root
interaction, and will increase organic matter decomposition, which releases N, P, and S.
Low moisture can result in the formation of insoluble nutrient-containing compounds.
Soil depth, in addition to soil texture and structure, can influence water availability.
Shallow hardpans reduce the usable soil depth and enhance the tendency of soil to
waterlog in heavy rains and fall below the permanent wilting percentage under drought
conditions. Limiting root growth to surface layers also can influence nutrient access.
For example, potassium and available phosphorus tend to predominate near the surface,
especially in clay soils, whereas magnesium and calcium more commonly characterize
the lower horizons. Soils vary in the accumulation of nutrients through their soil
horizons. Deeper soils generally can provide more water and nutrients to plants than
more shallow soils.
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Fig. 6: Depiction of nutrient and physical constraints occurring in deeper soils

5. Crop yield: Soil depth can greatly influence the types of plants that can grow in
them. Deeper soils generally can provide more water and nutrients to plants than more
shallow soils. There is a directrelationship between topsoil depth and yield. The thickness
of A horizon had a positive effect on yield up to a certain thickness.The subsoil does not
absorb the rainfall as rapidly, leading to more surface water runoff and less available water
for crop production.
Conclusion:
Soil depth is a critical attribute of any soil. In general, soil texture, pH, organic matter and
all primary macronutrients observed significant variation with soil depth. Soil depth is a key
factor in plant growth and it can affect the types of plants that can grow on it. It has a significant
effect on soil moisture hydrological processes, vulnerability to erosion and landslides, soil
carbon stocks, soil microbial community and crop productivity. Knowledge of soil depth in
agriculture can lead to better management of resources in terms of both quantity and quality.
Finally, assessing the spatial distribution of soil depth is very important for soil quality, land use
management and hydrological and ecological modelling.
References:
1. Amgain, R., Khadka, D., Joshi, S. and Malla, R. (2020). Depth-wise variations of soil
physicochemical properties in the apple growing area of Mustang district, Nepal. Journal
of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 3(2), 92-103.
2. Goebes P, Schmidt K, Seitz S, Both S, Bruelheide H, Erfmeier A, Scholten T, Kühn P
(2019) The strength of soil-plant interactions under forest is related to a critical soil depth.
Scientific Reports, 9, 1–12.
3. Houston AC (1893) Note on the number of bacteria in the soil at different depths from the
surface. Edinburgh Medical Journal, 38, 1122– 1125.
4. Huang, J., Desai, A. R. and Zhu, J. (2020). Retrieving heterogeneous surface soil moisture
at 100 m across the globe via synergistic fusion of remote sensing and land surface
parameters. Earth Sciences.
33
5. Lilienfein, J., Wilcke, W., Zimmermann. R., Gerstberger, P., Araujo, G. M. and Zech, W.
(2001). Nutrient storage in soil and biomass of native Brazilian Cerrado. Journal of Plant
Nutrition and Soil Science, 164, 487–495.
6. Lorenz K, Lal R (2005) The depth distribution of soil organic carbon in relation to land
use and management and the potential of carbon sequestration in subsoil horizons.
Advances in Agronomy, 88, 35–66.
7. Lynch, J. P. and Wojciechowski, T. (2015). Opportunities and challenges in the subsoil:
pathways to deeper rooted crops. Journal of Experimental Botany, 66(8), 2199-2210.
8. Nepstad, D. C., De Carvalho, C. R., Davidson, E. A., Jipp, P. H., Lefebvre, P. A.,
Negreiros, G. H., Da Silva, E. D., Stone, T. A., Trumbore, S. E. and Vieira, S. (1994).
The role of deep roots in the hydrological and carbon cycles of Amazonian forests and
pastures. Nature, 372, 666–669.
9. Plaisance G, Cailleux A (1981) Dictionary of soils. Amerind Publishing Co., New Delhi.
10. Rumpel C, Kögel-Knabner I (2011) Deep soil organic matter-a key but poorly understood
component of terrestrial C cycle. Plant Soil, 338, 143–158.
11. Yost, J. L., Hartemink AE (2019) Effects of carbon on moisture storage in soils of the
Wisconsin Central Sands, USA. European Journal of Soil Science, 70, 565–577.
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AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY: INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES FOR GRAIN STORAGE
Ritu Pandey and Yogesh Kumar
Department of Entomology,
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur MP, India
Abstract:
As different insect life stages cause financial harm and degrade the quality of food grains
and food products, infestation of stored grains is a highly important issue. Due to uncontrolled
environmental conditions and subpar warehousing technologies, there are numerous stored grain
insect pests that infest food grains in farmer stores and public warehouses. However, very
specific and more suitable current measures should be applied to control the expanding insect
population. The use of entomopathogens and a few key techniques including microwave and
ionizing radiation, pheromone-baited traps, IGRs, and microwave radiation have all been shown
to be particularly successful against stored grain insects. Repellants and oviposition inhibitors
extracted from various plant spices are preferred over these approaches because they are thought
to be considerably safer than synthetic pesticides. These organic pesticides are safe and
biodegradable in a natural setting. However, it is best to employ non-residual, non-persistent, and
less hazardous bio-organic pesticides as they might not have an impact on the nutritional value of
grains. Additionally, low pressure and low temperature treatments have been shown to be
significantly safer pest management methods and a potential substitute for fumigants in the
management of coleopteran and lepidopteran insects. However, different parasitoids, predators,
diseases, and other living organisms are used in natural settings to limit the pest population in
order to effectively control stored grain insects. Computer-based decision support systems should
be utilized to forecast damage and operational needs for prompt control in order to improve the
protection of stored grain. In order to handle stored grain insects effectively, a few control
measures must be combined.
Introduction:
One of the main issues in the modern world is the security and safety of the food supply.
Food grains must be preserved and stored safely in order to be delivered to consumers on time.
For their use in home or commercial settings, various food commodities such as harvested
legumes and grains, processed plant and animal food products, and semi-perishables require safe
storage. The majority of the storage section is mostly concerned with grain that is kept at home
or in a business [1]. Currently, a variety of facilities, from modest metal bins to substantial grain
elevators and silos, assure the secure storage of grains. During the protracted storage period,
agricultural commodities are typically vulnerable to contamination and damage from biotic and
abiotic agents. The most frequent insects responsible for losses of stored goods of agricultural
and animal origin include more than 600 species of beetles, 70 species of moths, and 355 species
of mites. There are significant quantitative and qualitative losses in the stored commodities as a
result of this large pest arena. Because of the favourable microclimate at the storage site, insect
35
pests that cause harm to storage products frequently arrive from the field. They are then kept
around during several channels of processing and storage [2]. By correctly harvesting and drying
grains to a safe storage moisture content, which will be provided by grain storage agencies, the
initial infection can be reduced. Insects from stored products travel and spread mostly through
grain supplies from one place to another during storage activities through the commodity. Since
many insects have strong wings, they can occasionally be dispersed via active flight as well [3].
Storage loss evaluation is challenging due to a number of methodological limitations and the
need for qualified individuals. They often involve small-scale experiments that extend to bulk
storage. The first step is to identify an insect infestation in a product that has been preserved
because different insects/species have different harmful signs. This action is essential for
stopping the population from growing and for advancing plans for improved storage
management strategies. The "primary pests" and "secondary pests" classification system for
storage insects is based on how they eat. The complete, undamaged grains are primarily infested
and damaged by primary. These can seriously harm the grain lot and are challenging to eradicate
if discovered before they form a population. Therefore, monitoring is necessary to stop their
invasion and damage. In contrast, secondary feeders and pests settle on grains that have already
sustained harm from primary pests or unrelated causes [4]. Numerous insect species can coexist
in the same commodity lot because their feeding niches differ and allow for simultaneous
survival. The type of grain being stored and the area of the warehouse both affect which insects
are present. For instance, khapra beetles and flour beetles are frequent pests of wheat storage in
India's northern and southern halves, respectively [5].
[6]
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Detection of store grain insect pest
The field-harvested commodities stored food grains are infested with a number of insect
pests. The biology, behaviour, ecology, and harmful symptoms of each insect are often unique.
Early bug or damage detection is therefore essential for effective control. The most fundamental
of all detection techniques is visual inspection and encountering insect life stages. Numerous
researchers have developed cutting-edge methods to find insects infesting stored goods. For
instance, scientist identified the presence of one infected kernel in 650 g of wheat grains using
acoustical detection techniques [7]. Popcorn kernels with Sitophilus zeamais larvae were found
by [8] using a modified laboratory roller mill with electrical conductivity. In addition, depending
on the roller speed, the detection accuracy varied from 75 to 81% for pupae, 80-91% for medium
larvae, and 43-47% for tiny larvae. [9] created a trap using deep learning techniques and a visual
analysis program to find Cryptolestes pusillus, Oryzaephilus surinamensis, Tribolium confusum,
Sitophilus oryzae, and Rhyzopertha dominica. Initially, a database of live insects was created
using Red, Green, and Blue (RGB) photos, and R-CNN was used to extract these images and
categorize the insects.
[10]
Actions for prevention
The difficulty of managing insects throughout later stages of post-harvest processing and
storage may be lessened by the successful reduction in the initial build-up of insects from field to
storage. These policies are typically traditional or native, and they are primarily founded on the
knowledge of our predecessors. Preventive management techniques are required since insects are
37
active and passive fliers in order to eliminate the source of infestation. The management of
insects that migrate to stored commodities and those that emerge inside the commodities as a
result of pre-infestation are the two ways that preventative measures manage the insect build up.
Most notably, it is quicker to dry food grains to moisture content between 10 and 14 per cent (on
a wet basis) before storing them.
Storing food grains in storage structure
Farmers and governments frequently store food grains in order to use them later. The
grains are typically kept at homes or in sizable storage facilities. The development and adoption
of metal bins, automated storage facilities, enormous warehouses, lofty elevators, silos, and other
upgraded buildings are seen as a result of the evolution of human knowledge and skills. On the
other hand, these buildings sparked the creation of complex microclimates and storage
conditions. In due course, insects also adapt to these networks and disperse to numerous regions.
Hermetic and low-pressure storage structures are very common in the modern world. Hermetic
seals are a result of the idea of putting a barrier between the commodity and the grain. The
concept of de-oxygenation inside the storage structure is used in airtight storage to lower aerobic
conditions because many conventional structures are internally oxygenated. Because of the
increased carbon dioxide (CO2) due to the decrease in oxygen (O2) concentration, the insects'
metabolic processes are significantly impacted, ultimately resulting in death. An expanding area
of agricultural engineering study is storing grains in hermetic seal storages [11]. The gas-tight
situation, however, was equally harmful to grains that were being stored. Controlled aeration,
changing the gas composition, or adding an insect-proof barrier, however, provide additional
benefits and success with hermetic storage structures in modern management techniques. The
design and development of various configurationally modified hermetic storages has been the
subject of numerous scientific investigations [12]. They are more expensive when made of
metals than bags. Even so, they are praised for having contemporary storage facilities. Improved
subterranean storage facilities for grains, pulses, and oilseeds were continued in use in Asian and
African locations because lower O2 concentrations report desired insect mortality. However, an
efficient and economically feasible hermetic storage structure for field/farm level and/or bulk
storage is still lacking.
[13]
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Method of Protection from Insect Pest
Physical Method:
Atmospheric air is primarily composed of O2 (21%), CO2 (0.03%), and N2 (78%), and
depletion of O2 (3%) and elevation of CO2 (>50%) exposure to >24 h significantly distress the
insects, which even achieve mortality of residual populations when exposed for prolonged
periods. Various gas generators, gas exchange apparatus, and catalytic converters were attached
to storage for the insects. However, CO2 may be used in various ratios with other fumigants
depending on their efficacy. As an alternative to chemical fumigation, thorough studies on field-
level research on modified structures with standard doses (a combination of gases) may be given
priority. Ozone (O3) is an extremely reactive oxidizing agent. Its ability to enter the grain mass
and its quick conversion to O2 without leaving any residues makes it a potent substitute for
fumigants in the protection of stored grains. The treatment of empty bins, the disinfestation of
grains, and the treatment of phosphine-resistant populations were the main topics of ozone
fumigation research. The phosphine-resistant populations of T. castaneum, R. dominica, and O.
surinamensis were controlled by scientists using ozone. Total insect mortality was measured
using ozone that was passed at a concentration of 150 ppm in a continuous flow of 2 L/min. Each
insect needs a specific set of favourable atmospheric circumstances, namely the right
temperature, relative humidity, and gas compositions, for normal growth and development. In
general, even a slight temperature change has a significant impact on the growth and
development of insects. Insects used to control stored-product insects were known to be fatal
under extreme temperatures. In a controlled environment, hot/cool-air/water combinations were
traditionally used in grain disinfestation thermal treatments [14]. Grain disinfestation also
involved the use of ionizing radiation, such as gamma rays (emitted by cobalt-60 and cesium-
137), x rays, or electric beams. The 256 Gy dose was found to be the standard lethal dose and
effective in stopping the development of all immature stages. A thorough understanding of
gamma and x-ray use for irradiation, integration with other compatible procedures, and safer
handling of these radiations are required to be investigated for field-scale and may be employed
as a useful alternative to currently practising methods.
Biological methods:
Semiochemicals are chemical signals created by one insect or organism that cause the
receiving insect or organism to exhibit certain behavioural or physiological reactions. They are
frequently categorized as "pheromones": intra-specific chemical signals as well as inter-specific
chemical signals known as "allelochemicals". Pheromones are typically utilized in three types of
in-field pest management: monitoring, mass trapping, and mating disruption. Researchers
investigated a variety of synthetically produced semiochemicals for C. ferrugineus orientation
experiments in the field and the lab, and they found that the aggregation pheromones Cucujolide
I and Cucujolide II, used either alone or in combination, boosted adult attraction. Utilizing these
chemical elements in integrated stored-grain pest management is crucial since semiochemicals
change the biology and behaviour of both male and female insects. It is subject to concurrent
developments in chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, and genetics. According to the literature
39
evaluation, the best and most sustainable strategy for pest management of stored grains is the use
of semiochemicals. The management of stored pests by natural enemies (predators and
parasitoids) has been researched for a century. However, the majority of them were concentrated
on genetics, toxicity, population and evolutionary ecology, and biology of natural enemies.
Biological control emerges as one of the most essential and durable elements of the integrated
pest management strategy. The focus on biocontrol was also being boosted by issues with
insecticide residues in storage and stored grains, an approach to organic farming, food safety,
and other issues. Pteromalids and braconids made up the majority of parasitoids, accounting for
70%, followed by bethylids, ichneumonids, and trichogrammatids (24%), chalcidids, and
eulopids (3%). In the past, there were very few applications of predators and parasitoids that
were both affordable and field-level inundative. Lab studies make up a large portion of the
studies. Furthermore, none of them were considered to be widely utilized due to their host
specificity and limited environmental adaptations. Synergists, particularly diatomaceous earth,
were tested in combination to increase their potency and wide range of adaptability. Beauveria
bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are a few
examples of the commercially available entomopathogenic fungi and bacteria. These organisms
were mostly studied against stored-grain pests, particularly beetles. [15] tested the effect of
Steinernema feltiae (three strains namely, UK 76, USA/SC, and Hawaii) against T. confusum,
and E. kuehniella in wheat under laboratory condition. They observed 100% larval mortality
(after 14 d of exposure) with Hawaii strain against T. castaneum, whereas USA/SC strain was
found effective against E. kuehniella larvae (69% mortality after 14 d exposure). A single
nematode strain or species, however, cannot manage a variety of insects since they behave
differently depending on the species. While combining different strains can offer the anticipated
stored-grain protection. All of these research involve bioassays that are carried out in
laboratories, therefore there isn't any field testing of these EPNs on a large scale. Large-scale
field trials and mass cultivation could be used to advance EPN technologies in storage
management. As a result, just 1% of insecticides sold globally are botanicals [16]. These plant
compounds may function as chemical fumigation alternatives in light of human health issues.
Studies on the toxicity, screening, effectiveness, sorption, formulation, and fumigation of
botanicals, particularly essential oils, are receiving more attention these days.
Chemical methods:
Although sprays are frequently used to prevent the infestation, fumigation is the method
used to control infestations that have been found. However, the increased reliance on chemicals
has led to problems with both environmental and public health. However, the dependence
Insecticides with a unique mode of action are currently being investigated extensively, especially
the spinosyn group [17]. Application of insecticide plays a significant part in insect management
in several post-harvest management steps/conditions, including mills and processing plants.
However, the chemical application in storage was mostly focused on fumigation. Fumigation is
the term for treatment delivered using gas. In the 1990s, it was a very popular technique for pest
control in bulk storage. The utilization of alternate fumigants and formulations was one of the
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most recent advancements in fumigation. Future efforts should concentrate on non-chemical
methods for safer and long-lasting stored grain protection. Despite the fact that there were more
entries, only DE and silica achieved significant results and are the only ones studied by many
researchers. Using DE as a sole control method or in combination with other low-risk control
methods was shown to be a promising alternative to insecticide sprays in storage . For the
management of storage pests, improvements are being made in the creation of newer
formulations, their integration with other methods, and their increased treatments using lower
doses. In the future, food-grade inert dust might take the place of the contact pesticides currently
used to protect stored grains.
Molecular methods:
A unique method of controlling insects is to interfere with an organism's natural gene
expression RNA interference (RNAi) and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic
Repeats were the two molecular tools used [18] (CRISPR). For these experiments, the rust-red
flour, T. castaneum, was used as a model insect, and the majority of the information found in the
published articles mostly concerned this insect [19]. T. castaneum was chosen as the host
because to its simpler laboratory growth and robust RNAi response throughout all embryonic
stages Normally, CRISPR deactivates Cas9 (a DNA binder) and RNAi targets dsRNA to prevent
further gene activation. Only after thorough research are these methods capable of managing
stored-grain pests. A necessary first step and a topic of concern is the identification of particular
genes in insects infesting grains that have been kept. When compared to other related
approaches, such as genome editing and gene modification, these revolutionary technologies
seem futuristic.
Conclusion:
One of the main topics of study for post-harvest engineers and entomologists is the safe
handling and protection of stored items. Both emerging and developed nations are currently
concerned with issues related to food safety and security. Several dryers and controlled storage
structures were developed as a result of rationalization in preventive management methods, such
as adequate drying and safer storage, which were then used globally. Hermetic and low-pressure
storages are particularly popular among them, however there aren't many uses for bulk storage.
The benefits of temperature control (heat or cold treatment) inside storage include insect
mortality. Exposure to electromagnetic radiations like RF and MW can also be used as a form of
heat treatment. Additionally, as alternatives to traditional fumigants, the use of CO2 and ozone
as fumigants may become more widespread. Predators, parasitoids, diseases, and EPNs are
examples of biological choices that are less harmful to the environment, but their widespread use
is constrained by their formulation, mass production, and field-level adoption. Research into the
chemical ecology and semiochemistry of stored product insects is necessary to build lure/trap
solutions that can both attract and kill pests. In field-crop pest management, chemical control of
insect pests is recommended as a last resort; nevertheless, in storage, it is utilized as the first line
of defence. The major uses of insecticides are surface applications and de-infestation.
Alternatives are required because there are few fumigant choices left and insects have already
41
become resistant to them. Innovative scientific fields like nanotechnology and biotechnology are
developing quickly and helping to preserve stored goods. However, the rising concern for secure
storage and organic pest control has spurred advancements in a number of disciplines.
Modernized and integrated pest management solutions for bulk storage need to be periodically
updated in light of the changing post-harvest systems. Since grain must be harvested, dried,
handled, packaged, and transported until it is safely stored, pest management measures can
significantly lower and avoid grain loss.
References:
1. Said, P. P., and Pradhan, R. (2014). Food grain storage practices-a review. J. Grain
Process. Storage 1, 1–5.
2. Hagstrum, D. W., and Phillips, T. W. (2017). Evolution of stored-product entomology:
protecting the world food supply. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 62, 379–397.
3. Ridley, A. W., Hereward, J. P., Daglish, G. J., Raghu, S., Collins, P. J., and Walter, G. H.
(2011). The spatiotemporal dynamics of Tribolium castaneum. (Herbst): adult flight and
gene flow. Mol. Ecol. 20, 1635–1646.
4. Bell, C. H. (2014). “Pest control of stored food products: insects and mites,” in Hygiene in
Food Processing: Principles and Practice, 2nd Edn., eds H. L. Lelieveld, J. Holah, and D.
Napper (York: Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition),
494–538.
5. Ramya, R., Srivastava, C., and Subramanian, S. (2018). Monitoring of phosphine
resistance in Indian populations of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) from stored wheat.
Indian J. Entomol. 80, 19–23.
6. Shankar, Uma & Abrol, D P. (2012). Integrated Pest Management in Stored Grains.
10.1079/9781845938086.0386.
7. Hagstrum, D. W., Flinn, P. W., and Shuman, D. (1996). Automated monitoring using
acoustical sensors for insects in farm-stored wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 89, 211–217.
8. Brabec, D., Dowell, F., Campbell, J., and West, M. (2017). Detection of internally infested
popcorn using electrically conductive roller mills. J. Stored Prod. Res. 70, 37–43.
9. Shen, Y., Zhou, H., Li, J., Jian, F., and Jayas, D. S. (2018). Detection of stored-grain
insects using deep learning. Comput. Electron. Agric. 145, 319–325.
10. Guru PN, Mridula D, Dukare AS, Ghodki BM, Paschapur AU, Samal I, Nikhil Raj M,
Padala VK, Rajashekhar M and Subbanna ARNS (2022) A comprehensive review on
advances in storage pest management: Current scenario and future prospects. Front.
Sustain. Food Syst. 6:993341.
11. Kumar, S., Mohapatra, D., Kotwaliwale, N., and Singh, K. K. (2017). Vacuum hermetic
fumigation: a review. J. Stored Prod. Res. 71, 47–56.
12. Baributsa, D., and Njoroge, A. W. (2020). The use and profitability of hermetic
technologies for grain storage among smallholder farmers in eastern Kenya. J. Stored Prod.
Res. 87, 101618.
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13. Chattha, Shakeel & Mirani, Benish & Soomro, Shakeel & Ibupoto, Khalil Ahmed &
Mangio, Hafeez-Ur-Rehman & Khushk, Ghulam & Abro, Abid & Khan, Zaheer & Zhao,
Li. (2018). Comparative study of different storage methods for postharvest preservation of
wheat grain. Science, Technology and Development. 37. 10.3923/std.2018.1.5.
14. Macana, R. J., Moirangthem, T. T., and Baik, O. D. (2018). “50-ohm RF technology based
applicator design and fabrication for disinfestation of insect pests in stored grains,” in
ASABE 2018 Annual International Meeting Saskatchewan: American Society of
Agricultural and Biological Engineers. doi: 10.13031/aim.201801011.
15. Athanassiou, C. G., Palyvos, N. E., and Kakouli-Duarte, T. (2008). Insecticidal effect of
Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) against Tribolium confusum
du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) and Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera:
Pyralidae) in stored wheat. J. Stored Prod. Res. 44, 52–57. doi: 10.1016/j.jspr.2007.04.002.
16. Campolo, O., Giunti, G., Russo, A., Palmeri, V., and Zappalà, L. (2018). Essential oils in
stored product insect pest control. J. Food Qual. 2018, 1–18. doi: 10.1155/2018/6906105.
17. Vassilakos, T. N., Athanassiou, C. G., and Tsiropoulos, N. G. (2015). Persistence and
efficacy of spinetoram against three major stored grain beetle on wheat. Crop Prot. 69, 44–
51. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2014.08.010.
18. Perkin, L. C., Adrianos, S. L., and Oppert, B. (2016). Gene disruption technologies have
the potential to transform stored product insect pest control. Insects 7, 46. doi:
10.3390/insects7030046.
19. Gilles, A. F., Schinko, J. B., and Averof, M. (2015). Efficient CRISPR-mediated gene
targeting and transgene replacement in the beetle Tribolium castaneum. Development 142,
2832–2839. doi: 10.1242/dev.125054.
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MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF ROOT CROPS (CARROT, RADISH AND BEET

ROOT) AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Manoj Kumar*1, Amit Kumar2, Chandreshwar Prasad Rai3 and Shirish Kumar4
1Department of Entomology,
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur (Rajasthan)-313 001

Sugarcane Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University,

Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125
4Department of Agronomy, Sugarcane Research Institute,
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125
Introduction:
The greatest problem of the 21st century is to sustain a population of 10 billion people
with a declining soil resource base in a changing climate. The creation of crops with the potential
to produce well with restricted water and nitrogen (N) availability will be a key component of
this effort. Plant growth in terrestrial habitats, both natural ecosystems and the low-input
agroecosystems typical of developing countries, is primarily constrained by inadequate water and
nitrogen availability. Insect pests and phytophagous insect-pests cause a considerable loss to root
crops in the field. Many times, modern agriculture has promoted pest population growth at the
expense of beneficial arthropod populations. Carrot Daucus carota, is an edible biennial herb in
the family Apiaceae grown for its edible root. Afghanistan, which continues to be the centre of
diversity for D. carota, is where the carrot is believed to have originated. Some of the major
insect pests, which are limiting the production of carrots, are aster leaf hopper, flea beetle, aphid,
carrot weevil, carrot rust fly and cutworm. The information regarding insect pest of carrot is
scanty. Therefore, this information will be valuable asset for scientific community.
Beets, Beta vulgaris, are herbaceous biennial root vegetables in the family
Chenopodiaceae grown for their edible root. The plant is usually erect with a long main root and
a rosette of leaves growing on stems. The leaves are oval in shape, arranged alternately on the
stem and grow 20–40 cm (7.9–15.7 in) in length. The roots are usually red in color. The plant
produces sessile green flowers and can reach 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) in height. Beets are usually
grown as annual plants, harvested after one growing season. Beets may also be referred to as
beetroot, garden beet or spinach beet and originated from the Mediterranean. The roots are
consumed after boiling and may be pickled in vinegar. The leaves of the spinach beet plant are
consumed as a herb in Indonesia and Japan. Chemicals in the roots can be extracted and used as
food coloring.
The botanical name of radish is Raphanus sativus. The enlarged edible roots are fusiform
and differ in colour from white to red. There are two distinct genetical groups in radish. The
Asiatic varieties, which are primarily for tropical climates, produce edible roots in the first
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season and seed in the second season as a biennial crop. On the other hand, the exotic or
European varieties produce roots in the plains of tropical and subtropical climate and seeds in the
hills of temperate climate. Radish originated probably in China. In India, it seems to have been
cultivated from ancient times. It was popular among the ancient Egyptians and Greeks.
Insect pests of carrot and their management
Aster leafhopper:
The aster leaf hopper is a noxious pest of carrot because it transmits the aster yellow
phytoplasma disease. Adult leaf hoppers are olive green, wedge shaped and about ½ inch long.
They are poly phagous in nature. Adults have six spots on the black of the head. Nymphs are
similar in shape to the adults, but are cream coloured and lack of fully developed wings. Adults
are extremely active and jump, crawl or fly when they get disturb. Nymphs are less active but
crawl rapidly.
Biology:
Adult female lay eggs in the leaves of susceptible plants. Nymphs hatch 5-7 days later
mature within 20-30 days. They are generally completed 2-5 generations per year. This insect
over winters in the eggs tage in northern locations and in the adult stage in warmer
climates.Because the generations overlap and are initiated by both over wintering eggs and
migrating leaf hoppers, it is difficult to discern the generations.
Nature and symptoms of damage:
Both nymphs and adults feed by inserting piercing and sucking the plant to extract sap. If
a leaf hoppers feed on an infested plant, it ingests the aster yellow pathogen. When the
leafhopper moves to another plant to feed, it transmits the pathogen inits saliva. In carrots,
disease symptoms appear about3 weeks later. Symptoms may appear as early as 10 days after
infection or as late as 40 days after infection.
Management:
Aster leafhopper may effectively be controlled by excluding them from the carrot
planting with floating row covers. Place yellow sticky card in the field early in the spring when
plants are newly sprouted. Remove weeds from the field edges as these may be reservoir for the
pathogen.
Flea beetle:
Flea beetle is an occasional pest of carrot. Its larvae are delicate and thread like with
white bodies and brown head capsules. They have characteristically large hind legs, which
makes them excellent jumpers.
Biology:
Flea beetles overwinter as adults in leaf litter, hedge rows, wind break sand wooden
areas. The beetles become active when temperature reaches 500 F and emerge in late April .
Feeding on weeds and volunteer plants until the new crop emerges. Adult lay eggs in the soil at
the base of host plants in May. Eggs hatch in 7-14 days and larvae feed on various plant parts
until full grown. The larvae pupate in earthen cells for 11-13 days before emerging as adults.
They have two generations per year.
45

They make small holes or pits in leaves that give the foliage a characteristic “shothole”
appearance; Young plants and seedlings are particularly susceptible; plant growth may be
reduced.
Management:
Early planting will helps to avoid the population of flea beetles while the plants are small
and vulnerable, enclosing seed bed with floating row cover to get protection from laying by
adults, application of a thick layer of mulch to prevent beetles reaching surface, applications of
diamotecoeus earth or oils such as neem oil are effective control methods for organic growers
and application of insecticides containing carbaryl, spinosad, bifenthrin and permethrin can
provide adequate control of beetles.
Willow carrot aphid:
Willow carrot aphid is the main aphid pest of carrot crops. Distinguishing features
include the presence of cornicles, which project backwards from the body of the aphid and will
generally not move very quickly when disturbed, willow carrot aphid will also attack turnip,
parsley and celery. The green peach aphid is slender, dark green to yellow, and has no waxy
bloom. The wingless form of the green peach aphid is pale green. The winged form has a black
head and thorax. It is primarily an early year pest and transmits virus diseases.
Biology:
Most species of aphids have similar life cycles. Aphid females give birth to live off
spring all year without mating. When vegetable crops are not available, aphids live on a wide
variety of weed hosts. In summer and fall, aphids may produce winged females and later winged
males. They mate and produce eggs for overwintering, especially in colder climates. Otherwise,
the adult aphids overwinter on crops, weeds or trees. There may be as few as two generations or
as many as 16 generations each year, depending on the species and climate.
Aphids feed on carrot foliage, but they are a key pest because they can transmit diseases
such as motley dwarf virus. If aphid infestation is heavy it may cause leaves yellow, necrotic
spots on leaves and stunted shoots, aphids secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honey dew,
which encourages the growth of sooty mold on the plants.
Management:
Use tolerant varieties, sanitation for curbing the spread of the viruses, ploughing all crop
residues under as soon as harvest, use of reflective mulches such as silver colored plastic can
deter aphids from feeding, use of predators such as green lacewing larvae, lady beetles, and
syrphid fly larvae prey on this aphid, use of insecticidal soaps or oils such as neem or canola oil
etc. are followed to control the aphids.
Carrot weevil:
Adult weevils spend over winter in crop debris remaining in the ground, larvae feed for
approximately 2 weeks before pupating in the soil, insect undergoes several generations each
year. Snout nosed beetles that are about 6 mm long. Larvae are white to pinkish white C-shaped
grubs with a yellow-brown head.
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Biology:
Adults lay 2-3 eggs in the petioles or crown of the carrots beginning in the first true leaf
stage. Eggs hatch in one to two weeks and white in color. There are 2 generations per year.
Their grub like larvae either tunnel down into the root or leave the stalk and bore into the
side of the root from beneath the soil.Larvae may kill young plants. Damage to older plants is
typically observed in the upper one-third of the root. Feeding injury may allow entry by
pathogens that will cause roots to rot.
Management:
Removing of all debris from Umbelliferous crops to reduce sites where weevil can
survive and persist, croprotation, using of Azadirachtin quite effective against carrot weevil.
Carrot rust fly:
The rust fly adult is about 6-8mm long with a shiny black thorax and abdomen, reddish-
brown head, and yellow legs. Adult insect is dark colored fly larvae are white maggots
approximately 1 cm long.
Biology:
The adult female lays its eggs in the soil at the base of the carrot. Six to ten days later the
larva hatches and feeds on the carrot root.
Their Larva feeds on the carrot root, rendering the carrots impossible to market. Carrot
rust flies obtain their common name from the rust colored frass they deposit in the superficial
feeding tunnels on the carrot.
Management:
Use of row covers will help to protect plants from damage but they must be installed
before adult fly lays eggs on plants.
Cutworm:
Cutworms are the larvae of nocturnal grey moths. They tend to feed at just below the
ground surface at night. Cutworms are active feeder of young foliage and stem sand will cut off
many young seedlings in an evening. They are large, fleshy larvae curl up into a tight C shaped
when disturbed.
Biology:
Few cut worms over winter, beginning in late May, moth migrates into the state. Female
moths lay hundreds of eggs either singly or in clusters. Most eggs are laid on low growing,
grassy vegetation or plant residue from previous year’s crop. Once the egg hatch, the young
larvae feed above ground on the tips of plants. There are three to four generations per year, but
first generation is most damaging because it coincides with seedling plants.
Large larvae may destroy several plants in one evening. The larvae often the pull the stem
of the severed plant into the subterranean burrow.
Management:
Deep ploughing and stirring of soil, flooding of fields so that caterpillars are exposed to
birds and other enemies. Hand picking and destruction of caterpillars found just under the
47
damaged plant. Soil application (drenching) of chlorpyriphos @0.1 percent. Poison baits
containing wheatbran + carbaryl + molasses be spread on the ground to attract and kill larvae and
mixing of insecticidal dust are some of the practices to control the cutworms.
Insect pests of beetroot and their management
Leafminers- Lyriomyza spp.
Symptoms
Thin, white, winding trails on leaves. Heavy mining can result in white blotches on
leaves and leaves dropping from the plant prematurely. Early infestation can cause fruit yield to
be reduced. Adult leafminer is a small black and yellow fly which lays its eggs in the leaf.
Larvae hatch and feed on leaf interior.
Life cycles
Mature larvae drop from leaves into soil to pupate; entire lifecycle can take as little as 2
weeks in warm weather; insect may go through 7 to 10 generations per year.
Management
Check transplants for signs of leafminer damage prior to planting. remove plants from
soil immediately after harvest; only use insecticides when leafminer damage has been identified
as unnecessary spraying will also reduce populations of their natural enemies.
Darkling beetle (Rove beetle) Blapstinus spp.
Staphylinid spp
Symptoms
Feeding damage on stems; death of seedlings; seeds dug up; insect is a dull blue-black or
brown beetle about 0.6 cm (0.52 in) long; tips of antennae are often enlarged, resembling a club.
Beetles are generally active at night. during the day beetles hide in organic debris.
Management
Ditches filled with water can prevent spread of beetle to/from adjacent fields; remove all
weeds from garden borders. if beetle is problematic then appropriate insecticides can provide
control. Insecticides are usually in the form of baits.
Root knot nematode- Meloidogyne spp.
Symptoms
Galls on roots which can be up to 3.3 cm (1 in) in diameter but are usually smaller,
reduction in plant vigor, yellowing plants which wilt in hot weather. Galls can appear as quickly
as a month prior to planting; nematodes prefer sandy soils and damage in areas of field or garden
with this type of soil is most likely.
Management
Plant resistant varieties if nematodes are known to be present in the soil, check roots of
plants mid-season or sooner if symptoms indicate nematodes, solarizing soil can reduce
nematode populations in the soil and levels of inoculum of many other pathogens.
Insect pests of radish and their management
Aphids
Aphids are the most serious pests of radish. They attack both seedlings and mature crops.
Cloudy humid weather conditions favour the spread of their infestation. In case of heavy
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infestation the plant are completely devitalized, leave and shoots curl up, become yellowish and
finally die.
Control
Spraying Malathion 50% in the ratio of one litre in 1000 litres of water gives sufficient
high percentage of kill with a residual effect of 2- 3 weeks. Nicotin sulphate one litre in 800
litres of water is also effective at higher temperature of about 210 C. Spraying Nuvacron
(1.25ml) or Metasystox (2ml) per litre of water is also recommended.
Mustard saw-fly
This is a common pest of radish and turnip. In radish, it appears when the crop is in
flowering and at vegetative stage. The damage is done by the group by biting holes in the leaves
and fruits.
Control
Mustard saw-fly can be controlled by dusting 10% BHC at the rate of 15-20 kg per
hectare at the vegetative growth of the infested crop and 35-40 kg per hectare at the seed
formation stage. Spraying of 4 gm Sevin 50 W.P. per litre of water at weekly interval can also
control this pest.
Flee beetle
In some areas, it becomes a serious pest on the vegetative parts of the plants which are
eaten by this pest.
Control
It can be controlled by spraying with Malathion (0.15%) or Sevin (0.4%) at 10 to 15 days
interval.
References:
1. CABI Crop Protection Compendium (2008). Daucus carota datasheet.
http://www.cabi.org/cpc/datasheet/18018.
2. Capinera, J.L. (2008). Aster leafhopper, Macrostele squadrilineatus Forbes
(Hemiptera: Cicadellidae).Encyclopedia Entomol., 320-323.
3. David, M., Andrew, B., Carig, C. and Carol, M.(2003). Managing Carrot Rust Fly: In
search of alternatives for a tough customer. Agrichemical &Environmental News, 203:
01-09.
4. Delahaut, K.A. and Newenhouse, A.C. (1998).Growing carrots, beets, radishes, and
other root crops in Wisconsin: A guide for fresh worker growers. University of
Wisconsin Extension.
5. Lynch, J. P., & Wojciechowski, T. (2015). Opportunities and challenges in the subsoil:
pathways to deeper rooted crops. Journal of Experimental Botany, 66(8), 2199-2210.
6. Seaman, A. (2014). Production guide for organic carrots for processing. Cornell
University Cooperative Extension.
49
MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF BRINJAL, OKRA AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

Manoj Kumar*1, Surendra Prasad1, Amit Kumar2,
Shirish Kumar3 and Chandreshwar Prasad Rai4
1Department of Entomology, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa
(Samastipur) Bihar-848 125

2Department of Entomology, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology,
Udaipur (Rajasthan)-313 001

3Department of Agronomy, Sugarcane Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125

4Department of Entomology, Sugarcane Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central
Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125

Introduction:
Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is a solanaceous vegetable also known as “King of
vegetables”. Being a major vegetable crop in India, brinjal is cultivated in about 7.27 Lakh
hectares with an annual production of 123.23 Lakh tonnes during 2016-17. However, kitchen
garden cultivation of brinjal is also a common practice in each and every household of India. But
the production of the crop is regulated by different biotic and abiotic factors and amongst those
factors, insect pests plays a pivotal role for lowering the yield of brinjal, by attacking the crop
right from the nursery stage to till harvesting.
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), also known as lady’s finger or bhendi, belongs to family
Malvaceae and is an important vegetable crop grown throughout the year. Besides India, it is
grown in many tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Tender fruits are used as vegetables or
in culinary preparations as sliced and dried pieces. It is also used for thickening gravies and
soups, because of its high mucilage content. Matured fruits and stems containing crude fibre are
used in paper industry. It has good nutritional value, particularly the high content of vitamin A,
potassium, calcium, iron and other minerals like magnesium, sodium and phosphorus, vitamins B
and C, fats and carbohydrates. India grows okra on about 4.52 lakh hectares with an annual
production of 48.03 lakh tons and productivity of 10.61 t/ha. The productivity of our country is
low compared to other countries due to yield losses caused by insect pests, diseases and
nematodes. The crop is attacked by more than 72 insect pests and infests the crop from seedling
to harvest stage. The shoot and fruit borer (Earias vittella), fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera),
leaf roller (Sylepta derogata), leafhopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula), whitefly (Bemisia
tabaci), aphid (Aphis gossypii), solenopsis mealy bug (Phenacoccus solenopsis), dusky cotton
bug (Oxycarenus hyalinipennis), red cotton bug (Dysdercus koenigii), red spider mite
(Tetranychus urticae) and root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) are some of important
pests which cause damage in okra crop.
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Important pests of brinjal:
Major pests:
i. Shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis
ii. Hadda / spotted beetle Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata
iii. Stemborer Euzophera perticella
iv. Ash weevils Myllocerus subfasciatus, M. discolor, M.
viridanus, M. maculosus
v. Brown leafhopper Cestius phycitis
Minor pests:
1. Aphid Aphis gossypii
2. Sphingid Acherontia styx

3. Thrips Thrips tabaci, Frankliniella schultzei, Scirtothrips dorsalis
4. Spider mite Tetranychus cinnabarinus
5. Whitefly Bemisia tabaci, Aleurodicus disperses
6. Budworm Scrobipalpa blapsigona
Shoot and fruit borer: Leucinodes orbonalis

Distribution:
India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka, Laos, South Africa, Congo.
Damage to even 30 -50% of fruits or more.
Host range:
Brinjal, potato, other wild plants belonging to Solanaceae, peas.
Damage symptoms:
Larva bores into tender shoots & causes withering of terminal shoots / dead hearts. Also
bores petioles of leaves, flower buds & developing buds - causes shedding of buds - make fruits
unfit for consumption. Attacked fruits are with boreholes plugged with excreta.
Bionomics:
Egg: 3 - 4 days. 150 - 350 creamy white eggs laid singly on leaves, tender shoots, flowers
& developing fruits. Larva - stout, pink coloured with sparsely distributed hairs on warts on the
body & brownish head. Larval Period: 15 days, Pupal Period: 6 - 8 days – tough grayish boat
shaped cocoon. Medium sized adult with white wings, with triangular brown & red markings on
forewing. TLC: 17 - 50 days. ETL: 1 - 5% of fruit damage.
Management:
• Avoid continuous cropping of brinjal and ratooning.
• Grow Resistant varieties like Annamalai, Pusa purple round, Arka Kusumakar,
Doli – 5, Pusa purple Long, Pusa Purple Round, SM 67, Pant Samrat.
51
• Collect and destroy the damaged tender shoots & fallen fruits. Use light traps @
1/hato attract and kill the moths.
• Egg parasitoids Trichogramma chilonis @1.0 lakh/ha.Spray Bt formulations of B.
thuringiensis var. kurstaki such as Dipel @ 1.5 to 2 ml /Lof water.
• Spray any one of the insecticides starting from one month after planting at 15 days
interval, Carbaryl 50 WP 2 kg + wettable Sulphur 50 WP 2 kg, Quinalphos 25 EC 1.5
L + Neem oil 1.0 L, NSKE 5%, Azadirachtin 1.0% 1.0-1.5 L or Fenpropathrin 30 EC
250-340 ml or Thiodicarb 75 WP 625-1000 g Flubendiamide 20 WG, 375 g with 500
– 750 L water/ha.
• Avoid using synthetic pyrethroids - cause resurgence of sucking pests.
• Avoid using insecticide at the time of fruit maturation and harvest.
• Uproot & burn old plants before planting new plants since they harbor pest and carry
over infestation.
Hadda / spotted bug: Henosepilachna dodecastigma, H. vigintioctopunctata (Coccinellidae

[Epilachna = Henosepilachna]: Coleoptera
Distribution and status: South Canada, USA, Mexico, Africa & SEA
Host range: Brinjal, potato, tomato, cucurbitaceous plants, wild solanaceous plants.
Damage symptoms:
Both adults & grubs scrap the lower of leaves in characteristic manner leaving
behind stripes of uneaten areas. The leaves give a stifled appearance. In severe infestation all
leaves may be off leaving only the veins (Skeletonization).
Management:
• Collect and destroy adult beetles, grubs and pupae.
• Shake plants to dislodge grubs, pupae and adults - kerosenated water early in the
morning or collect them mechanically and destroy them.
• Spray carbaryl 50% WP 2 kg + wettable Sulphur 2 kg or malathion 50 EC 1.5L or
Azadirachtin 0.03% 2.5-5.0 L in 500 - 750 L of water.
• Emulsify 1 lit of Neem oil with 60 g of soap dissolved in ½ L. of water, dilute
emulsion by adding 20 lit of water, then mix about 400 g of well crushed garlic and
spray.
• Mix diflubenzuron with chlorpyriphos 1.0 L /ha and spray on the crop - reduces the
population by nearly 95%.
Stem borer: Euzophera perticella (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: Indian sub-continent
Host range: Chilli, tomato, brinjal and potato
Damage symptoms:
Larva bores into main stem of young & old plants - move downwards. Top shoots of
young plants crump & wither. Older plants become stunted. Fruit bearing capacity is adversely
affected - thickening of stem at the entry point
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Bionomics:
10 days – Creamy & scale - like, laid singly / in batches on young leaves, petioles &
branches. LP: 26-58 days - Fully grown larva is creamy white with few bristle-like hairs. Pupa:
Pupates within cocoon inside larval tunnel – PP: 9-16 days. Adult: Greyish brown, forewings
with transverse line and white hindwings. Life cycle is completed in 35 - 76 days.
Ash weevils: Myllocerus subfasciatus, M. discolor, M. viridanus, M. maculosus (Curculionidae:
Coleoptera)
Damage symptoms:
Notching of leaf margins by adults. Grub’s feeds on roots resulting in wilting & death of
plants.
Bionomics:
500 eggs laid in soil EP: 6 - 7 days. Grub: 30 - 45 days. Pupa: Pupates in soil in earthen
cocoons. Adult: 10 - 12 days. M. subfasciatus: Brown; M. discolor: Brown and white spots; M.
viridanus: Small light green weevil.
Management:
• Collect and destroy adult weevil. Apply lindane 1.3 D before planting @ 25 kg/ha.In
endemic areas apply carbofuran 3G @ 15 kg/ha, 15 days after planting.
• Spray carbaryl 50 WP 2 kg + wettable Sulphur 2 kg or malathion 50 EC 1.5L.
Damage symptom:
It is a vector of little leaf of brinjal. Nymphs & adults suck cell sap from ventral side of
leaf & inject toxins into the plant tissues. Reduction in size of leaves, shortened petioles,
excessive growth of branches - stunting of plants, conversion of floral parts into leafy structures
& give the plants a bushy appearance. Fruiting is rare.
Bionomics:
The adults are small light brown leafhoppers having bright yellow marks on its thorax.
Management:
• Rogue out infested plants as soon as they appear in the field & completely destroy
them. Before transplantation dip the seedlings in 0.2% carbosulfan 25 DS solution to
control the insect vectors.
• Spray 3 - 4 times at 10 days interval with methyl parathion 750 ml or dimethoate 500
ml or imidacloprid 125 ml in 500 -750 L of water /ha.
Aphids: Aphis gossypii (Aphidiae: Hemiptera)
It can be occasionally serious.
• Release of first instar grubs of Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi @ 10,000/ha.
• Spraying methyl demeton 25 EC or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml or Fenvalerate 20 EC
375-500 ml or Phosphamidon 40 SL 625-750 ml.
Egg plant mealy bug: Coccidohystrix insolitus (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera
Host: Pigeonpea, brinjal, other Solanum spp., etc.
Old plants usually affected - leaves & tender shoots covered by a large number of mealy bugs
- attended by small, brown ants. Leaves become yellow & covered with sooty mould.
53
Lace wing bug: Urentius hystricellus (Tingidae: Hemiptera)

Symptoms of damage:
Yellowing of leaves. Affected leaves covered with exuviae and excreta
Identification of pest:
Eggs are White nibble shaped. Nymphs are yellowish white with prominent
spines. Adults are Dorsal side -straw coloured, Ventral side - black coloured, Pronotum &
forewings with reticulated markings.
Management:
• Spray dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 lit/ha or methyl demeton 25 EC @ 1 lit/ha
Important pests of okra
Major pests:
1. Shoot and fruit borer Earias vittella and Earias insulana
2. Fruit borer Helicoverpa armigera
3. Shoot weevil Alcidodes affaber
4. Stem weevil Pempherulus affinis
5. Leaf roller Sylepta derogata
6. Semilooper Anomis flava
7. Jassids Amrasca devastans
8. Whitefly Bemisia tabaci
9. Aphid Aphis gossypii
10. Red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatus
Shoot and fruit borer: Earias vittella & Earias insulana (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: Cosmopolitan. Major pest
Host range: Cotton, bhendi, holly hock, Hibiscus cannabinus, Abutilon
Symptoms of damage:
Terminal shoots wither and droop. Shedding of buds and flowers. Bore hole in fruits &
feed inside. Deformed fruits.
E. vitella:
Egg: Sculptured egg and sky blue in colour - EP 3 days Larva: Brownish with white
streaks dorsally and pale yellow ventrally – LP 10-12 days. Adult: Forewings are pale with a
wedge-shaped green band in the middle.
E. insulana:
Larva: Brown with dorsum showing a white median longitudinal streak; Finger shaped
processes on larval body. Pupa: Outside the fruit in a tough, brown and boat shaped cocoon;
PP: 7 – 10 days. Adult: Forewings are uniformly silvery green
Management:
• Set up pheromone trap @ 12/ha.
• Collection and destruction of affected fruits.
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• Release of egg parasite Trichogramma chilonis @ 1.0 lakh/ha.

• Release of 1st instar larvae of green lacewing predator Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi
@ 10,000/ha.
• Spray Bacillus thuringiensis @ 2 g/lit. Spray any one of the following insecticides
• Azadirachtin 0.03% WSP (300 ppm) 5.0 g/lit
• Azadirachtin 5% Neem Extract Concentrate 5.0 ml/1 lit
• Emamectin benzoate 5 % SG 3.0 g/10 lit
• Phosalone 35 % EC 1.5 ml /lit
• Pyridalyl 10 % EC 1.0 ml/lit
• Quinalphos 25 % EC 8.0 ml/10 lit
Bhendi fruit borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: Cosmopolitan, Major pest
Host range: Sorghum, lablab, soybean, peas, sunflower, safflower, chilies, groundnut, tobacco,
bhendi, maize, tomato.
Symptoms of damage:
Feed on the flowers. Circular boreholes on fruits. Larva thrust only part of their body
inside the fruit feed
Bionomics:
Eggs: Spherical in shape & creamy white in color, laid singly EP: 7 days. Larva: Shows
colour variation from greenish to brown, LP: 14 days Pupa: Brown in color, occurs in soil,
leaf; PP: 10 days Adult: Female brownish yellow stout moth, Male is pale greenish in colour
with V shaped markings.
Management:
• Collect and destroy the infected fruits and grown-up larvae.
• Install pheromone trap with Helilure at 15/ha.
• Six releases of T. chilonis @ 50,000/ha per week coinciding with flowering time.
Release Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi at weekly interval at 50,000 eggs or grubs/ha
from 30 DAS.
• Spray HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha along with cotton seed oil 300 g/ha to kill larvae.
• Spray carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit or B. thuringiensis 2 g/lit.Do not spray insecticides after
maturity of fruits.
Shoot weevil: Alcidodes affabe(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Symptoms of damage:
Grub feed on stem & galls are formed in the stem & petiole. Adults feed on leaf buds and
terminal shoots
Grubs - creamy yellow, apodous. Adults - dark greyish brown with pale cross bands on elytra
Stem weevil: Pempherulus affinis (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
55
Symptoms of damage:
Swellings on the stem just above the ground level. Young plants are invariably killed.
Older plants that survive lack vigor and strength, breaks at the nodes due to strong wind
Identification of the pest:
Larva - Grub, white in colour without leg (apodous). Adult - Very small weevil, dark in
colour with two small white patches on the elytra. ETL: 10% infestation
Management:
• Soil application of Carbofuran 3 G at 30 kg/ ha on 20 DAS and earthed up.Basal
application of FYM 25 t/ha or 250 kg/ha of neem cake.
Leaf roller: Sylepta derogate Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera
Distribution and status: Africa, Australia, Burma, Sri Lanka, Japan, Java & China. It is
considered as minor pest
Host range: Cotton, bhendi, Abutilon indicum and other malvaceous plants.
Damage symptoms:
Young larvae feed on epidermis on the under surface. Rolls the leaf in the form of
trumpets and remains inside . More than one larva can be seen inside the roll. It is fastened by
silken threads on marginal portion. In severe cases - defoliation occurs
Bionomics:
Egg: 2 - 4days, green – round, 250 - 300 eggs/female laid on the ventral surface of the
leaves. Larval period: 2- 3 weeks, glistening green with dark head. Pupal Period: 6 - 12 days.
Pupates within the roll or ground or fallen leaf. Adult - medium sized cream coloured moth with
wavy markings.
Management:
• Collect and destroy rolled leaves.Spray carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit or phosalone 35 EC 2
ml/lit
Semiloopers: Anomis flava; Xanthodes graelsi; Tarache nitidula (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Distribution and status: India, Africa, Asia & Australia.
Host range: Cotton, tomato, bhendi and other malvaceous plants.
Damage: Defoliation
Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Aleyrodidae; Hemiptera)
Distribution and status: India, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Congo, West Africa, Japan & Europe
Host range: Cotton, tomato, tobacco, sweet potato, cassava, cabbage, cauliflower, melon, brinjal
and bhendi.
Symptoms of damage:
Chlorotic spots on the leaves which latter coalesce forming irregular yellowing of leaf
tissue. Severe infestation results in premature defoliation. Development of sooty mold.
Vector of yellow vein mosaic virus. ETL: 5-10 nymphs / leaf.
Management:
Timely sowing with recommended spacing & avoid alternate host. Remove & destroy
alternate weed hosts-Abutilon indicum, Solanum nigrum.Follow judicious irrigation management
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& nitrogenous fertilizer application to arrest the excessive vegetative growth and pest the
buildup. Setting up yellow pan traps & sticky traps at 1 foot height. . Collect and remove
whitefly infested leaves from the plants. Spray NSKE 5% and neem oil 5 ml or fish oil rosin
soap at 1 kg / 40 L of water. Avoid repeated spraying of synthetic pyrethroids. Spray any of the
following insecticides with 500 L water/ha.
• Phosalone 35 EC @ 2.5 l/ha
• Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2.0 l/ha
• Triazophos 40 EC @ 2.0 l/ha
Jassids: Amrasca devastans (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
Host range: Cotton, potato, brinjal, castor, bhendi, tomato, hollyhock and sunflower
Symptoms of damage:
Tender leaves become yellow. Margin of the leaves start curling downwards
&reddening.In severe infestation leaves get a bronze which is typical “hopper burn”
symptom.The margins of the leaf get broken and crumble into pieces when crushed.ETL: 50
nymphs / adults per 50 leaves or yellowing and curling from the middle to upper portion of the
plants in 25 % of plants in the field.
Nymph: Light green, translucent, wingless found between the veins of leaves on the
under surface
Adult: Green, wedge-shaped leafhopper
Management:
Install light trap to monitor leaf hopper - to attract & kill.Spray any one of the following
insecticides (spray fluid 500 l/ha). Imidacloprid 200 SL at 100 ml/ha. Methyl demeton 25 EC
500 ml/ha Dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml/ha.40 SL 600 ml/ha Release predators viz., Chrysopa
zastrowi sillemi. NSKE 5%.
References:
1. Delahaut, K.A. and Newenhouse, A.C. (1998).Growing carrots, beets, radishes, and
other root crops in Wisconsin: A guide for fresh worker growers. University of
Wisconsin Extension.
2. Adhikary S (1984). Results of field trials to control common insect pests of okra,
Hibiscus esculentus L., in Togo by application of crude methanolic extracts of leaves
and seed kernels of the neem tree, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Zeitschrift fur
Angewandte Entomologie, 98: 327-331.
3. Anaso CE (2003). Cost-benefits of spraying sole and intercropped okra with neem seed
extracts and deltamethrin in the Nigerian Sudan Savanna. Agric. Environ. 3: 171-177
4. Anonymous. Horticultural statistics at a Glance-2017, Department of Agriculture, Co
operation and Farmer’s Welfare, 2017, 196.
5. Bhadauria NKS, Bhadauria NS, Jakhmola SS. Insect pest complex of brinjal, Solanum
melongena Linn. in northwest Madhya Pradesh. Advances in Plant Sciences. 1999;
12(2):607-608.
57
6. Emosairue SO, Uguru EI (1999). Field trial of aqueous and petroleum ether extracts of
Monodora myristica (Gaertn) Dunal and Jatropha curcas L. for the control of okra flea
beetles, Podagrica spp. J. of Appl. Chem. Agric. Res., 6: 100-104
7. David PMM, Kumaraswami TL. Influence of synthetic pyrethroids on the population
of red spider mite Tetranchus dnnabarinus Boisduval in bhendi. J Tamilnadu Agril.
Univ. 1989; 17(2): 271-274.
8. Isahaque NMD. Studies on brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guen.
Under Assam condition. Ph.D. Thesis, Gauhati University, Gauhati, 1979.
9. Jagginavar SB, Sunitha ND, Biradon AP. Bioefficacy of flubendiamide 480SC against
brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucindoes orbonalis (Guen.). Kar. J Agri. Sci. 2009;
22(3):712-713.
10. Misra HP. Bio-efficacy of chlorantraniliprole against shoot and fruit borer of brinjal,
Leucinodes orbonalis Guenee. Journal of Insect Science. 2008; 24(1):60-64.
11. Mote UN, Bhavikatti S. Efficacy of chemical and nonchemical insecticides against
major pests of brinjal in kharif season. J of Appl. Z. Res. 2003; 14(1):54-56.
12. Nderitu JH, Kasina JM, Kimenju JW, Malenge F (2008). Evaluation of Synthetic and
Neem-Based Insecticides for Managing Aphids on Okra (Malvaceae) in Eastern
Kenya. J. Entomol. 5: 207-212.
13. Obeng-Ofori D, Sackey J (2003). Field evaluation of non-synthetic insecticides for the
management of insect pests of okra Abelmoschus Esculentus (L.) Moench in Ghana.
Ethiopian J. Sci. 26: 145-150.
14. Patnaik HP. Flower and fruit infestation by brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes
orbonalis Guen damage potential vs. weather. Veg. Sci. 2000; 27:82-83.
15. Regupathy A, Palanisamy S, Chandramohan N, Gunathilagaraj K. A guide on crop
pests. Sooriya Desk Top Publishers, Coimbatore, 1997, 264.
16. Subbarathnam GV, Butani DK. Chemical control of Insect pest complex of brinjal.
Entomon, 1982; 7:97-100.
17. Thul SR, Patil RS, Mule RS (2009). Field efficacy of some pesticides against flea
beetle (Podagrica bowringi Baly. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) infesting okra. J.
Maharashtra Agric. Univ., 34: 57-59
18. Ukoima HN, Okah A (2006). Use of some biopesticides in controlling pests and
diseases of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) in the field. Environ. Ecol., 24: 773-776.
19. Vanlommel S, Duchateau L, Coosemans J (1996). The effect of okra mosaic virus and
beetle damage on yield of four okra cultivars. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 4: 71-77.
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VIRTUAL WATER: EXPLORING THE HIDDEN COSTS OF GLOBAL WATER

FOOTPRINTS
Suresh Kumar K A
Department of Botany,
Government College, Chittur, Palakkad, Kerala.
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]
Introduction:
Water is an essential resource for all living beings and that is why it is known as elixir of
life of earth. The availability of water resources plays a crucial role in the economic growth of a
country (Allan, 1997). However, there is an uneven distribution of water across the world, with
some nations having an abundance of water while others do not. This has resulted in several poor
countries still struggling to acquire water resources. If a water-rich nation produces and exports
water-intensive products to a water-scarce nation, the importing country can save the water that
would have been used for the production process. This saved water can be utilized for other
water-intensive processes, thus helping to improve global water usage efficiency and achieve
water security in regions of the world that lack water resources. In this way, countries can
support one another in their water needs.
Virtual water:
The concept of virtual water, also known as water foot print or embedded water, was first
introduced by Professor John Anthony Allan in the 1990s (Allan, 1993, 1998; Chapagain and
Orr, 2009; Ridoutt, 2015). It involves quantifying the amount of water needed to produce a
particular product or service, and serves as a tool to measure its water footprint. For instance, the
virtual water of a cup of coffee includes the water utilized in growing, transporting, roasting the
beans, and making the coffee. Similarly, the virtual water of a cotton t-shirt encompasses the
water required in cultivating, processing, and manufacturing the t-shirt from cotton.
Understanding the concept of virtual water is crucial because it enables us to recognize
the hidden water usage associated with products and services, allowing us to make informed
decisions about consumption. This understanding also aids in the identification of water-
intensive products and services. Importing low virtual water content products is beneficial for
water-scarce regions, allowing them to preserve their own water resources for essential purposes.
Moreover, comprehending the virtual water concept is significant for water management.
By having an awareness of the virtual water content of products and services, water managers
can make informed decisions about water allocation. For instance, if a crop necessitates a large
amount of water, water managers can allocate water resources to crops with a lower virtual water
content. This can assist in the conservation of water resources and ensure efficient water
allocation.
The virtual water concept is useful in evaluating the environmental impact of goods and
services. According to a study by the Water Footprint Network, a kilogram of beef has a higher
59
virtual water content compared to a kilogram of vegetables. Hence, a shift towards a plant-based
diet could significantly contribute to water conservation and environmental sustainability.
Virtual water trade:
World virtual water trade refers to the movement of water, embedded in traded
commodities, from water-rich to water-scarce regions. This trade is driven by the increasing
demand for water-intensive goods, such as crops, livestock, and industrial products, in water-
scarce regions (Allan, 2003). Virtual water trade allows water-scarce regions to import water-
intensive products, thereby reducing their dependence on local water resources. However, it also
raises concerns about the sustainability of water use in water-rich regions and the potential for
water conflicts between trading partners (Hoekstra, 2009). The concept of virtual water trade
highlights the interdependence of global water resources and the need for integrated water
management strategies to ensure water security for all (Oki and Kanae, 2004).
Virtual water trade is a concept that has gained increasing attention from individuals
concerned with water management, particularly in relation to water-intensive food production. It
refers to the water utilized in the manufacturing process of industrial or agricultural goods. The
implications of virtual water are significant for international trade because regions with water
scarcity may import water-intensive products from water-rich regions. This implies that water-
rich regions are essentially exporting water. For instance, the virtual water content of one
kilogram of beef is approximately 15,000 liters, implying that when a water-scarce region
imports one kilogram of beef, it effectively imports 15,000 liters of water ((Chapagain and
Hoekstra, 2003). Similarly, the virtual water content of one kilogram of grain is between 1,000-
2,000kg, while the production of a 32-megabyte computer chip of 2 grams requires 32kg of
water. When a country exports one metric ton of wheat to another country, it loses 1,500 cubic
meters of water, while the importing country gains the same amount of water (Zimmer and
Renault, 2003). Consequently, there is a hidden flow of water when countries trade agricultural
or industrial goods. This flow of water is referred to as virtual water trade, and it has sparked a
debate about its fairness. While some argue that water-rich regions should receive compensation
for the virtual water they export, others contend that virtual water trade is a natural consequence
of globalization.
Significance:
Water is essential for the survival of all living organisms, and while humans require 2-4
liters of water daily for drinking, food production requires a much larger amount. As the global
population grows and water resources become increasingly scarce, policymakers are looking for
ways to efficiently manage water to meet the needs of everyone on Earth. Virtual water trade has
emerged as a potential solution to this problem. The importance of virtual water trade is likely to
increase as food trade grows, especially for water-intensive products like cereal and meat. When
one country exports a water-intensive product, it is essentially exporting virtual water, which can
help support the water needs of other countries. This is particularly important in regions where
water is scarce, and virtual water trade has become a key component of water management at
both the global and regional levels.
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Virtual water trade refers to the water required to produce goods and services that are
traded between countries. It is a concept that was first introduced by Tony Allan in 1993 (Allan,
1993) and has since gained significant attention in the field of water resource management,
international trade, and environmental sustainability. The significance of virtual water trade can
be understood from the following points:
Water scarcity mitigation: Virtual water trade allows water-scarce countries to import water-
intensive goods instead of producing them domestically, thus reducing their water footprint and
mitigating water scarcity
Economic benefits: Virtual water trade can provide economic benefits by allowing countries to
specialize in the production of goods that are water-efficient and trade them with countries that
are water-intensive This can lead to increased efficiency and productivity, and generate
economic growth and development (Kumar and Singh, 2012).
Environmental benefits: Virtual water trade can also have environmental benefits by reducing
the amount of water required to produce goods, thus reducing the overall water footprint and the
associated environmental impacts (Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2011).
Global water security: Virtual water trade can contribute to global water security by allowing
water-scarce countries to import water-intensive goods, thus reducing the pressure on their own
water resources and promoting sustainable water use.
Political implications: Virtual water trade can have political implications as countries may use it
as a tool for geopolitical influence and power.
Tony Allan proposes a political argument that highlights the potential of net import of
virtual water in water-scarce nations as an alternative source of water, which can ease pressure
on the nation's own resources. This approach can effectively address geographical challenges and
help prevent conflicts over water, as stated in Allan's work in 1998. Moreover, the concept of
virtual water also has an economic argument rooted in the International Trade Theory. The
theory suggests that nations should export products in which they have a comparative or relative
advantage in production and import products in which they have a comparative disadvantage.
Therefore, trading virtual water between nations could enhance global water use efficiency.
Compared to other natural resources like land and energy, research on water resource use
in relation to consumption patterns has been limited. However, some studies have examined the
impact of different diets on water usage. For example, a survival diet necessitates 1 cubic meter
of water per person per day, while an animal-based diet requires about 10 m3/cap/day. Diets
commonly consumed range from 2.5 m3/cap/day in regions with low animal product
consumption, such as North Africa, to 5 m3/cap/day in regions with high animal product
consumption, such as Europe or the USA.
A comprehensive study to calculate the water footprints of nations has been conducted,
which shows that Belgium and the Netherlands have a relatively high-water footprint per capita
of around 2000 m3/yr. Japan, Mexico, and the USA have an average water footprint of around
1000 m3/yr. per capita. On the other hand, China, India, and Indonesia have a relatively low
water footprint of around 500 m3/yr. per capita. (Shiklomanov, 2000).
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The experts in virtual water trade predict that it will become increasingly important and
widely used to alleviate water scarcity issues at both local and global levels. To achieve this, it is
necessary to develop and disseminate standard procedures for virtual water accounting and
references. Furthermore, understanding a nation's virtual water trade balance is crucial for
developing a rational national policy regarding virtual water trade. It is imperative to conduct
further research to investigate the natural, social, and economic implications of utilizing virtual
water trade as a strategic instrument in water policy. Additionally, instruments should be
developed to analyze the impact of virtual water on local socio-economic and cultural conditions,
while considering a nation's broader objectives such as promoting economic growth, creating
employment, reducing poverty, and providing national security. When analyzing trade in food
and other water-containing products, it is important to consider not only virtual water trade but
also virtual labor, virtual land, and other non-water factors. To expand virtual water analysis,
countries like China, where there is a significant issue of domestic virtual water trade, should
include internal trade within their virtual water accounting.(Hoekstra and Hung, 2002)
Table 1: Virtual water content of a few selected products
Sl. No Products Virtual Water Content (m3/ton)*
1 Wheat 1150-2000
2 Rice 1400-3600
3 Maize 450-1900
4 Potatoes 105-160
5 Soybean 2300-2500
6 Beef 13500-20700
7 Pork 4600-5900
8 Poultry 2900-4500
9 Eggs 2700-4600
10 Milk 560-870
11 Cheese 5290
Conclusion:
The concept of virtual water is an important tool for understanding the hidden water use
behind products and services. It allows us to make informed choices about what we consume and
helps water-scarce regions to conserve their water resources. Virtual water also has significant
implications for international trade, water management, and the environment. As the world’s
population continues to grow and water resources become scarcer, the concept of virtual water
will become increasingly important for sustainable water management.
References:
1. Allan, J. A. (1998). Virtual water: A strategic resource. Global solutions to regional
deficits in water supply. 13, 15-23.
2. Allan, J. A. (2003). Virtual water--the water, food, and trade nexus: useful concept or
misleading metaphor?. Water international. 28(1), 106-113.
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3. Allan, J.A. (1993). ‘Fortunately, there are substitutes for water otherwise our hydro-
political futures would be impossible’ In: ODA, Priorities for water resources allocation
and management, ODA, London, pp. 13-26.
4. Allan, J.A. (1997). 'Virtual water: A long term solution for water short Middle Eastern
economies?' Paper presented at the 1997 British Association Festival of Science,
University of Leeds, 9 September 1997.
5. Chapagain, A. K. and Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The water footprint of humanity.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107(9), 3562-3567.
6. Chapagain, A. K. and Orr, S. (2009). UK water footprint: the impact of the UK's food and
fibre consumption on global water resources. WWF-UK.
7. Chapagain, A.K. and A.Y. Hoekstra (2003). ‘Virtual water trade: A quantification of
virtual water flows between nations in relation to international trade of livestock and
livestock products’.
8. Hoekstra, A. Y. (2009). Virtual water trade: Proceedings of the international expert
meeting on virtual water trade. Delft: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.
9. Hoekstra, A.Y. and Hung, P.Q. (2002). ‘Virtual water trade: A quantification of virtual
water flows between nations in relation to international crop trade’, Value of Water
Research Report Series No.11, IHE, Delft, the Netherlands. Virtual water: An introduction
/ 23.
10. Kumar, S. and Singh, S. K. (2012). Virtual water trade and economic development in
India. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 28(3), 461-473.
11. Oki, T. and Kanae, S. (2004). Virtual water trade and world water resources. Water
Science and Technology. 49(7), 203-209.
12. Ridoutt, B. G., Pfister, S. and Manzardo, A. (2015). A revised approach to water foot
printing to make transparent the impacts of consumption and production on global
freshwater scarcity. Global Environmental Change. 35, 1-11.
13. Shiklomanov, I. A. (2000). Appraisal and assessment of world water resources. Water
International. 25(1), 11-32.
14. Zimmer, D. and Renault, D. (2003) ‘Virtual water in food production and global trade:
Review of methodological issues and preliminary results.
63
MULTIGENE ENGINEERING IN PLANTS

Raghavendra V. C*, Premsagar S. P, Yashaswini R, and Alluri Hema Latha
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
College of Agriculture, UAS Raichur – 584104
Abstract:
Through conventional breeding methods, it is rarely possible to incorporate all types of
resistance genes governing different biotic and abiotic stresses into a single plant. There is a need
for novel transgenic technology to achieve Multi Gene Transfer (MGT). The various methods
followed to achieve this include crossing transgenic lines, sequential transformation, co-
transformation, chloroplast transformation and site-specific integration by homologous
recombination. Essentially all these methods aim to achieve the creation of a SMART locus, i.e.
one containing stable multiple arrays of transgenes. Through the MGT approach we can also
achieve nutritious food supply by incorporating various genes governing nutrient biosynthesis
pathway.
Keywords: Multigene, co-transformation, vector, chloroplast, Agrobacterium
Introduction:
Off late trend of rapidly increasing human population all over the globe, there is a need of
increased food production to meet the food requirement coupled with the major constraints of
decreased cultivable area, increased land degradation, changing climatic condition and major
threats in crop production like insects, diseases and abiotic stresses. To mitigate these problems
there is a demand for the crop varieties and hybrids that can yield much better with increased
productivity even in all types of unfavorable conditions and also there is a need of nutritious food
supply to the hunger world.
Multigene engineering means incorporating various multiple gene governing resistance
against different stresses and gene governing various quality traits into a single plant.
Multigene engineering enables us to transfer different genes governing resistance against
different diseases and insects to a single outstanding genotype to achieve a resistant variety, to
change the entire metabolic pathway for the biosynthesis of required nutrients, to express
multimeric proteins or protein complexes, and to study complex genetic control circuits and
regulatory hierarchies.
Importance of multigene engineering
The complete metabolic pathway can be altered through multiple gene transformation,
includes multimeric proteins or protein complexes and analyse complex regulatory networks and
genetic control circuits. Plant genetic engineering will need to manipulate complicated metabolic
or regulatory networks involving several genes because the majority of agronomic traits are
polygenic in nature. The integration of many transgenes into the plant genome is necessary to
redirect complex biosynthetic pathways and alter polygenic agronomic characteristics while
assuring their permanent inheritance and expression in subsequent generations. Multiple genes
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must also be introduced and expressed in plants in order to manipulate secondary metabolisms
and produce multimeric proteins of biological or pharmacological value. Combining the
production of antifungal proteins with several mechanisms of action, which also necessitates the
incorporation of numerous transgenes into the plant genome, can result in a more resilient
antifungal resistance. So the transfer, stable integration and expression of multiple genes into the
plant genome is known as multiple gene transformation. Naqvi et al. (2010)
Methods for multigene engineering
1 Nuclear genome transformation
2 Chloroplast genome transformation
1. Nuclear gene transformation
In nuclear gene transformation there are 2 types
I. Conventional stacking methods
a. Crossing transgenic lines
b. Sequential transformation
II. Co-transformation
a. Agrobacterium mediated
b. Direct method
I a. Crossing transgenic lines
In this, two plants are crossed to produce offspring with characteristics from both parents.
In the case of transgenic plants, one parent receives a first gene and the other parent receives a
second gene. When the two transgenic parental lines are crossed, the progeny either contain the
two transgenes in 25% (if both parents are hemizygous for the transgenes) or in all cases (if both
parents are homozygous for the transgenes). For instance, Datta et al. (2002) developed disease
and pest resistance rice by crossing plants expressing the Xa21 gene (resistance to bacterial
blight) with plants expressing both a Bt fusion gene and a chitinase gene (confers resistance to
yellow stem borer and tolerance to sheath blight respectively).
Advantages and limitations of iterative strategy
This is a simple technique and includes transfer of pollens from one parent to the other,
but precautions should be taken to avoid the self-pollination. The main disadvantage is only
applicable to sexually propagated crops and obtaining homozygous plants is difficult. Also,
introduced transgenes are not linked and can integrate at random locus of plant genome. This
indicates that they will segregate apart again in subsequent generations.
I b. Sequential transformation
Sequential transformation, or repeated transformation or re-transformation, is defined as
the repetitive insertion of transgenes into a plant. For example, Single-preek et al. (2003)
introduced two-gene glyoxalase pathway into tobacco that led to enhanced salinity tolerance.
Advantages and limitations
This approach can also be used for vegetatively propagated organisms, and it prevents
recombination from causing the loss of traits that make up a desirable combination. However, it is
65
labor-intensive, takes a lot of time, needs one selectable marker for each transgene, and can
silence genes.
II. Co-transformation
It is the simultaneous introduction of multiple genes in a cell followed by the integration
of genes in cell genome. Genes are either present on the same plasmid that is single plasmid co-
transformation of linked genes or on separate plasmids that is multiple plasmid co-
transformations of unlinked genes. Single plasmid co-transformation is the robust strategy for
small number of input genes, but as number increases, the vectors become unstable. In this, the
genes to be introduced are linked as a single piece of DNA, with each gene having its own
promoter and terminator. Daniell and Dhingra (2002)
This method has advantage over the other methods that the integration of linked genes
will take place on a single locus. So, the transgenes will be inherited stably to the next
generations. Other multiple plasmids co-transformation involves several plasmids each carrying
a different transgene. It has the benefit of making the assembly of the various expression
cassettes technically simpler. The main drawback is that T-DNA integration can take place at
any chromosomal locus, which will make further breeding difficult. Technically challenging
aspects of co-transformation include the problem of gene silencing, the challenge of linking
together complicated plasmids with multiple gene cassettes, and undesirable insertion of
complex T-DNA molecules from many sources. Dhanoa et al. (2019)
Steps involved in co-transformation
1. Selection of desirable genes with their promoters
2. Selection of suitable vector and transformation vectors systems
3. Transfer of desirable genes into suitable vector
4. Transfer of vectors into the plant genome
5. Screening of transgenic plant
Desirable genes or biotic and abiotic stress resistance genes can be obtained through
NCBI or gene banks. They provide desirable genes for the transformation work, for this many
procedures has to undergo and as well as information regarding the work should be provided to
the gene banks.
2. Selection of suitable vector and transformation vector systems
Vectors
▪ A vector is a circular DNA capable of independent existence and replication.
▪ Examples: plasmid and viruses
In case of plants, Agrobacterium plasmids Ti and Ri are most commonly used vectors
Structure of Ti plasmid
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Fig. 1: Structure of Ti plasmid

Types of modified DNA vectors:
✓ Co-integrate vector
✓ Binary vector
Co-transformation (linked genes):
Agrobacterium, standard binary vectors:
• Multiple genes can be incorporated within a single T-DNA.
• It is efficient for a small number of small transgenes having single transgenic locus.
• Not suitable for large genes or large numbers of genes because the binary vectors become
unstable and they undergo spontaneous deletions.
• Upper limit size is 50 kb.
Direct transfer, conventional vectors:
• Multiple genes assembled within a single transforming DNA segment.
• It is also efficient for a small number of small transgenes having single transgenic locus.
• Ineffective for very large genes or large numbers of genes due to the likelihood of
fragmentation.
• Upper limit size is 80 kb
Agrobacterium, high-capacity binary vectors (BIBAC, TAC):
• Multiple genes inserted within a single T-DNA housed on a high-capacity vector.
• It carries large genes or larger numbers of small genes effectively.
• Upper limit size is 200 kb carrying single transgenic locus.
• The cumbersome cloning more numbers of genes in series, although Gateway vectors
address this to some extent.
Assisted direct transfer (high-capacity transfer):
• With the help of protective structures such as bioactive beads ease the direct transfer of
large DNA fragments.
• It enables the introduction of very large DNA fragments, up to size of 200 kb.
• Single transgenic locus.
• Incompatible with particle bombardment thus less effective in large-scale experiments.
67
Artificial plant chromosomes:

• Transgenes which is attached to DNA vectors containing the minimum components are
required to act as plant chromosomes.
• The Upper limit is unknown, likely to be in the Mb range, and potential for tens or
hundreds of transgenes to be transferred simultaneously.
• Early-stage technology currently is available in maize only.
• Technically challenging.
Operon system:
• The genes arranged in tandem in a bacterial operon and expressed as a polycistronic
mRNA.
• It allows the coordinate regulation of multiple genes.
• It is only suitable for plastid transformation.
• The plastid transformation only applicable in a limited number of species.
• The maternal inheritance of transgene.
Co-transformation (unlinked genes):
Agrobacterium, standard binary vectors:
• Multiple T-DNAs included on a binary vector or (more usually) multiple bacterial strains
each carrying a different transgene used for simultaneous infection of plant tissue.
• It is simple and convenient for a small number of transgenes.
• The two different T-DNAs often integrate back-to-back at the same locus depending on
the strain.
• It is unsuitable for more than two transgenes if single transgenic locus is required.
Direct transfer, conventional vectors:
• Multiple genes on the multiple plasmids transferred to plant simultaneously.
• Effective for many transgenes.
• Regardless of transgene number, this method tends to generate a single transgenic locus.
• It tends to generate complex loci
Plant Multigene Transformation Vector Systems
• Restriction Enzyme-Based Assembly
• Homologous Recombination in Yeast
• Gibson Assembly
• Cre Site-Specific Recombination
• Gateway recombination
Although the assembly and transformation of a large transformation construct carrying
multiple genes have been a challenge, various multigene vector systems using a variety of
approaches have been developed to facilitate the stacking and delivery of different numbers of
genes into plants. Currently, these approaches have employed the use of rare cutting homing
endonucleases and zinc-finger nucleases type IIS restriction enzymes (Golden Gate cloning),
Cre/loxP recombination, Gateway recombination, Gibson Assembly, and homologous
recombination in yeast Shih et al. (2016). The multigene vector systems with easy manipulation
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and large DNA-carrying capacity (e.g., using artificial chromosomes as vector backbone) have
more advantages. An example is the recently developed Trans-Gene Stacking II (TGS II) system.
Chloroplast transformation
In this technology, Genes can be introduced into chloroplast genome via homologous
recombination. As opposed to nuclear genes in plants, which transcribe singly, chloroplast genes
are often present in operons. First chloroplast transformation was done by Boynton and gillham
in 1988 in alga Chlamydomonas reinhardti and in higher plants, first chloroplast transformation
done in 1990 by Pal maliga and coworkers in tobacco. Chloroplast transformation requires a
robust method of DNA delivery into chloroplast, presence of active homologous recombination
machinery in the plastid, and the availability of highly efficient selection and regeneration
protocol. Daniell et al. (2005)
Characteristics of chloroplast engineering
1. Maternally inherited
2. Multi gene transfer can be conveniently carried out
3. High level of gene expression
4. Not linked with gene silencing
5. Single promoter can control the expression of genes
Conditions to be full filled to achieve plastid transformation
• A robust method of DNA delivery into chloroplast
• The presence of active homologous recombination machinery in the plastid
• The availability of highly efficient selection and regeneration protocols for transplastomic
cells.
Approaches in chloroplast transformation
• Biolistic method
• PEG-mediated
• Carbon nanotubes carriers
• UV-laser microbeam
• Agrobacterium-mediated transformation
1. Biolistic approach steps
Steps:
• E.coli plasmid in which selectable marker gene and gene of our interst introduced into
chloroplast of detached leaves using biolistic approach.
• Leaf is then cut into pieces grown on appropriate regeneration medium containing the
appropriate antibiotic depending on the selectable marker used
• After two rounds of selection the regenerated plants transcribed into transplastomic
plants.
Methods/ Techniques of Plastid Transformation:
Transformation refers to the process of introducing DNA into the genome of an
organism. For genetic transformation two approaches have been applied to stable genetic
modification of plastids: integration of transforming DNA by homologous
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recombination/targeting and introduction of independently replicating shuttle vectors. Stable

genetic transformation in plants consists of three phases: 1) Transfer of cloned DNA to the
appropriate target tissue; 2) Selection of cells that have taken up the transforming DNA and
integrated it into the genome 3) Regeneration of transformed plantlets capable of continued
propagation or sexual reproduction. For the majority of plants of agricultural relevance, this
procedure is currently standard practice for producing nuclear transformants. However, each step
of the transformation process faces a unique set of difficulties due to the distinctive structural
and metabolic properties of plastids. (Fig.2.)
Fig. 2: Chloroplast transformation

Challenges faced by chloroplast transformation
• Applicable to limited plant species
• Unavailability of genome sequence
• It requires homologous flanking regions for recombination and insertion of genes
• Phenotypic alterations of transplastomic plants
• Gene expression in non-green plastids
• Degradation of target gene product
• Low success rate of gene insertion into chloroplast genomes
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Applications of multiple gene transformation
• Enhancement of nutrition
Ex: Carotenoids and Vitamin E in Canola Fujisawa et al. (2009)
• Resistance to biotic and abiotic stress Datta et al. (2002)
• Development of super nutritious maize Naqvi et al. (2009)
Achievements in multigene transformation
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References:
1. Daniell, H. and Dhingra, A., 2002: Multigene engineering: dawn of an exciting new era
in biotechnology. Curr. Opin Biotechn., 13(2): 136-141.
2. Daniell, H., Kumar, S. and Dufourmantel, N., 2005: Breakthrough in chloroplast genetic
engineering of agronomically important crops. Trends Biotechn.., 23(5): 238-245.
3. Datta, K., Baisakh, N., Thet, K. M., Tu, J. and Datta, S. K., 2002: Pyramiding transgenes
for multiple resistance in rice against bacterial blight, yellow stem borer and sheath
blight. Theor. Appl. Genet. 106: 1-8
4. Dhanoa, A. K., Kapoor, R. and Batra, R., 2019: Multiple gene transformation-
implications in plant breeding. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 8(5): 1437-1442
5. Fujisawa, M., Takita, E., Harada, H., Sakurai, N., Suzuki, H., Ohyama, K., Shibata, D.
and Misawa, N., 2009: Pathway engineering of Brassica napus seeds using multiple key
enzyme genes involved in ketocarotenoid formation. J. Exp. Bot. 60(4): 1319-1332.
6. Naqvi, S., Zhu, C., Farre, G., Ramessar, K., Bassie, L., Breitenbach, J., Conesa, D. P.,
Ros, G., Sandmann, G., Capell, T. and Christou, P., 2009: Transgenic multivitamin corn
through biofortification of endosperm with three vitamins representing three distinct
metabolic pathways. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 106: 7762-7767.
7. Naqvi, S., Farre, G., Sanahuja, G., Capell, T., Zhu, C. and Christou, P., 2010: When more
is better: multigene engineering in plants. Trends plant sci., 15(1): 48-56.
8. Single-preek, S. L., Reddy, M. K. and Sopory, S. K., 2003: Genetic engineering of the
glyoxalase pathway in tobacco leads to enhanced salinity tolerance. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci., USA 100: 14672-14677.
9. Shih, P. M., Vuu, K., Mansoori, N., Ayad, L., Louie, K. B., Bowen, B. P., Northen, T. R.
and Loque, D. 2016: A robust gene-stacking method utilizing yeast assembly for plant
synthetic biology. Nat. Commun., 7: 13215.
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RICE FOODBORNE DISEASE DETECTION USING MACHINE LEARNING

Jyoti D. Bhosale
Department of Computer Engineering,
VDF Group of Institution Latur (Maharashtra).
Rice is considered a staple food in many parts of the world, particularly in Asia, where it
is a primary dietary component for a large portion of the population. Here are some reasons why
rice has become a staple food:
Availability: Rice is one of the most widely cultivated and produced crops globally. It can be
grown in diverse climatic conditions, ranging from wetlands to upland areas, making it
accessible to a wide range of regions and populations.
Nutritional Value: Rice is a good source of carbohydrates, which provide energy for the body.
It also contains essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. While it may not
be as rich in protein and certain other nutrients compared to other crops, it still plays a significant
role in meeting caloric and nutritional needs, especially when combined with other food sources.
Caloric Efficiency: Rice is a calorie-dense food, meaning it provides a relatively high amount of
calories per unit of weight or volume. This makes it an efficient source of energy, particularly in
regions where access to food may be limited or where people engage in physically demanding
work.
Versatility: Rice can be prepared and consumed in various ways, such as steamed, boiled, fried,
or ground into flour. It can be the main component of a meal or used as an accompaniment to
other dishes. Its versatility allows it to be incorporated into different cuisines and adapted to local
tastes and preferences.
Economic Accessibility: Rice is often affordable and widely available, making it accessible to
people across different socioeconomic backgrounds. It can be grown and purchased at relatively
low costs, contributing to its widespread consumption and affordability as a staple food.
Cultural Significance: Rice has deep cultural and historical significance in many societies. It is
often an integral part of traditional rituals, celebrations, and culinary traditions. Its cultural
importance further reinforces its status as a staple food.
It's important to note that while rice is a staple food for many, dietary patterns can vary
significantly among different regions and individuals. Other staple foods, such as wheat, maize,
potatoes, or cassava, are consumed in different parts of the world, depending on local
agricultural practices, cultural preferences, and dietary habits.
To reduce rice diseases and improve production, here are some strategies that can be
implemented:
Crop Rotation: Implementing crop rotation practices can help break the disease cycle by
alternating the cultivation of rice with other non-host crops. This reduces the buildup of
pathogens and pests in the soil, minimizing the risk of disease outbreaks.
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Genetic Resistance: Breeding and cultivating rice varieties that are resistant or tolerant to
specific diseases can significantly reduce the impact of diseases. Plant breeders work on
developing disease-resistant varieties through traditional breeding techniques or genetic
engineering.
Proper Field Management: Good agricultural practices, such as maintaining proper water
management, adequate nutrient supply, and effective weed control, can contribute to healthier
rice plants and reduce the likelihood of disease development.
Disease Monitoring and Early Detection: Regular monitoring of rice fields for signs of disease
can help detect outbreaks early. Prompt identification and diagnosis of diseases enable timely
implementation of control measures to limit their spread.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Adopting IPM strategies can help manage pests and
diseases effectively while minimizing the use of chemical pesticides. IPM includes techniques
such as biological control, cultural practices, and judicious pesticide application.
Seed Treatment: Treating seeds with fungicides or bio control agents before planting can
protect young seedlings from soil-borne diseases and promote healthy plant establishment.
Proper Crop Nutrition: Providing balanced and optimal nutrition to rice plants enhances their
overall health and resilience to diseases. Soil testing and appropriate fertilization practices ensure
that plants receive essential nutrients.
Awareness and Education: Promoting awareness among farmers about common rice diseases,
their symptoms, and control measures is crucial. Providing training and access to information on
disease management practices can empower farmers to make informed decisions and take
proactive measures.
Collaboration and Research: Collaboration between farmers, researchers, and agricultural
extension services is essential for sharing knowledge, conducting research, and developing
innovative solutions to address specific rice diseases and production challenges.
Sustainable Farming Practices: Implementing sustainable farming practices, such as organic
farming, conservation agriculture, and agro ecological approaches can promote a healthier agro
ecosystem and reduce the reliance on synthetic inputs, leading to improved long-term disease
management and overall sustainability.
It's important to note that the specific strategies for disease management and production
improvement may vary depending on the region, climate, and specific rice diseases prevalent in a
given area. Local agricultural extension services and experts can provide tailored advice and
guidance based on the specific conditions and challenges faced in a particular location.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) can be used to reduce and detect rice plant diseases
through their ability to analyze and classify images. Here's how CNNs can be applied:
Dataset Collection: A large dataset of rice plant images is collected, containing both healthy
plants and plants affected by various diseases. These images are annotated with labels indicating
the presence of specific diseases.
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Data Preprocessing: The collected images are preprocessed to ensure uniformity and enhance
the training process. Preprocessing steps may include resizing the images, normalizing pixel
values, and augmenting the dataset through techniques like rotation, flipping, or adding noise.
Model Architecture: A CNN model is designed to extract meaningful features from the rice
plant images. The architecture typically consists of multiple convolutional layers, pooling layers,
and fully connected layers. The convolutional layers apply filters to the input image, capturing
local patterns and features. Pooling layers downsample the feature maps, reducing their spatial
dimensions.
Training: The CNN model is trained on the preprocessed dataset. The images and their
corresponding disease labels are fed into the model. During training, the model adjusts its
internal parameters (weights and biases) to minimize the difference between the predicted
disease labels and the ground truth labels. This process involves forward propagation, where the
input images pass through the network, and backward propagation (backpropagation), where the
model updates its parameters based on the calculated errors.
Disease Detection: Once the CNN model is trained, it can be used to detect diseases in rice
plants. New, unseen images of rice plants are fed into the trained model. The model processes
the images through its layers, extracting relevant features. The output layer provides predictions
of the presence and type of diseases in the input images.
Disease Diagnosis: The predictions made by the CNN model can be used to diagnose rice plant
diseases. By comparing the predicted disease labels with a predefined set of disease classes, the
specific disease affecting a plant can be identified. This information can then be used for further
actions, such as implementing targeted disease management strategies.
The key advantage of using CNNs for disease detection in rice plants is their ability to
automatically learn and extract discriminative features from images, enabling accurate
classification. By training the model on a diverse dataset, it can learn to recognize patterns
associated with different diseases, helping in their detection. The CNN model can be a valuable
tool for farmers, agronomists, and researchers, providing early detection and timely intervention
to mitigate the impact of diseases, reduce crop losses, and optimize resource allocation in rice
production.
Introduction to deep learning and convolutional neural networks (CNNs):
• Overview of deep learning and its applications in image recognition and classification
• Introduction to CNN architecture and its suitability for image analysis tasks
• Explanation of convolutional layers, pooling layers, and fully connected layers in CNNs
• Training CNN models to automatically learn discriminative features from rice plant disease
images:
• Preprocessing and augmentation techniques for preparing rice plant disease images for
training
• Designing CNN architectures specific to rice plant disease diagnosis
• Training CNN models using labeled image datasets of rice plant diseases
• Optimization techniques such as gradient descent and backpropagation for training CNNs
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• Transfer learning and fine-tuning pre-trained CNN models for improved accuracy and
efficiency:
• Overview of transfer learning and its benefits in limited data scenarios
• Utilizing pre-trained CNN models, such as VGG, ResNet, or Inception, for rice plant
disease diagnosis
• Adapting pre-trained models to the rice plant disease dataset through fine-tuning
• Techniques for freezing and unfreezing specific layers during fine-tuning
• Evaluation and validation of deep learning models for rice plant disease diagnosis:
• Metrics for evaluating the performance of deep learning models, including accuracy,
precision, recall, and F1 score
• Strategies for cross-validation and validation set selection to ensure robust model
evaluation
• Handling imbalanced datasets and addressing biases in model predictions
• Interpretation of model performance and trade-offs between accuracy and computational
complexity
• Advanced techniques and considerations in deep learning for rice plant disease diagnosis:
• Multi-class classification and handling multiple diseases in a single image
• Localization and segmentation of diseased regions in rice plant images
• Interpretability and explainability of deep learning models in rice plant disease diagnosis
• Model deployment and integration with other agricultural systems for real-time diagnosis
A CNN: What is it?
Similar to conventional supervised learning techniques, convolutional neural networks
receive input images, identify each one's features, and then drag a grader over it.
Deep learning is a subfield of machine learning that focuses on training artificial neural
networks to learn and make predictions from complex data representations. It has gained
significant attention and achieved remarkable success in various fields, including computer
vision, natural language processing, and speech recognition.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are a specific type of deep learning model
commonly used for image classification and object recognition tasks. They are designed to
automatically learn and extract hierarchical features from input images, allowing them to
understand the spatial relationships and patterns within the data.
However, features are automatically picked up! The laborious task of extracting and
describing features is handled entirely by CNNs: during the training phase, the classification
error is minimised to optimise both the classifiers and the features' parameters!
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Fig.1: VGG 16 Architecture (CNN Model)
Although this is a type of neural networks, convolutional neural networks exhibit all the
traits of neural networks. CNN, on the opposite hand, was created expressly to process input
images. Therefore, their architecture is more detailed and is made up of two primary fundamental
components.
Since it serves as a feature extractor, the first block defines the uniqueness of this kind of
neural network. It accomplishes this by doing template matching through the use of convolution
filtering processes. The first layer applies numerous convolution kernel filters to the image to
produce "feature maps" that are then normalised (using an activation function) and/or scaled.
Fig. 2: The first block has a black border around
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In fact, the second block occurs at the end of all classification neural networks and is not
a hallmark of a CNN. To produce a new vector at the output, the input vector values are
converted (using a number of linear combinations and activation functions). The chance that the
image corresponds to class i is represented by element i in the final vector, which has as many
elements as classes. As a result, each component has a value between 0 and 1, and the total is 1.
The network's last layer, which uses a logistic function (binary classification) or a softmax
function (multi-class classification) as an activation function, calculates these probabilities.
Fig. 3: Black surrounds the second block
Similar to conventional neural networks, gradient backpropagation is used to determine

the parameters of the layers since it minimizes cross-entropy during training. These criteria,
however, specifically correspond to the visual features in the instance of CNN.
The different CNN layers: The convolutional layer, the pooling layer, the ReLU
correction layer, and the fully-connected layer are the four different types of layers that make up
a convolutional neural network.
Input Layer: The input layer represents the raw input image. Each image is typically
represented as a grid of pixels, where each pixel contains numerical values representing the
intensity or color information.
1. Convolutional Layer: The convolutional layer consists of a set of learnable filters (also
called kernels) that convolve across the input image. Each filter detects specific local
patterns or features, such as edges, corners, or textures. The filters slide over the input
image in small strides and perform element-wise multiplications and summations,
generating feature maps or activation maps that highlight the presence of those features.
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2. Activation Function: After the convolution operation, an activation function is applied
element-wise to introduce non-linearity. The most commonly used activation function in
CNNs is the Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU). ReLU sets all negative values to zero and
keeps the positive values unchanged.
3. Pooling Layer: The pooling layer helps to reduce the spatial dimensions of the feature
maps generated by the convolutional layer. It performs down sampling by partitioning the
feature map into non-overlapping regions (e.g., 2x2 or 3x3) and taking the maximum (max
pooling) or average (average pooling) value within each region. Pooling helps to extract
the most important features while reducing computational complexity and controlling
overfitting.
4. Fully Connected Layers: The output from the last pooling layer is flattened into a vector
and connected to one or more fully connected layers. Each neuron in the fully connected
layer is connected to all neurons in the previous layer. These layers perform high-level
reasoning and learning of global patterns in the image. The fully connected layers have
weights that are learned during the training process to make predictions based on the
learned features.
5. Output Layer: The final layer of the CNN is the output layer. It consists of neurons equal to
the number of classes in the classification problem. The activation function used in the
output layer depends on the task at hand. For binary classification, a sigmoid activation
function is commonly used, while for multi-class classification, a softmax activation
function is used to produce class probabilities.
Overall, the diagram of a CNN would show the flow of information from the input layer
through the convolutional layers, activation functions, pooling layers, fully connected layers, and
finally to the output layer. Each layer performs specific operations to extract meaningful features
and make predictions based on those features.
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OPTIMAL ALLOCATION OF FERTILIZERS AND IRRIGATION FOR

MAXIMIZING FARM INCOME
Om Prakash Maurya*1, Lalit Kumar Verma1, Pukhraj Singh2 and Chaman Singh3
1Department of Agricultural Economics & Statistics,
R.S.M. (P.G.) College, Dhampur, Bijnor (U.P.)- -246761

2Department of Agricultural Economics, J.V. (P.G.) College, Baraut, Baghpat (U.P.)-250611
3Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry,
R.S.M. (P.G.) College, Dhampur, Bijnor (U.P.)- -246761

Introduction:
Agriculture plays an important role in ensuring food security and sustaining livelihoods
around the world. In view of population growth, changing climate patterns, and the need for
sustainable agricultural practices, it is important to optimize the allocation of inputs in farming
involves strategic decision-making to maximize farm income while using available resources
efficiently. Optimizing the allocation of inputs such as fertilizers and irrigation to maximize farm
income involves considering various factors such as crop requirements, soil conditions, water
availability, and economic considerations. By adopting efficient and effective strategies, farmers
can increase productivity, reduce costs and promote environmental sustainability. Optimum use
of fertilizers and allocation of irrigation is important to maximize farm income while ensuring
environmental sustainability. Fertilizers provide essential nutrients to crops, while irrigation
ensures an adequate water supply. However, improper allocation of these resources can result in
economic losses, environmental degradation, and decreased productivity. On the other hand,
irrigation is important to ensure the availability of water for crops, especially in areas with erratic
rainfall. Inefficient irrigation practices can result in water wastage, waterlogging, salinization and
increased production costs. The optimal allocation of fertilizers and irrigation practices is a
complex task involving a variety of factors including soil conditions, crop type, climate and
economic considerations. Optimum allocation of fertilizers and irrigation techniques are essential
for sustainable agricultural practices, increasing crop yields and increasing farm income with
minimized environmental impacts. Thus, the need for an integrated farm management system has
emerged. Crop allocation, crop combination, and operational activities involved for better
productivity are some of the most important decision variables that need to be optimized.
Role of fertilizers in maximizing farm income:
Fertilizers play an important role in modern agricultural practices by replenishing soil
nutrients and enhancing crop growth. They replenish nutrients that are depleted through plant
absorption, leaching and erosion. Optimum fertilizer allocation involves consideration of factors
such as soil nutrient content, crop nutrient requirements and environmental considerations. Soil
testing and analysis are fundamental tools for determining nutrient deficiencies and formulating
an appropriate fertilizer plan. By applying the right types and amounts of fertilizers, farmers can
optimize the availability of nutrients to crops, resulting in improved yields and increased farm
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incomes. Consequently, efficient fertilizer allocation can have a significant impact on farm
income.
The following points outline the importance of fertilizers: -
1. Soil fertility: Fertilizers supply essential nutrients to the soil, promoting plant growth and crop
yield. Understanding soil nutrient levels through soil testing helps farmers determine specific
nutrient requirements and design a targeted fertilization plan.
2. Crop nutrient demand: Different crops have different nutrient requirements at different
growth stages. Adapting fertilizer applications to meet these specific demands can help optimize
nutrient intake, minimize wastage, and maximize productivity.
3. Nutrient balance: Maintaining a balanced nutrient profile is critical to crop health and yield.
An optimal fertilizer allocation strategy ensures an appropriate ratio of nutrients, thereby
preventing deficiencies or toxicity.
4. Environmental impact: Improper use of fertilizer can lead to nutrient runoff, causing water
pollution and ecosystem damage. By allocating fertilizers efficiently, farmers can minimize
environmental impacts while maximizing crop yields and farm income.
Role of irrigation in maximizing farm income:
Water is a critical resource for agricultural productivity. Water scarcity and changing
climate patterns pose significant challenges to agricultural productivity. Irrigation is an important
solution to reduce the effects of water scarcity and ensure consistent crop growth. Optimum
irrigation allocation involves consideration of factors such as crop water requirements, soil
moisture levels and irrigation efficiency. Various irrigation techniques, including surface
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and drip irrigation, offer varying levels of water use efficiency.
Implementing the most appropriate irrigation method for specific crops and soil conditions can
significantly increase water availability, crop yield, and ultimately farm income.
The following points underline the importance of optimum irrigation allocation: -
1. Crop water requirements: Different crops have different water requirements during their
growth cycle. By understanding crop water requirements and implementing efficient irrigation
techniques such as drip irrigation or precision sprinklers, farmers can provide the right amount of
water at the right time, ensure optimum growth and maximize yield.
2. Water availability and management: Water scarcity is a growing concern in many regions.
Appropriate water allocation strategies, such as water-efficient irrigation methods and water
storage systems, can help farmers make the most of limited water resources while maintaining
crop productivity and farm income.
3. Water use efficiency: Efficient use of water reduces costs and conserves resources.
Technologies such as soil moisture sensors and weather-based irrigation scheduling enable
farmers to apply water precisely when and where it is needed, preventing water waste and
maximizing irrigation efficiency.
4. Climate change adaptation: Changing climate patterns, including erratic rainfall and rising
temperatures, require adaptive irrigation practices. Optimum allocation of irrigation resources
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helps farmers mitigate the effects of climate change on crop production, maintain farm income
stability and ensure long-term sustainability.
Effect of fertilizer and irrigation on optimum allocation:
The combined effect of optimal fertilizer and irrigation allocation can lead to significant
increases in agricultural productivity and farm income. Fertilizers provide crops with essential
nutrients, enabling them to use water efficiently and optimize photosynthesis. Properly fertilized
plants are better prepared to deal with water stress, resulting in improved drought tolerance and
higher yield potential. In addition, adequate soil fertility through optimal fertilizer allocation
increases water-holding capacity, thereby reducing the demand for irrigation water. This synergy
between fertilizers and irrigation leads to increased crop growth, improved water use efficiency
and increased farm income.
1. Strategies for optimizing fertilizer allocation:
To maximize farm income, the optimal allocation of fertilizers is critical. This includes
understanding the nutrient requirements of different crops, the nutrient content of soils, and the
interactions between fertilizers and soil properties. Soil testing and analysis provide valuable
insight into nutrient deficiencies and help farmers tailor fertilizer applications accordingly.
Precision agriculture technologies, such as remote sensing and geographic information systems
(GIS), enable farmers to map the variability of soil nutrients and apply fertilizers precisely where
they are needed. By adopting such methods, farmers can reduce nutrient waste, reduce
environmental impacts and achieve higher crop yields, which can increase farm income.
2. Strategies for irrigation optimization:
Effective irrigation management is essential for sustainable agriculture and increased
farm income. Various strategies can be employed to optimize irrigation allocation. First, farmers
must accurately estimate crop water requirements considering factors such as transpiration rates,
crop growth stages, and climatic conditions. Using weather forecasts and soil moisture sensors
can help farmers make informed irrigation decisions. Secondly, implementing water-efficient
irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation and precision sprinklers, can reduce water loss
through evaporation and ensure that water is delivered directly to the root zone. Additionally,
adopting irrigation scheduling based on soil moisture monitoring can prevent both under- and
over-irrigation, ensure efficient water use, and enhance crop yields.
Factors influencing optimal allocation:
Many factors influence the optimal allocation of fertilizers and irrigation to maximize
farm income. Understanding and considering these factors is important for farmers to make
informed decisions.
The following factors should be considered: -
1. Soil analysis: Performing regular soil tests helps determine the nutrient content, pH level and
organic matter of the soil. This analysis provides valuable insight into soil fertility status and
enables farmers to tailor fertilizer application to effectively meet crop requirements.
2. Crop selection and rotation: Different crops have different nutrient demands and irrigation
needs. Selecting suitable crops based on soil type, climatic conditions and market demand and
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practicing crop rotation helps optimize fertilizer and irrigation allocation. Rotating crops with
different nutrient needs can prevent nutrient deficiencies and reduce the risk of diseases and
pests, ultimately maximizing farm income.
3. Market demand and economic considerations: Understanding market demand for specific
crops and their profitability is essential for making informed decisions about resource allocation.
Farmers should consider the cost of fertilizers and irrigation methods in relation to the potential
benefits. Strategic planning and market analysis can guide farmers in selecting crops that have
high demand and better economic prospects.
4. Water sources and management: Assessing water availability in terms of both quantity and
quality is important for efficient irrigation allocation. Farmers should consider factors such as
rainfall patterns, access to water sources and water storage capacity. Additionally, implementing
water-saving technologies and practices, such as rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, or
mulching, can optimize water use and maximize farm income.
5. Technology and Innovation: Advances in agricultural technology provide new tools and
techniques for optimizing resource allocation. Precision agriculture equipment, remote sensing
and data-driven decision-making platforms can provide critical information about crop health,
soil moisture levels and nutrient requirements. Integrating these technologies into agricultural
practices can increase efficiency and profitability.
6. Environmental Sustainability: Promoting sustainable agricultural practices is essential not
only for long-term productivity but also to meet environmental regulations and consumer
demands. Optimum fertilizer and irrigation allocation aims to reduce environmental impacts such
as nutrient runoff, water pollution and soil erosion. Practices such as precision farming, organic
farming and conservation tillage can contribute to sustainable resource allocation and long-term
farm income stability.
Challenges of fertilizers and irrigation for optimum allocation:
While the optimal allocation of fertilizers and irrigation has great potential to increase
farm income, there are some challenges and considerations that need to be addressed. First,
farmers must carefully monitor and manage nutrient runoff and leaching to reduce environmental
pollution and protect water bodies. Second, the cost of fertilizers and irrigation infrastructure can
pose financial challenges, especially for small-scale farmers. Access to credit and government
assistance programs can help reduce these barriers and promote sustainable agricultural
practices. In addition, continued research and development is necessary to identify improved
fertilizer formulations, irrigation technologies and agronomic practices that maximize farm
income while minimizing environmental impacts.
Conclusion:
The optimal allocation of fertilizers and irrigation is critical to increasing farm income,
ensuring sustainable agricultural practices, and meeting growing global food demand. By
understanding crop nutrient requirements, analyzing soil, and using precision agriculture
techniques, farmers can optimize fertilizer allocation. Similarly, water use efficiency can be
increased by assessing crop water requirements, implementing water-efficient irrigation
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techniques, and adopting accurate irrigation scheduling. The synergy between optimal fertilizers
and irrigation allocation leads to improved crop yields, increased drought tolerance, and
ultimately, higher farm incomes. Addressing challenges related to environmental impact and
financial constraints is critical to the widespread adoption of these practices. As we strive for
sustainable agriculture, optimizing fertilizer and irrigation allocation is an important step toward
supporting rural economies in achieving food production and meeting growing global challenges.
By doing so, farmers can maximize their farm income, ensure food security and contribute to a
sustainable agricultural future.
References:
1. Barker A. V., (2019). Fertilizers, Elsevier, Encyclopedia of Analytical Science (Third
Edition)
2. Bhatia, M. and Rana, A. (2020). Integrated Farm Model for Optimal Allocation of
Resources- A Linear Programming Approach; Applications and Applied Mathematics: An
International Journal; Vol. 15 (2), pp. 1336 – 1347.
3. Djeneba Dembele; et.al; (2019). Impact of Fertilizer Usage on Crop Productivity at
Siguidolo; Intl. Jourl. of Envt, Agri and Biotechno.; Vol-4(5)
4. FAO. (2003). Agriculture, Food and Water. Technical report, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
5. FAO. (2017) The Future of Food and Agriculture: Trends and Challenges; Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy.
6. Kumar, R., S. D. Khepar. (1980). Decision models for optimal cropping patterns in
irrigation based on crop water production function. Agriculture. Water Manag. 3(1): 65–
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7. Kumar, R., R. D. Singh, K. D. Sharma. (2005). Water resources of India.; Curr. Sci., 89
(5): 794– 811
8. Huh and Lall (2013). Optimal Crop Choice, Irrigation Allocation, and Impact of Contract
Farming.; Production and Operations Management 22(5), pp. 1126–1143
9. Raju, K. S. and Kumar, D.N. (1999). Multicriteria Decision Making in Irrigation Planning.
Agr. Syst., 62: 117–129.
10. Rao, N. H., Sarma, P. B. S. and Chander, S. (1990). Optimal multi-crop allocation of
seasonal and intrapersonal irrigation water. Water Resources Research, 26(4), 551–559.
11. Rossner H., Ritz C., Astover A., (2014). Optimisation of fertiliser rates in crop production
against energy use indicators, Elsevier, European Journal of Agronomy, Volume 55, Pages
72-76
12. Shukla, A.K. and Behera, S.K. 2012. Micronutrient Fertilizer for higher productivity.
Indian Journal of Fertilisers 8(4), 100-117
13. https://blog.cabi.org/2019/07/29/the-fertilizer-optimization-tool-maximising-profit-from-
fertiliser/
14. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/fertilizers-challenges-and-solutions
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ROOT CROPS AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD OF TRIBAL

PEOPLE IN ODISHA
Nandita Jena
Department of Crop Physiology,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences,
SOA Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, India
Introduction:
Dense forest coverage, remote hilly areas of Odisha support the inhabitants of ethnic
tribal communities. From centuries, vary far away of civilization, the most tribal settlements are
established on hills or close to river yards flowing nearer to forest. These are almost 645
different tribes in India, out of which Odisha hosts approximate 62 vibrant tribes residing in the
state (Rajkishore, 2007). The cultural identity and vitality of Odisha state is mostly influenced by
their rich heritage of ancient groups of tribal diversity. Each tribe has its own characteristic;
some are common but greatly varies in their culture, lifestyle, traditional outfits, religious beliefs,
folk language and physical appearance. Basically, their economy is derived by various activities
around the nearby forests. They mainly survive on agriculture, farming, fishing, hunting and
animal rearing. Despite of all activities, poverty and struggle for existence, they still retain their
essence of heritage with inclination towards folk music and dance, and live with natural
harmony.
Tribal community in India:
According to Indian constitution, there are approximately 645 tribes scattered throughout
the country. They are predominated in the states like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal and Odisha. The states of North East India, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh are most
tribal states of India where Mizoram and Lakshadweep, both headed highest tribal population as
per last census 2011.
Indigenous tribal people are the native inhabitants of India are also called as Adivasis or
Vanvasis, is a collective name used for ethnic tribal groups. Most common tribes found in India
are Bhils, Gondas, Santhal or Santal, Munda, Gora, Khasi, Angari, Chenchu, Bhutia, Kodaba and
Great Andamanese. Bhil is the largest tribe among them where Santals are the largest and oldest
tribe of India.All the tribes are unique in their own cultures, languages, and traditions.
Tribes and tribals of Odisha:
Odisha is the native to approximate 62 vibrant tribal groups including 13 primitive tribal
communities (PVTG) distributed all over the state, namely DongriaKandha, KutiaKandha,
LangiaSaoras, Birhor, Bonda, Didayi, Juangs, Kharias, Lodhas, Bhuinyas, Soura, Mankidias,
ChuktiaBhunjia. Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Kandhamal, Sundargarh, Gajpati, Koraput, Malkangiri,
Nabarangpur, and Rayagada are the nine districts where tribes dominate 50% of the population,
among them Mayurbhanj has the highest density of the tribal population. Green hills of Koraput,
serves as the home to oldest tribe called as Bonda tribe. Kondha tribes are the indigenous tribal
85
group and Sabor people are one of the Adivasimunda group predominates in the state. While
Kondha and Santal are the most widespread tribal group, but other tribes like Munda, Oram and
Ganda also are the inhabitants, mainly survive on agriculture, fishing, hunting, and on forest
products. All Adivasis are 22.85% of the state population and commonly speaking 21 languages.
Major and most spoken language by tribals is Santhali and then Ho language is the second
widely spoken language. Tribals having extremely low level of literacy but survive by their one
ideology, ethos, values and the rich essence of cultural heritage, varied from one another.
Tribal livelihood:
Tribals basically like to be united always with their community with ‘jal, jangal and
jameen’ in their habitats. Many plants are conserved in natural habitats by tribals due to their
religious belief as plants are God and Goddess.Forest as major resource to fulfill the basic needs
and acted as their livelihood too. They perform traditional agriculture mostly shifting or Jhum
cultivation, fishing, hunting, farming and living in gatheringsfor their means of subsistence. The
main source of their livelihood is to collect natural forest products such as fuel wood, timber,
bamboos and number of minor forest products such as Canes, Sal, Tendu and Siali leaves,
Termarind, Chaar, Amla, Harra, Behera, gums, broom grasses, waxes, dyes, resins, lac, fodders,
Mahua flowers and foods including wild fruits, honey, herbs, nuts, roots, tubers and medicinal
plants. Between 20-50% of annual income of tribal households comes from Non-Timber Forest
(NTF) products (Naresh,2018).
Some tribes are nomadic moving one place to another without permanent abode, leaving
in different locations. They move according the seasons in search of their livelihood such as
food, water, and grazing land. Pastoral nomads move periodically to different locations, do not
settle continuously in the same place. They are tribes, migrate to find fresh pasturage for their
domestic animals. Mainly they herd cattle and trade their products such as milk, ghee, wool,
leather etc and also exchanged items for grain, cloth, utensils and fulfilling other needs. When
change the place they bought and sold these goods as per their requirement and transporting
them on their animals.
Forest, farming, wage migration and business were the major livelihood patterns of the
tribes with a very low annual income. Poor education, low research base, insufficient farm
technology, lack of advanced skill of agriculture, small-scale production and no capital
investment, drive their livelihood towards a poor, unproductive, economic status. Shifting
agriculture on unproductive terrains, hardly raise only one crop, isalways depending upon the
monsoon. Due to low rate of production, the consumption rate is also limited to the family,
which enhances subsidiary activities to supplement their economy. The livelihood strategies of
tribes determined by their social, economic, demographic and cultural settings (Chhotray, 2004).
Tribal economy is affected by the poverty; therefore, lack of food security is a major problem for
their community. So it is deserved to put special attention for strengthening their livelihood by
developing and implementing government supports with sustainable approaches. State and
central government are taking various steps for sustainable livelihood of tribal communities in
various sectors through vocational training, formal technical education and skill development
initiatives for tribal youths.
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Climate change, agriculture and traditional farming:
The ethnic and indigenous people have conserved several plants and endangered cultivars
of agricultural crops such as rice, maize, millets, grains, legumes, fruits and vegetables. In rice
150 wild cultivars are conserved by Santal, Munda, Birhor and Gond tribes of Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattishgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Bihar (Arora,1997).The major Agricultural tribes are
Gadaba, Paroja, Bhumia,Bhottadas, Kondh, Bondo and Juangresides in Odisha. DungariaKondha
tribe in Odisha follows traditional farming practices to combat climate changes that includes
various diverse cropping systems. From last ten years, Odisha subjected to climate change
effects resulted crop loss due to increased period of dryness, pest attacks and erratic raining.
Without causing harm to the nature, they prefer to perform traditional farming practices for their
crops.
The monsoon delays very often in Odisha which created drought-like situations in the
summer cropping seasons during early Kharif stage. Eccentric rainfall during October and
November severely disrupts the winter humid temperature, results in increased crop diseases,
pests and weed problems. Rise in temperature, floods, drought and humidity changes also reduce
crop yield and affect disease management. Tribes usually raise their crop on lower hill slops.
Crops like millets, leaves, legumes, tubers, vegetables, pulses, sorghum and rice are cultivated
throughout the cropping season and are harvested sequentially from October to February end in
their forest-based farms called Dongor. Due to these climatic variations indigenous tribal farmers
prefer traditional farming to overcome the distress. Earlier slash and burn agriculture was the
main process of raising crops traditionally by the tribals of hilly regions.
In shifting agriculture jhum practice or poduchaas, a forest land is cleaned, plant biomass
is burnt and then the ashes collected which are applied in the field as the source of nutrients to
the crops. From the next year the field is abandoned for many years (10-15 Years) to resume the
soil fertility again. During this period tribes move other places for cultivation.
Owing to pressure of increasing tribal population the Jhum cycles become shorter for the
period of 4-7 years, which fails to replenish its lost fertility and reduces crop yield. But the
practice of traditional cultivation is responsible, for degrading soil and environment natural
sources, leading to the destruction of green cover and triggering soil erosion.
Food security through tuber crops:
Food security is most deficient among the tribal population for which tubers offer ample
scope for sustainable food production and livelihood means to tribal communities. They
traditionally grow tuber crops varieties such as Yams, Yam bean, Sweet Potato, Topoica, and
Taro which are promising in the hilly and plateau regions of Odisha. Root and Tuber Crops play
significant role in the improvement of livelihood security and economy of tribal farmers (Naskar,
2006). Government lunched various program and plans to ensure the livelihood, food and
nutritional security of tribals through introduction of tuber crop technologies. It is pronounced
that the food security of the tribal is in danger due to climate change, un-seasonal rains, rise in
temperature, depleting ground water and lack of facilities in agriculture.
Tuber crops like yam, taro and yam bean mostly grown in backyards and sometimes
collected from forests. Now a day they are cultivating Arrowroot and Paluas sources of starch.
Farming of this crop is very much enhancing as it grown in west lands, hilly areas, needs less
87
agricultural management, less post-harvest storage maintenance with low cost of production,
which improve the food security in tribal communities and generate a source of additional
income through direct sale providing livelihood security too.
Farming of tuber crops:
Undoubtedly Root Tubers are most climate resilient food crops (Nedunchezhiyan, 2013).
Cassava or Tapioca grows in all type of well drained soils in warm climate. Main season for
plantingof the setts is April-May before the onset of monsoon. Ideal planting materials are the
mature, healthy stems. Sweet potato is a crop, having wide adaptability of tropical and sub-
tropical region.Under rainfed condition, the vines of the crop are planted in June-July, which
performs better in well drained loamy soils.Cuttings of apical portions of the vine are mainly
used as the planting material. Yams are grown in warm and humid conditions with approximate
mean temperature of 30oC and a well distributed annual rain fall of 120-200cm. Well-drained
fertile soil is very suitable for cultivation of yams. Tuber pieces of 200-300 gm size are the best
planting material and March to April is the ideal time for planting of the crop. Elephant foot
yamor Amorphophallusis a tropical as well as sub-tropical crop grown well under warm humid
climate with a mean annual temperature of 30-35oC and a rain fall of 100-150cm spread over a
period of 6-7 months. It grows well on well drained sandy loam soil. Whole or cut tubers with
skin of approximate 500gm weight are used as planting materials and planted in pits during
March to May. Colocasia commonly known as Taro grows well in warm and humid conditions
with mean temperature of 21-27oC and a well distributed rainfall of about 100cm during growth
period. It can be cultivated in all types of soils. Cormels weighing 20-25gm can be used as good
planting materials. It can be grown in all the seasons but under rainfed conditions colocasia
generally planted during April to June. Arrowroot grown for quality starch native to tropical
America is widely cultivated in Odisha as well as north eastern states of India with an average
temperature 20-30oC and planted during May-June before unset of rain. It can be cultivated in
deep well drained slightly acid loam soils under partial shade. Rhizomes of 4-7cm and suckers
are used as planting materials.
Production of tuber crops are comparatively much more than other crops. Cassava can
yield 35-40 t/ha with proper cultivation practices. Elephant foot yam also can produce tubers of
40-45 t/ha. Besides these crops Sweet potato, yam, taro and arrowroot also yield 20-25t/h, 25-
30t/h, 15-20t/h and 40-45t/h respectively which can meet the needs of tribes.
Tuber crops and its nutritional value:
Root and Tuber crops play a vital role in securing nutritional security of all tribes. Tuber
crops serves as secondary staples, next to rice in Odisha, substitutes cereals and vegetables
during lean period, Sivakumar et al. (2014). Besides fulfilling food and nutritional values, it also
contributes significantly towards curing of various diseases.
Tuber crops arethe prime food-medicinal substitute and one of the important food crops
of rural, tribal and local people of Odisha. Earlier tribal people used to consume different type of
wild tuber varieties which are locally known as Kanda. These are collected by them from the
forest and stored to secure the food security of the family for two to three months in
unavailability of food situations. These are mostly different species of wild tuber genus
Dioscoria (with their local names) like Dioscoriaalata(khamba/desi),D. bulbifera (Pita), D.
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pentaphylla (Mitni), D. hispida (Kulia), D. puber (Kasa), D. wallichi (Cherenga), D. tomentosa
(Taragai), D. hamiltonii (Sika) etc. Besides these Sweet potato (Kandmul), Yam(Oluo) and
Colocasia(Saru) are also cultivated. But due to lack of modern cultivation practices the yield is
very low. But according to the soil quality, soil texture, the improved varities can be cultivated
with better yield. Greater yam (Dioscoria), Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus), Colocasia
(Taro), Sweet potato (Ipomoea), Cassava or Tapioca (Manihot),Arrowroot(Maranta) are the
most common tuber crops which can be cultivated and consumed by the tribal people of Odisha.
These tuber crops can play key role on the livelihood, food security and economy of the tribal
people due to the market demand, nutritional and medicinal value of the above tuber crops.
Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus) is one of the most important tuber crops which can
cultivated as a cash crop in the tribal areas of Odisha. Its tuber contains adequate phosphorus
(34mg/100gm), calcium (50mg/100gm) and vitamin A (434 IU/100gm). The other components
are protein 9.81 to 12.4%, carbohydrate 25.5 to 32.2%, fat 1.5 to 2.5%, fiber 5.7 to 6.9% and
water content of about 68%. It is rich in primary and secondary metabolites and can be used as
staple food. Elephant foot yam has high medicinal value. It is used in the treatment of emesis,
dysmenorrheal fatigue, constipation, piles, dyspepsia, inflammation, tumors, elephantiasis,
rheumatism and many other diseases.
Taro or Colocasia resembles potato and often replaces the same. It is mainly used as
vegetable. The leaf also used for treatment of various ailments includes asthma, arthritis,
diarrhea, internal hemorrhage, neurological disorders and skin disorders. The corm is widely
used for treatment of body ache and baldness. Taro is an excellent source of fiber and starch,
antioxidants and polyphenols that protect against free radical damage and cancer. Colocasia
leaves are a very good sources of Vitamin A which help in improvement of vision and prevent
molecular degeneration associated with ageing.
Greater yam (Dioscoria), is an important source ofdietaryfiber, carbohydrates, protein,
antioxidants and also high in minerals like potassium and manganese, magnesium, calcium and
many vitamins including vitamin C.
Sweet potato (Ipomoea) root is rich in starch, sugar (glucose, fructose, maltose), dietary fiber,
vitamins and some compounds like phenolics, anthocyanin, conjugated phenolic acids and
minerals, chlorogenic acid which is an antioxidant compound.
Cassava (Manihot) is principally used as a food source. Cassava also abundantly used as
food ingredient in place of cereal grain in animal food industries. Fresh cassava tubers contain
about 7%moisture and high carbohydrate and amylase up to 90.77% and 29.45% respectively
depending on crop variety, soil texture and climatic conditions. Cassava containsfewer amounts
of fat 0.45-2.67% and protein up to 31%. The fiber content in cassava is nearly 2%.
Arrowroot flour is a good source of dietary fiber, starch, protein, low fat content, also reach in
vitamins B complex (riboflavin, niacin), folic acid and minerals like Ca, K, P, Mg, Fe, etc, with
lots of medicinal benefits.
All types of tubers are often used as food and a source of raw material for production of
starch, alcohol, animal food and various economically sustainable value added products for
human consumption. They are also important due to their medicinal value and industrial use.
Root and tuber crops are receiving attention because they could be grown on marginal or
89
difficult land. Diverse agro-climatic conditions varied soil, temperature range of 25-35oC, rain
fall with wide regional variations tribal areas of Odisha is highly suitable for cultivation of tuber
crops. Due to growing population pressure in tribal areas of Odisha they move to grow such type
crops that can be adopted to marginal lands with difficult soil, dry land, erratic weather as well as
other environmental conditions. These tuber crops can provide promising food and nutritional
security to many people of tribal area of Odisha state.
Conclusion:
Tribals are ethnic and indigenous communities live in areas, are immensely rich in
biodiversity. Tribal life and economy are driven essentially by activities around the forests.
Despite of poverty and struggle for survival they still retain their heritage and know to live with
harmony in nature. But from last few years due to climate change, environmental fluctuations
and recently pandemic drive the tribal communities into food and nutritional insecurity. During
these unfavorable deficient situations Tuber Crops somehow play important role as alternative
food source. Root and tuber crops are cheap source of carbohydrates and energy, hence occupy a
special niche in the tribal food habits. These crops possess very reliable simple cultivation
practices, management and post-harvest storage. Government took number of initiatives to
enhance their income, food and livelihood security by introducing tuber crops technologies
among tribal farmer communities. High mortality among infants and serious health concerns
drives the tribals to adapt this crop as ‘secondary staple’ food. Besides these its rich nutritional
and medicinal properties are made this crop as crucial, play a substantial role to overcome food
and nutritional insecurity from their households during scarce period which leads a secure and
sustainable life.
References:
1. Arora, R.K. (1997). Ethnobotany and its role in the conservation and use of plant genetic
resources in India. Journal of ethnobotany, 9: 1/2, 6-15.
2. Chhotray, G. P. (2004). Health status of primitive tribes of Orissa. ICMR. 33(10),1-6.
3. Naresh, R. (2018). Tribal Land and Forest Issues in Odisha: An Overview. The Tribal
Tribune. Vol-6(3).
4. Naskar, S.K. (2006). In Root and Tuber Crops. Root and Tuber Crops in Household Food
and Nutritional Security. RC of CTCRI, ICAR, Bhubaneswar. 10-14.
5. Nedunchezhiyan, M. (2013). Tuber Crops for Improving Livelihood Security in the
Disadvantaged Districts of Odisha. Journal of Root Crops, Vol. 39, No. 2, 207-210
6. Rajkishore, (2007). A Study on Health and Socio-economic Status of the Tribal Population
in Orissa. Journal of Health Management, Vol. 9, No. 3, 343-367.
7. Sivakumar, P., A. Thirugnanvel and Chakruno Martha (2014). Journal of Root Crops, Vol.
40 No. 2, 49-57.
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WASTE MANURE AND ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION

Ravindra B. Tembhurne
S. P. M. Science & Gilani Arts Commerce College,
Ghatanji, Dist. Yavatmal, Maharashtra
Abstract:
Today agriculture is one of sector which may fetch good foreign currency in the
Economy through the agriculture export but for it many amendments reforms and methods of
agriculture should be implemented thorough government machinery and social Compiegne like
way of good agriculture produce with capability of export with protecting environment as well as
with natural ingredients and manure and less use of chemical as, chemical used Produce are not
acceptable to many countries as well as it has many bad health issues so waste manure and
environment protection and environment Protection is best option for increasing export for
foreign currency increase which have high demand for agriculture produce to UAE , some
European countries and Asian countries as well as will conserve and beneficial for sustainable
agriculture.
Introduction:
Agriculture is main occupation in India of largest people as far as 70% peoples engaged
in this occupation from decades to decades many advances taken place still the traditional
method of production is going on now a days some new generation educated farmers are making
the new experiments with technology and high yields production and chemical fertilizers and
pesticides and medicines and modern seeds and modern process but the modernization brought
some drawbacks also it reflected some huge production but with the defective produce many
chemical used produce are dangerous for human kind specially it for children and old people
increasing the chances of cancers and other diseases. The modern age is age of globalization and
marketing all over the world so that our country would earn foreign currency but the modern
chemical used produce are rejected at the international platform so the natural manure natural
pesticides and natural seeds and process with technology is today’s demand for economic
development of India.
Objectives:
1) Development with Environmental Protection: The seasonal changes indicates that the
environment is showing their bad effect of earth so draught in some are and floods and
typhoons and natural calamity indicates that there is utter need of Protecting environments
the rivers are dumped with city sewages and dirty chemicals of industries and garbage’s of
households. Trees are cut for urbanization and earth water level lowering so the trees
plantation not surviving longer which reflect the draught flood typhoon natural calamities
we must clean our climate and protect the earth from degradation by utilization all waste and
dirt converting into manure for agriculture so that the agriculture development will take
place with environment protection.
91
2) Planning for Next Generation: The modern age is developing fast but the available natural
resources also decreasing fast and natural resources is very valuable and important as well as
it is limited so securing future and next generation its misuse must be stopped as like the
coal, minerals, natural chemicals , patrols , drinking water as well all valuable it should
survive for nest generation so that the next generation people will utilize it with best use and
save mother earth from calamities and natural disaster on earth as well will take maximum
economic development with cleanliness and modern agriculture with natural ingredients
with natural manure.
3) Preference for Natural Process Conservation: The traditional process of agriculture is day by
day vanishing due to modernization and technological advancement again this is the time to
turn over the old tradition of natural production with natural ingredients and modern
technology and modernization so that we will get the quality produce from agriculture for
international market and globalization for all traditional process of manure making , waste
management, dirty waste water utilization and households and other waste conversion into
manure for agriculture is the old tradition is very important for this modern age except that
the chemical use and modern technological medicine process.
4) Sustainable Agriculture Productivity & Quality: Sustainable agriculture is nothing but its
ingredient ,potential ,quality ,process , Nutrition and productivity preserve so that in future it
will remain quite good and as it is and increased and it is important also in future the
population will be double or triple and agriculture land will reduce double & triple at that
time the agriculture productivity & quality is very less then it will be dangerous for country
so sustainable agriculture is very important.
5) Environment Accounting & Audit: The environment pollution, degradation, and destruction is
taken place day by day so how much it affected and how many destruction and pollution
taken into figure and amount should be noticed and recorded so that its accounting will
disclose how many loss is suffered to us and it should be audited so that we can learn from it
and would apply measure to repair it and amend it or government may plan for protecting
the environment.
6) Mortality rate and Waste Management: The corona impact shown the lot of debris of dead due
to virus so from that time the mortality rate is high in India prior to corona impact what is
factor influencing the corona and other viral diseases India whatever reason it may be but
the most dangerous reasons is uncleanliness over everywhere as in public places households
travelling places school colleges market places roads and tour camp hotels and vacation
destination and public and private hospital everywhere we can observe the dirt and
garbage’s which directly attract to the worms insects and animals and diseased birds and
insects and such animal when comes into cat act with any reason by pet or nearby or eating
or water bodies river and air it release so bacteria or viruses which is main reason of
dangerous diseases this is the reason of increasing mortality rate in India.
7) Waste Manure and Cleanliness: The best measures over uncleanliness all over is use of waste
like dirty water, garbage, households, hospital waste and other sanitation waste is recycled
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and turned into useable manure which may be used for agriculture purposes or government
plantation and other land fertilization and in this way cleanliness with plantation will save
lot of life of animals and biodiversity, water bodies, human, diseases, and other sanctuary
also. So the manure or natural fertilizer not only for animal dung but for all waste is the one
solution for cleanliness and environment protection.
8) Waste management for Other Purposes: The waste is not only for converting into manure but
may be used for other use of agriculture purposes like in rainy season flood can swan lot of
crop as well as the land soil which may create the danger for agriculture process and filling
up gap of soil so avoiding swapping away of soil waste material Bhandara or small waste
material protecting wall may be created and other waste may be used for natural fertilizers
another use is creating ramp for farmers or animals or travelling of agriculture goods up to
the road from land for transporting it to the markets etc.
9) Ecological balance and Sustainable Agriculture: The ecological balance is very necessary for
reestablishment of natural habitat. The biodiversity are affecting the small creature and
various environmental problems created danger for small species which is important for
reestablishment of nature, but the many man made pollution of air water soil and notice
degrading the ecological balance which are reflecting with drawbacks like Tsunami, corona,
earthquake and global warming like problem which is devastating many countries economy
due to social and atmosphere condition.
10 Economic Growth & development and Sustainable Agriculture: Agriculture is oldest factor of
economic booster many agro based industry and self-sufficiency are depended on the
agriculture production and its resources so economic growth and development are main for
sustainable agriculture which is correlated with each other sustainable agriculture and
economy and economy with sustainable agriculture. Because each one is depended on each
factor 80 % population engaged in agriculture in India which provide them employment and
food also and provide raw material for industries also, also food processing plants and
laborers and seller mediators and transporter and many depended upon agriculture and
economy each which should be durable for future and next generation also this is the reason
that sustainable development is needful for economic growth and development of India.
Importance of environment and sustainability:
1) Dirtiest cities and river in worlds list include India also so we must vanish our India’s name
from dirtiest cities and rivers we must take some measures as like new york city and japan
where priority given to garbage management and renewable energy and agriculture.
2) The largest tourist visit in world is Thailand , Amsterdam, Switzerland because of cleanest
cities and country this is the main source of foreign currency to them we have also
opportunity to grab such foreign currency cleaning our cities with waste management.
3) Extra employment and foreign currency and globalization are todays demand so natural
product production and export is modern demand for economic development and growth.
93
4) The agriculture problems, suicides , profitability and highest cost of production than prices for
produce in market these all can be solved by applying natural manure , pesticides, and other
material for agriculture and save extra expenses and remain cleanliness.
5) Waste management is need of modern time so that the future of this country and sustainability
and agriculture rehabilitation remain quite good otherwise the population explosion will
create more problem in India
Conclusion:
Waste manure and environment protection is very important concept in modern age every
country are going on globalization of every sector so why not the agriculture of India every
experiments of agriculture in point of global market we must think upon so that employment ,
economic development, natural product, foreign currency with export, sufficiency in food
production, Sustainable agriculture is modern need subject The resources are limited and it has
ample limitation of durability for next generation or for future generation such productivity ,
water , fuel, nutrients, minerals should be remain available for various new experiments and
development. That’s why cleanliness movement, pollution eradication, waste and manure
management, sanitation water body rivers management is must for next top & beautiful country
in the world.
References:
1. Agriculture Economics by S.Subba Reddy,P. Raghuram & bhavani Devi
2. Indian Economics by s.chand publishers new delhi.
3. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0163-4
4. https://sarep.ucdavis.edu/sustainable-ag
5. Sustainable agriculture | Sustainable Development Goals | Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (fao.org)
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RESOURCE CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES (RCTS) IT’S USED IN

Chapter · May 2023

Parmeswar Dayal Megha Kumari

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Pradeep Kumar Sunil Kumar Prajapati

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Anandwan, Warora Faculty of Agricultural Sciences,

Dist. Chandrapur, Maharashtra SOA DU, Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Dr. Manoj Kumar Dr. Archana Verma

PG College of Agriculture, Amar Singh College, Lakhaoti,

Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural Bulandshahr, U.P.

University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar

© Copyright reserved by the Editor

We are delighted to publish our book entitled "Sustainable Agricultural

in the fields of basic and applied agricultural science.

The Indian as well as world population is ever increasing. Hence, it is

imperative to boost up agriculture production. This problem can be turned into

is to serve as a source of information covering maximum aspects, which can help

The articles in the book have been contributed by eminent scientists,

Publishing, India for taking pains in bringing out the book.

Sr. No. Book Chapter and Author(s) Page No.

RESOURCE CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGIES (RCTS) IT’S USED IN

ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India

Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,

Samastipur - 848-125, Bihar, India

agriculture. Therefore, today’s agriculture is an energy-intensive farming system (Khan et al.,

Site-Specific Nutrient Management (SSNM):

Machinery Development and CA

NATURAL FARMING: WAY TO SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Other principles of natural farming

Contours and bunds

RELEVANCE OF SOIL (SOLUM) DEPTH IN AGRICULTURE

Fig. 1: Soil profile

Fig. 2: Types of soil aggregates

Fig. 3: Physical classification of soil water

Fig. 5: Effective root zone

Fig. 6: Depiction of nutrient and physical constraints occurring in deeper soils

AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY: INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT

MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF ROOT CROPS (CARROT, RADISH AND BEET

Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur (Rajasthan)-313 001

Sugarcane Research Institute, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University,

Nature and symptoms of damage:

MAJOR INSECT-PESTS OF BRINJAL, OKRA AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

(Samastipur) Bihar-848 125

Udaipur (Rajasthan)-313 001

Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125

Agricultural University, Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar-848 125

2. Sphingid Acherontia styx

5. Whitefly Bemisia tabaci, Aleurodicus disperses

6. Budworm Scrobipalpa blapsigona

Shoot and fruit borer: Leucinodes orbonalis

Hadda / spotted bug: Henosepilachna dodecastigma, H. vigintioctopunctata (Coccinellidae

Lace wing bug: Urentius hystricellus (Tingidae: Hemiptera)

• Release of egg parasite Trichogramma chilonis @ 1.0 lakh/ha.

VIRTUAL WATER: EXPLORING THE HIDDEN COSTS OF GLOBAL WATER

MULTIGENE ENGINEERING IN PLANTS

Fig. 1: Structure of Ti plasmid