Introduction

The significance of parental child-rearing approaches in influencing children's personality

development is undeniable. Child-rearing styles encompass a range of parenting behaviours that
persist across various situations, establishing a lasting climate for child-rearing (Berk, 2016).
These practices must prepare children for social environments beyond hierarchical structures,
necessitating flexibility and initiative in behaviour. Child-rearing practices are influenced by
numerous factors, including social class (Perlin and Kohn, 1966; Seymour, 1976), the family's
economic status, caregivers' education levels (Cousins et al., 1993), and the skills and abilities
required in adulthood within a culture or subculture (Ogbu, 1981).

Child-rearing challenges are universal for parents and teachers alike. Balancing cultural
values with modernisation is a significant challenge in India and other developing nations
undergoing technological and social transformation. Individualism and personal freedom coexist
with traditional values, such as respecting elders and sharing household responsibilities.
Furthermore, media and technology introduce new dynamics to children's development. The
proliferation of digital platforms presents both opportunities and risks, such as cyberbullying and
excessive screen time (Ramaiya, 2024). In India, child-rearing strategies vary based on social
class, rural/urban settings, and caste (Venkatesan, 1996). Socioeconomic factors influence how
Indian parents rear their children during infancy and early childhood, affecting children's
behaviour, education, development, and achievements later in life (Budhwar et al., 2000). There
is a noticeable gap in the literature. While much of the existing research on child-rearing
practices is focused on maternal perspectives, there is a scarcity of studies addressing both
maternal and paternal views, particularly within the Indian context.

Background of the Study

Child-rearing practices play a critical role in shaping the social, emotional, and
psychological development of children. These practices are influenced by a complex interplay of
cultural values, family dynamics, and individual parental beliefs. In the Indian context, parenting
is deeply embedded in cultural traditions that emphasize family structure, respect for authority,
and the transmission of moral values. Historically, the roles of fathers and mothers have been
clearly delineated, with fathers often taking on the role of the primary authority figure and
disciplinarian, while mothers have been more involved in nurturing and caregiving. However,
with the rapid socio-economic changes brought about by urbanization, increasing educational
attainment, and dual-income households, traditional parenting roles are undergoing significant
transformations.

The rising number of dual-income families in India, especially in the corporate and
government sectors, has led to a reshaping of paternal and maternal roles. Fathers are becoming
more involved in day-to-day child-rearing activities, while mothers, who traditionally were seen
as primary caregivers, are balancing professional and personal responsibilities. This shift raises
critical questions about how parenting practices differ between fathers and mothers in such
households. Understanding how these evolving roles impact parenting practices is important, as
it directly affects children's development in areas such as emotional intelligence, moral
reasoning, and academic achievement.

Despite the increasing focus on the role of gender and professional environment in
child-rearing practices, there remains limited research on how paternal and maternal perspectives
compare in contemporary Indian families. Most existing studies focus on the individual roles of
mothers or fathers, neglecting the potential for comparative analysis of how these roles differ and
overlap, particularly in the context of dual-income families working in diverse professional
environments like the corporate and government sectors. Additionally, sector-specific demands,
such as income stability, job flexibility, and work-life balance, are likely to influence the way
parents approach their responsibilities toward their children.

This study aims to bridge this gap by exploring the similarities and differences between
paternal and maternal perspectives on child-rearing practices in India. It will focus on key
dimensions such as parental responsibilities, discipline strategies, gender roles, and cultural
influences, with particular attention given to how these practices are shaped by the parents’
professional environments. By comparing parents working in the corporate and government
sectors, this research seeks to provide a nuanced understanding of how professional demands
intersect with traditional and modern parenting values, contributing to a broader discussion on
the evolving nature of family dynamics in contemporary India.
Baumrind's Parenting Styles

The term parenting has been defined as the process or the state of being a parent and
includes nourishing, protecting, and guiding a child through the course of development (Brooks,
1991). Diana Baumrind's theory (1971) on parenting styles introduces four main categories.
Authoritative parenting is characterized by high levels of warmth, responsiveness, and
involvement, along with reasonable control and autonomy granting, and research consistently
shows that children raised in such environments tend to have higher self-esteem, better academic
performance, and greater social competence. In India, many parents integrate aspects of
authoritative parenting, blending traditional values like respect for elders with modern practices
(Bhavna Ramaiya, 2024). On the other hand, authoritarian parenting emphasizes obedience,
control, and strict discipline, with lower levels of warmth and responsiveness. Authoritarian
parents set rigid rules and expect unquestioning compliance, leading to academic success in
some cases due to the focus on discipline, but often at the cost of children’s emotional
well-being, as they may struggle with anxiety, low self-esteem, and social withdrawal.

Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of warmth and acceptance but low
levels of control and discipline. Such parents are often indulgent, allowing their children to make
decisions prematurely without establishing clear boundaries, leading to impulsive behavior, poor
academic performance, and difficulties with self-regulation (Berk, 2016). In contrast, neglectful
parenting, marked by low levels of both responsiveness and control, can severely hinder a child’s
development, often resulting in challenges with emotional regulation, academic performance,
and social relationships (Berk, 2016). Studies in India consistently show that authoritative
parenting, which balances warmth with reasonable control, leads to the most positive outcomes,
including lower anxiety, and better emotional intelligence (Bakhla et al., 2013; Sandhu &
Sharma, 2015).

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory offers a comprehensive view of how
development is shaped by various environmental influences. It portrays a person as evolving
within a complex system of relationships across multiple environmental levels. He termed this
approach a bioecological model, recognizing the interplay of biological and environmental forces
in shaping development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).

Figure 1. Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory (Berk, 2017).

Gender Roles in Parenting

Mothers are generally seen as primary nurturers, spending more time attending to their
children's needs, while fathers often take on a protective role (Pakaluk & Price, 2020). These
gendered roles in parenting reflect broader cultural differences that influence both children's
behaviours and how they interpret parental actions (Suizzo et al., 2019). Traditionally, fathers
were viewed primarily as breadwinners, focusing on providing for the family (Johnson & Young,
2016). In many cultures, including collectivist ones, fathers are often associated with authority,
integrating cultural values and masculinity into their child-rearing practices (Concha et al.,
2016).
 In Eastern societies, fathers are less engaged than mothers in daily communications and
emotional expressions, even if they wish to be more involved (Sriram & Sandhu, 2013).
However, modern expectations of fatherhood have evolved, with fathers now expected to be
more sensitive and involved in their children's activities (Huttunen & Eerola, 2015). This shift
has affected men's perception of parental responsibility, blending traditional roles with
contemporary expectations. Conventional gender roles in India encourage mothers to be
nurturing caregivers, while fathers have traditionally been encouraged to have little involvement
in childrearing (Barnhart, Raval, Jansari, & Raval, 2013). Mothers are viewed as more
authoritative and sometimes more permissive, while fathers are traditionally viewed as
authoritarian (Barnhart et al. 2013).

Attachment and Emotional Bonding

John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory emphasizes the critical role early emotional bonds
between children and caregivers play in development (Bowlby, 1969). Bowlby’s theory outlines
four phases of attachment development. The attachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) involves infants
using innate signals like grasping and crying to maintain proximity to adults, although they do
not yet show a preference for specific caregivers. In the attachment-in-the-making phase (6
weeks to 6–8 months), infants start to differentiate between familiar caregivers and strangers,
gradually developing trust in their caregivers. The clear-cut attachment phase (6–8 months to 18
months–2 years) is marked by children forming strong attachments to their caregivers, displaying
separation anxiety and using the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. Finally, in the
formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and beyond), as language and
understanding improve, children experience reduced separation anxiety because they can
anticipate their caregivers' return and negotiate their absence (Bowlby, 1980). This attachment
relationship creates an internal working model, a mental framework that influences future
relationships, serving as a secure base even when the caregiver is not present.

Social Learning Theory in Parenting: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that children learn behaviors through
observation and imitation of their parents and others in their environment. In this theory,
modeling—or observational learning—is a key mechanism, where children mimic the actions of
those around them. For example, a child might imitate a parent’s positive or negative behaviors,
such as clapping after their mother or hitting a playmate as they’ve seen at home. Several studies
have supported Bandura's Social Learning Theory in the context of parenting. Hoghughi and
Long (2004) found that children’s imitation of parental behavior has a profound influence on
their social development, particularly in early childhood, where modeling plays a critical role. In
the Indian context, Sriram (2019) explored the roles of fathers and mothers in shaping children’s
behaviours through observation, highlighting that children often adopt gender-specific roles from
parents. Tuli (2012) found that parental guidance, especially in joint families, facilitates a mix of
independence and collectivism in children, further shaped by the roles parents model.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (1962) emphasizes the significance of social

interactions in cognitive development, particularly through cooperative dialogues between
children and more knowledgeable individuals within a cultural context. He argued that culture,
including its values, beliefs, customs, and skills, is transmitted from generation to generation
through these interactions. Adults and more expert peers play a critical role in helping children
master culturally significant activities. Over time, children internalize the language and
knowledge from these interactions. As children engage in dialogues with more experienced
individuals, especially within educational settings. The cultural expectations surrounding
parenting in India, are a blend of collectivist and individualistic elements (Gupta & Sukamto,
2020). Overall, both paternal and maternal interactions significantly impact children’s cognitive
development, albeit through different pathways. Mothers typically provide the emotional and
nurturing foundation, while fathers increasingly contribute to academic and social skills
development.

Comparative Perspectives on Parenting

According to Schwartz et al. (2020), children are acculturated into their cultural
environment through the guidance of parents and significant others. In Indian culture, the
concept of Sanskar—which focuses on cultivating moral values and inner consciousness—guides
parenting practices (Sriram & Sandhu, 2013). In contrast, the Al-Birr value in Saudi Arabian
culture emphasizes deep respect for parents (Almalki, 2020), while in Persian culture, Adab
reflects the importance of politeness and manners (Mojdehi et al., 2020). Similarly, Guan in
Chinese culture emphasizes discipline and expected behaviors, often accompanied by strictness
(Luo et al., 2013). India’s parenting culture, historically collectivist, is evolving to integrate both
collectivist and individualist elements. Parents in Asia, including India and China, In these
cultures, authoritarian parenting is viewed as a way to foster collectivist values, where
subordination and adherence to family norms are emphasized (Mousavi, Low, & Hashim, 2016).
In contrast, Western cultures tend to favor authoritative parenting, which combines high warmth
with high control, encouraging independence while maintaining emotional closeness. This
divergence in parenting styles reflects broader cultural priorities: while Asian parenting often
emphasizes collective well-being and familial hierarchy, Western parenting tends to focus on
individual development and autonomy (Bornstein, 2013).

Contemporary Shifts in Parenting Roles in India

Historically, the father's role was primarily that of the breadwinner, while mothers were
expected to manage child-rearing and household duties. Fathers often worked long hours and
spent limited time with their children (Ho & Lam, 2019). However, recent trends indicate a shift
toward more involved fathering, especially in urban, middle-class families. This shift mirrors
global changes in paternal involvement, where fathers now engage in more nurturing and
interactive roles within the family (Bhattacharyya & Pradhan, 2015). Recent studies show that
there is a noticeable change, particularly in urban India, where middle-class fathers are becoming
more nurturing and affectionate (Roopnarine et al., 1990). Indian fathers distance themselves
from their children, are bored with their children, and refrain from expressing open feelings in
order to maintain their authority. Of course, globalisation and relocation to urban areas have
changed the expectations of fathers and has made them become closer to their children. This shift
is a response to changing cultural expectations of fatherhood, influenced by urbanization, higher
levels of education, and exposure to global parenting practices. As more women enter the
workforce, family dynamics are further altered, necessitating a more equitable distribution of
parenting responsibilities between mothers and fathers. Fathers and mothers alike are now
placing greater importance on emotional bonding, communication, and shared responsibilities in
child-rearing (Sahithya et al., 2019). These shifts in parenting roles are also influenced by
economic factors. With the rise of dual-income families, there is an increasing reliance on
external childcare support, but also a growing recognition of the need for both parents to be
actively involved in their children’s upbringing.

Challenges in Indian Parenting

The evolving nature of parenting has amplified the challenges associated with it, making
it one of the most complex roles in society today. As research emphasizes its profound impact on
the lives of offspring, parents, and extended family, there is increasing pressure to master the
"art" of parenting. The desire to become the 'perfect' parent leads many to struggle with feelings
of inadequacy, frustration, and stress, further compounded by societal expectations (Maurer,
2017). The modern landscape, with its ever-shifting norms, only adds to the complexity, as
parents grapple with navigating their roles in a rapidly changing world (Maurer, 2017).

Parenting styles today are influenced by a host of factors, including culture,

socioeconomic status, and education, which create unique challenges. Traditionally, parents
relied on how they were raised as a model, but many now feel the need to break away from
outdated practices, which can be confusing and daunting. The challenge lies in finding a new
path, with limited guidance, as many parents want to avoid repeating mistakes from their own
upbringing but lack alternative frameworks. Additionally, societal changes over the decades have
shifted parenting dynamics, where greater autonomy is granted in some areas, such as
self-expression (Rutherford, 2009). The transition from authoritarian parenting to a more
controlled, yet flexible, approach creates confusion for many parents trying to strike a balance
between authority and independence (Sharma & Sandhu).

The rationale of the Study

This study seeks to fill a significant gap in understanding the comparative perspectives of
fathers and mothers regarding child-rearing within the Indian context, particularly focusing on
the influence of professional environments, specifically corporate and government sectors on
these roles. While existing research has investigated various parenting practices, there has been
limited exploration of how sector-specific factors, such as income stability, work demands, and
the unique characteristics of professional environments, shape child rearing practices including
parenting styles and responsibilities.
The study offers a comparative analysis of paternal and maternal roles in child-rearing,
emphasizing their perceived contributions to children's social, emotional, moral, and
psychological development. By examining these differences, the research will provide a clearer
understanding of the distinct roles played by each parent in fostering a child's holistic
development.

Furthermore, this research investigates the impact of corporate and government sectors
on parenting practices, highlighting critical differences in job flexibility, work-life balance, and
how these factors affect parental roles and disciplinary approaches. Understanding these
sector-specific influences is crucial for comprehending how parents navigate their
responsibilities in varying professional contexts.

In addition to professional influences, the study will assess traditional gender roles and
cultural factors that shape parenting. It will explore how parents transmit values and whether
modern work environments facilitate the preservation or evolution of cultural practices related to
child-rearing. The research aims to uncover how individual parental responsibilities, disciplinary
strategies, gender role manifestations, and cultural influences converge in shaping child-rearing
practices within specific sectors.

By comparing parents from diverse professional backgrounds, this study aims to

illuminate how contemporary economic realities inform and transform child-rearing practices in
India. Ultimately, it seeks to contribute to broader discussions on promoting balanced, inclusive,
and equitable parenting approaches, enhancing our understanding of the dynamics of parenting
in today’s rapidly evolving societal landscape.

Research Questions

1. What are the comparative perspectives of fathers and mothers regarding child-rearing
practices in the Indian context?
2. What perceived contributions do fathers and mothers believe they make to their children's
social, emotional, moral, and psychological development?
 3. How do sector-specific factors, such as income stability, work demands,job flexibility,
work life balance influence parental roles and disciplinary approaches in corporate versus
government sectors?
4. How are traditional gender roles reflected in the involvement of mothers and fathers in
child-rearing within corporate and government sectors, and how do these roles impact
parenting practices?
5. In dual-income families from corporate and government sectors, how are traditional
gender roles negotiated, and what perceived implications does this negotiation have for
parenting dynamics and child development?
6. In what ways do cultural values, morals, and traditions in child-rearing practices
intersect/differ between mothers and fathers in corporate and government sectors, and
how do these sectors influence the shaping of these familial dynamics?

Objectives
1. To compare the perspectives of fathers and mothers regarding child-rearing practices
within the Indian context.
2. To examine the perceived contributions of fathers and mothers to their children's social,
emotional, moral, and psychological development.
3. To analyze how sector-specific factors, such as income stability, work demands, job
flexibility, and work-life balance, influence parental roles and disciplinary approaches in
corporate versus government sectors.
4. To investigate how traditional gender roles are reflected in the involvement of mothers
and fathers in child-rearing within corporate and government sectors, and to assess the
impact of these roles on parenting practices.
5. To explore how traditional gender roles are negotiated in dual-income families from
corporate and government sectors, and to examine the perceived implications of this
negotiation for parenting dynamics and child development.
6. To assess the intersection and differences in cultural values, morals, and traditions in
child-rearing practices between mothers and fathers in corporate and government sectors,
and to analyze how these sectors influence the shaping of familial dynamics.
 Method

Research Design

This study employed a comparative and qualitative research design to explore the
parenting practices and roles of government and private sector employees. Semi-structured
interviews were conducted with participants to ensure flexibility while allowing for in-depth
exploration of key themes. The open-ended nature of the questions encouraged participants to
share detailed and personal insights into their experiences, providing a rich dataset for analysis.
Following data collection, thematic analysis was used to identify, analyze, and report patterns
within the data. This method facilitated a comprehensive understanding of the similarities and
differences between the two sectors, particularly in how gender roles and work environments
influence parenting approaches.

Participants

The participant sample for this study consisted of 10 sets of parents (20 participants) who
were equally divided between the corporate and government sectors. The inclusion criteria
required that both parents be employed in either the corporate or government sector and have
children aged between 4 and 10 years. Parents who were single, had children outside this age
range, or had children with physical or mental disabilities were excluded from the study to
maintain a more focused and consistent sample. This selection enabled a comparative analysis of
parenting roles and practices across sectors while adhering to the specified demographic
parameters.

Data Collection

Data for this study were collected through semi-structured interviews, allowing for a
deeper exploration of participants' experiences and perspectives. The interviews focused on key
themes such as parenting responsibilities, discipline, cultural transmission, and the influence of
professional roles on parenting practices. This approach provided flexibility, enabling
participants to share insights into how their work-life dynamics shaped their roles as parents, as
well as how cultural and societal expectations influenced their parenting strategies.
Research Instrument

The research instrument used for data collection was an interview guide, developed after
a thorough review of relevant literature and subsequent discussions. The guide was designed to
align with the research objectives and included open-ended questions that explored themes such
as the division of parenting responsibilities, disciplinary approaches, cultural transmission, and
the influence of professional life on parental roles.

Procedure

The procedure for data collection involved conducting interviews with each pair of
parents by a team of two researchers. The interviews were structured to allow for a
comprehensive exploration of the themes identified in the interview guide. All interviews were
audio-recorded with the participants' consent, and the recordings were later transcribed verbatim.
Following transcription, the data was analyzed thematically, allowing the researchers to identify
key patterns, themes, and insights relevant to the research questions.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations were a key aspect of the research design. Informed consent was
obtained from all participants prior to the interviews, ensuring they were fully aware of the
study's purpose, procedures, and their rights. Confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout
the research process, with all data anonymized to protect participants' identities. Participants
were also informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage without any
repercussions, ensuring that their participation was voluntary and their autonomy respected.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity was an important consideration in this study. The researchers were aware of
their potential biases and how these might influence both the data collection and analysis
processes. To mitigate any unintended influence, the researchers committed to regularly
reflecting on their personal perspectives, assumptions, and experiences throughout the research.
This reflection helped to ensure that the analysis remained as objective and impartial as possible,
 and allowed for a more nuanced understanding of the data. By engaging in ongoing reflexivity,
the researchers aimed to maintain transparency and enhance the validity of the findings.

Results

Theme Sub-theme Paternal Maternal Paternal Maternal Comparison/Key

Perspective Perspective Perspective Perspective Observations
(Government (Government (Private (Private Sector)
Sector) Sector) Sector)

Parental Variation in "My role is to "I find myself "I take the lead "I am Clear role
Roles and Parental ensure that the more involved in when it comes emotionally specialisation in
Responsibiliti Roles child gets the right day-to-day to the child’s involved and both sectors:
Fathers focus on
es education and emotional care. I education, take the
education, future
discipline, and to focus on her career initiative when planning, and
provide for the school routine aspirations, and it comes to discipline; mothers
family. My wife, and health, while academic nurturing, are responsible for
on the other hand, my husband’s success. My explaining emotional support,
is more about role is more wife handles the things, and caregiving, and
ensuring about providing day-to-day providing health.
emotional support and ensuring caregiving, from comfort. He’s
and health." discipline." meal planning more involved
to bedtime in managing the
“I must say that routines." academic and
being a mother I financial
feel more “Main zyada aspects."
responsible for outside work
his upbringing handle karta “It will be
and for making hoon,uske always different.
him a good boy academics Because you
so that's why I related cheezo know, we two
used to be strict ko jyada mein are from
as compared to decide kerta hu different
him.” or Meri wife ka backgrounds”
role zyada daily
caregiving mein “One thing I
hai,vo jyada day always feel,
to day cheezo there might be
mein dhyaan exceptions but
deti h like meal, women are more
clothing,homew emotional than
ork in sab pr” men so their
parenting will
be really
different than
men."
 “Discipline
starts with
timely meals;
the body clock
depends on it.”

“Mai na apne
baccho ko tough
kaise hona hai
strong kaise
hona life me ispr
jyda kaam krti
hu mai Maine
apne bade
bacche ko
independent
hona sikhaya
hai.Main chahti
hu ki vo
chhoti-chhoti
cheezon ke liye
khud effort
karein. Mai
unke sath
emotionally
bahut involved
hu, unke sath
time spend krna
unke sath
baatein krna
taaki vo bhi
emotionally
connected rahe
or rishton ki
importance ko
samjhe".

Maternal "I manage the "I am primarily "I am the one "I take care of Balanced roles in
and Paternal financial aspects the one taking who focuses on the daily both sectors:
Role and career care of strategic logistics and Fathers tend to take
Distribution progression, while everything planning for the caregiving—fee a more strategic,
my wife takes on related to the future—educati ding, playing, big-picture role
the primary child’s health, on, college emotional while mothers
caregiving emotions, and admissions, etc. care—while my focus on the daily
responsibilities. I schoolwork. His My wife is husband emotional and
intervene when it focus is more on hands-on, oversees her logistical needs of
comes to big decisions related dealing with the education, the child.
decisions like to our finances immediate extracurriculars,
school selection." and larger family needs of our and big life
matters." daughter." decisions."
"Her focus is on “ I have to wash
ensuring her clothes, if I
routines are have to feed her,
followed” generally it is
not the father
“Daily needs who does.”
aur time pe
khana khana “Honestly
bacho ka woh speaking,
meri wife majorly it’s with
me because he
ensure krti, din
gets really less
mein 2-3 baar time, he’s in a
call krti hi hai corporate job.”
woh bacho ko.” “Suppose she
(private sector) has a problem
with someone in
“See, she’s a school, then
girl child. So maybe she will
there are some come to me
things in which rather than
she will be close going to her
to her mother. father. But if she
Also, there are wants to go out
some issues that and play, if she
she has to wants to go out
discuss with her in a play zone,
mother first. okay, if she
And then she wants to have
also comes to fun, she will not
me. When she come out to me,
wants liberty or she will go to
something she her father.”
will definitely
come to me.” “It’s important
to show them
“Baaki gharpe that both are
khaana vaana sb equal…Papa can
wife dekhti hai also do it, what
mere bacho ka” is in it? The kid
is not my
responsibility.
Akele maine to
nhi paida kiya
hai na usko bhi
wo realize hona
chahiye.”

“If I’m scolding

my child, then
the other partner
should not scold
as well. It
creates
insecurity in the
child.”

“I plan my work
breaks around
the kids’
routine.”

"Hmne baat ki
thi ki kaise ham
work or apne
bacho k
nurturing ko
balance karenge
kyunki dono ke
upar kaam ki
zimmedariyan
bhi thi toh usko
bhi dekhna tha
or inko bhi or jb
mujhse sath me
ye nhi paaya
bacche toh even
mai job bhi
chorr di thi uske
baad fir 6-7
mahine ke baad
join bhi kar li.
Hmne discuss
kiya ki hum apni
responsibilities
kaise baatenge
jaise ki subh ke
time mai
manage kar lu or
dopahar me iske
papa inka dhyan
rakhenge or
time manage
 kaise karenge".

Shifting "There are times "It’s not always "At work, my "I try to be both Role fluidity in
Parental when I need to easy to balance. role is more a disciplinarian both sectors: Both
Roles step up when Sometimes I focused on and a nurturer, parents
something urgent need him to take long-term goals, but there are demonstrate
happens, but my charge of certain but I have to times when I flexibility based on
wife has a deeper tasks, especially adjust to being have to adjust the immediate
connection to the when I’m feeling flexible and my role based needs of the child,
child emotionally. overwhelmed. responsive at on the but mothers often
So we balance It’s about home, circumstances, take a more
each other out." flexibility." depending on like if she's sick nurturing,
her emotional or or upset." responsive role.
“So she manages physical needs."
when I am not “it is not that we
there. So it is not “Aisa bhi hota have made a
very compulsory hai jab meri SOP or
that wife ki something like
the arrangements important that. That you
are not like that. meetings hoti, do this, I do this.
But suppose if she tab i try to reach It can't be
is having a home early and possible when
meeting jo daily we are both very
tomorrow or responsibilities close to your
something like hoti hai usko child.”
that, then I will complete kru.”
manage those "My partner's
things. It is like “mera kaam hai parenting style
this. We see each bachon ko is structured,
other's subha subhe while I have a
engagement and uthana aur flexible and
we adjust to it.” bachho ko ready nurturing
karna unke iron approach."
karna dresses,
shoes polish
karna..”

Cultural and Traditional "I work hard to "I take on the "In our family, "It’s my Traditional
Gendered Gender Roles provide for the domestic and I’m the one who responsibility to gender roles
Expectations family’s needs. emotional labor focuses on ensure the dominate in both
My wife’s role is of parenting. He long-term child’s sectors, especially
to keep the home focuses on financial emotional and regarding
running smoothly, providing and stability, while psychological caregiving and
take care of the taking care of my wife takes needs are met providing. Fathers
child, and ensure things outside care of while my are expected to
all domestic the home." husband handles focus on work and
financial stability,
matters are day-to-day career decisions while mothers
handled." caregiving." and finances." manage the home
“These are the and caregiving.
“Hamare ghar “Meri mummy things a mother
mein koi ek hi sab bolti thi ki itne does. She is a
kuch nahi karta.” chhote bache ko kind of security.
“ghar mein bohot abhi se daycare The child feels
log hai jo hamru bhejte ho, usse very secure with
madad karte hai.” toh maa hi the mother. So
dekhegi.” these kind of
“Log kehte hain things are
fathers ko kam “Meri wife ka appointed the
care karni role thoda zyada mother's role”
chahiye, par main nurturing aur
aisa nahi maanta.” care-giving “I still
oriented hota remember when
“Hum toh subha hai.Ye I gave birth to
nahane ke baad traditional my little one.
har roz bina bole My first
gender roles ka
question was,
hi matha tek dete part hai, jahan when I met my
hai ek baar. Hume mothers ko husband ki yaar
bhi wahi sikhaya bachon ki I gave birth to a
hai hum bhi apne emotional needs girl. Bua log kya
bacchon ko wahi aur care ka bolengi i had no
sikhatein hai.” zyada worries about
mommy, daddy,
responsibility
husband. Then
diya jata hai. he said are you
Mera role thoda mad, baadh mei
zyada jaye bua.”
goal-oriented
hota hai, "Why barbies
are shown with
discipline
such bodies?
maintain karna, We, were in
aur future ke Hamleys and
liye career goals she asked
set karne ki or mumma inka
guidance dena. body type essa
Ek traditional kyu dikhaya
hai."
stereotype yeh
hai ki fathers ko “Traditional
"provider" aur things will
"protector" ke always be there,
roop mein it will never go
dekha jata hai, away It will
aur main bhi is always be there”
role ko natural
"Bachchon ki
education aur
 tareeke se discipline ka
apnaata hoon.” kaam mostly
mera hi hai...
“father ko na unka approach
outside se thoda pyaar aur
strict rehna leniency wala
padta hai agar hai."
vo strict nahi
rahenge na to
bahar kya chal
rha hai kya nahi
to vo cheezein
na thoda outside
se father ko
strict rehna
padta hai”

“father ek ghar
ke andar na
financially
support karta
hai, but jo build
up jo bhi study
ka vo uski
mother hi karti
hai”

Gendered "I believe it’s the "It’s a societal "I oversee "It’s accepted Cultural
Expectations mother’s role to expectation that academic that I handle the expectations
for Childcare take care of the I manage the performance emotional and persist: In both
child’s emotional emotional and and major daily aspects of sectors, the mother
needs. I step in for day-to-day needs decisions, while care—feeding, is primarily
discipline or when of the child. The my wife handles comforting, and responsible for
there’s an issue at father’s role is the everyday resolving emotional care and
school, but more about caregiving, like conflicts, while day-to-day
emotional care is financial ensuring she’s my husband childcare, while the
her domain." stability and emotionally steps in for father takes a more
big-picture nurtured and discipline or distant,
decisions." healthy." school issues." authoritative role.

“It eventually
happened, you
know, when the
child is growing
up, it eventually
happened that
you take her out
 for play, I will
be clean and
making her bed
because we
were both
working from
home.”

Cultural "I want my "We focus on "I ensure my "It’s very Cultural
Values and children to grow teaching our child is important for transmission is a
Practices up understanding children the well-versed in me to instill in priority for both
our values of our culture, our her an parents across
traditions—wheth respect, language, and appreciation of sectors. While the
er it’s the festivals kindness, and our family our cultural father’s role is
we celebrate or responsibility. I traditions. This heritage—wheth seen as overseeing
the values we ensure they is something we er it’s through the big-picture
uphold." understand our emphasize at language, cultural teachings,
heritage, home." customs, or the mother
“Many of the traditions, and values." provides the
cultural practices the importance "We try to keep emotional context
are also of family cultural values "Gratitude is the and continuity.
vanishing with the bonds." alive in our most important
time period. Our family, as we thing."
cultural practices, believe they are
our languages, our crucial for “So I have a
values. Now many building a traditional view
things are just strong, that one should
languishing in the respectful be very, very,
present time. character." should have a
Whatever is very good hold
possible, whatever “Mai practically of the mother
is practical, I sikhane ki tongue”
think, that koshish krta hu,
aur chahunga ki “She should also
becomes more
mera bacha know her
important to carry
humare culture traditional ways,
Forward. We
ki values sikhe.” what are the
show him, we
traditional ways
always share all
“So what of doing things,
those
happens is when what we are
traditions.”
my parents actually.”
“Hume bachpan come, then they
will try and "Whether you
mein jo bhi
teach her about are involved in
shiksha apne ma some kind of
baap se mili hai the spiritual ritual or not,
unhi ko apne things, or worshipping, are
bachhon pe bhi religious things, you inclined
which I am not towards
anything or are
 istemaal karta very much you following
hu.” conversant in anything. It is
“Hum tyohaar aur and not have very, very
important to go
rituals ke zariye time to give her
back to those
culture sikhane ki that moral books, she has
koshish karte knowledge and panchtantra vo
hain, aur toh koi learning. So that baar baar padhti
raasta hai nahin.” part is left to hai.”
them.”
“I come to the
“unko hamesha kitchen after
bolta rehta hu ki bathing…I tell
jo bhi aapki her to take
baatcheet hai Aarti, read
respect karna God’s name.
badon se kuch She do evening
mat kehna to ye puja with my
mai unko batata instructions
rehta hu” being followed
without me
helping her”

Challenges of Guilt and "I feel guilty "There’s always "I try to make "I feel Guilt is felt deeply
Balancing Sacrifice of sometimes, the guilt of not up for it by torn—there’s so by mothers in both
Work and Working especially when being there working flexible much I want to sectors, particularly
Parenting Mothers work demands enough. When hours and taking do for my when they have to
take me away I’m at work, I leave when family, but work balance career
from the family, feel like I’m possible. But demands make demands with
but I try to make missing out on honestly, I still it difficult. It’s caregiving. Fathers
up for it by moments with feel like I’m tough to leave feel some strain but
spending quality my child." missing out on work behind and to a lesser extent.
time on too much." focus on home."
weekends." “I initially I was
like I was “Night shifts "I have suffered
“Kaam aur ghar keeping him impact time physically, I
ka balance banana with me in my with the child. If gained so much
mushkil hai, par office so in in there are school weight.Still
koshish karta during that phase holidays or any Sometimes I
hoon. Waise bhi also my work special breaks, I feel I am not
hum log har roz suffered and he try to align my doing enough."
kaam ke baad also suffered a time off with
saath mein puri lot because “Your mother
those periods so
faimly baith ke tv being in a room has a very big
I can be there
wagera dekhte for a two three role and if you
for my child and
hai. Roz ka hi hours it's a are a working
spend quality
scene hota hai torture for kids.” mother, it's very
time with him”
yeh” tough.”
“it's hard to
balance both
they both “Mere working
suffered because hours fixed nhi "Sometimes I
we can't hai, and mostly feel guilty that I
concentrate on cannot spend
late night hi mai
uh both of them
ghar aata hu so enough time
at the same time
so it's it's it's ye ek problem with my
very it's a bit hai, per bacho daughter
difficult yeah” ke liye krna because of my
pdega manage.” career."

“Sometimes, if
I’m too busy, I
feel guilty when
I can’t give her
enough time for
studies like
Hindi.”

"Jo maine socha

hai, vo poora
toh nahi kar
paati, par 60-70
percent zarur
hota hai or kabhi
kabhi lagta hai
bachon ko time
nahi de paati
kyuki thak k aati
hu to thoda guilt
bhi hota hai or
thoda bura bhi
lgta hai. Or pta
hai beta maa
bante hi apna
self time khtm
ho gya or mera
sara samay
bachho ko chla
Gaya, bss mai
ab apne liye
time nhi nikal
paati".

"Maine adjust
kiya hai apne
kaam ke saath...
agar mujhe lagta
hai ki mujhe job
 se pehle
bachchon ka
dhyan rakhna
hai, toh main
woh priority deti
hoon."

Work "The flexibility in "I have some "Flexibility in "I appreciate the Flexibility is more
Flexibility my role means I flexibility, but it the private flexibility of pronounced in the
and Impact can sometimes doesn’t make up sector is working from private sector, but
on Family work from home, for the time I definitely better. home. It gives it doesn't fully
which helps. But lose at work I can work late me more alleviate the feeling
the balance is still when I should be or adjust my opportunities to of missing out on
tough, especially with my child." hours to make interact with my family moments,
when my wife is sure I spend child. However, especially for
handling “We have rights time with her." I still struggle to mothers.
everything at so that rights be fully
protect us from “I am able to
home." any discrepancy present."
balance my
or any injustice
“Mai jaise kuch and all these work and “supposedly I
din pehele things which parenting have to work
shimpla gaya tha, majority of time responsibilities. late, sometimes
Mrs. aur mere in the private It’s not that my I can go back
bade bete ko ghar sector lack. t's work is too home, and I can
ka sambhaalna little easier in much so I work late, I can
government
pada tha. Toh hum ignore my child, sit in the laptop
sector as
sab adjust kar lete compared to my child is again. So that
hai waise agar private” prominent for way flexibility
Mrs. ya mera me, important is there. But
kaam ajata hai toh for me.” then…. all
dusra use depends upon
sambhaal leta how you are
hai.” performing”

“Kabhi kabhi “Vaise to mera

lekin agar dono ko job kabhi kabhi
kaam ho toh jyda demanding
dikkat aa jati hai hota hai par
aur hum mein se maine jaan bujh
kisi ko sacrifice kar ye kaam liya
karna hota hai kyuki isme
nahin toh humara kaam kam krna
bada beta school pdta h or mai
se chutti le leta hai apne bacho k
choti ka khayaal liye time nikal
rakhne ke liye.” paati hun isliye
bhi maine ye job
 liya par kabhi
kabhi aisa hota
hai ki kaam jyda
ho jata hai toh
mai kabhi kabhi
apne baccho k
saath time spend
nhi kaar paati or
unse baat nahi
kar paati ki kya
chal raha hai
unki time me”.

"Agar main
regular karti, toh
mere bachchon
ko dekhne wala
koi nahi hota."

Emotional "There are days "It’s emotionally "The emotional "I feel drained Emotional strain
Strain of when I feel exhausting. I strain is there, some days, is felt equally in
Work-Life overwhelmed with want to be the especially when trying to keep both sectors, with
Balance everything, and it best at work and deadlines loom. up with work mothers
feels like I have at home, but it’s But I’ve learned and home life. experiencing the
no personal space hard to do both. to let go of There’s no most pressure to
left. I’m I feel drained." some things to ‘me-time’ left, manage multiple
constantly prioritize and I find it roles. Fathers feel it
juggling work, family." tough to too, but to a lesser
home, and the disconnect." degree.
child’s needs." "Parents today
feel pressured to “Compromise
keep up with on my personal
others." space. I don't
have any
personal space
left”

Parenting Balancing "It’s a delicate "We try not to be "Discipline is "Discipline is A balance of
Approaches Discipline balance. We can’t too controlling. I necessary, but necessary, but freedom and
and and Freedom be too strict or too want her to have freedom is freedom is discipline is valued
Discipline lenient. space but also equally equally across both sectors,
Sometimes, you understand the important. We important. We with a slight
have to set consequences. need to teach need to teach tendency toward
boundaries but It’s about her her greater leniency in
also give them balance." responsibility responsibility the private sector.
freedom to make while allowing while allowing
“I do use strict
measures but not
their own always because her space to her space to
choices." sometimes I like grow." grow."
making him get
“agar mrs. up for school or “Discipline is "I think if one
dominant ho rahi to get ready for absolutely parent is strict,
hai toh bachhe school or do his important and that’s enough, so
mere paas aajate homework.” serves as the we balance it
hai agar mein foundation for out"
dominant ho raha everything they
hu toh bachhe do in life.” “you cannot
mrs. ke paas chale have a very
jaate hai. Toh kisi “I am in favor strict
ek ko toh of giving her disciplinary
subordinate hona more liberty at thing.”
padega bachhe ko this time, rather
than making her “I am a bit
achhe se
more stricter than her
samjhaane ke
disciplined. father.”
liye”
Because this is
“Till last year I
the age where
was a little rigid
whatever she mother. She also
would like to do used to hide
she would do. things, but this
And if we time I said even
suppress her if you kill
somebody just
activities now
come and
then later on inform me, I
those activities will be there
will take their with you. so,
own course and whatever she
they will erupt.” does she comes
and shares with
me.”
“My daughter is
more interested "If my daughter
in sport so I does something
focus more wrong, I explain
there, also I see it to her calmly
if what she is but avoid being
demanding is overly strict
ethical or not, because she
every demand needs time to
can’t be learn in her own
fulfilled.” way."

“maine usko
smjhaya ki beta
ye sb bad
manners hote
 hai usse aaram
se baat ki jab vo
shant ho gaya
tha jis time gaali
nahi de raha tha
kyuki uss samay
smjhati toh syd
vo or vo vahi
karta toh ab ek
do baar nikal
jaata tha par
usne chorr diya
hai or ham har
cheez ek
computer ki
tarah us
information nahi
daal sakte thoda
time lagega aur
waise bhi vo
chota hai toh
thoda time lga
fir vo sikh gaya
ki aise nahi
karna hai or agar
isse bhi kaam
Naa chale toh
thappad lga k
baat bane toh vo
bhi krna chahiye
or karungi or
beta mai chahti
hu ki inko mai
freedom toh du
sab kuch karne
ko par ek
restrictive
manner me taaki
misuse na kare”

Use of "Sometimes, "I believe in "Punishment is "We sometimes Consequences are

Punishments punishment is consequences, an option, but I use used across both
and necessary, but I try to use prefer using consequences to sectors, but there’s
Consequence especially when them sparingly. I positive reinforce rules, a stronger
s she’s not prefer reasoning reinforcement. but I believe preference for
following rules. first." If she communication positive
But I try not to misbehaves, we is the key. If it’s reinforcement in
overdo it, as I “I do use strict talk about the necessary, we the private sector,
 want her to measures but not consequences, set clear with less emphasis
understand why always because but I try to consequences on punitive
she’s being sometimes I like minimize harsh together." measures.
making him get
punished." responses."
up for school or “Basically
to get ready for
“Hum daantne ke “I believe in sometimes it
school or do his
bajay samjhate homework.” giving happens that
hain.” flexibility, and you have to
even if she is raise your
“daatna toh last going in a voice.”
option hota hai” wrong track,
we’ll try and "Unko thoda
bring back emotional
through blackmail karte
counselling and hain... agar tum
not rigid yeh karoge toh
means.” yeh milega,
toffee denge ya
chocolate de
denge.Pyaar se
samjhate hain
par agar nahi
samajhti toh
danda leke baith
jaate hain.”

Discussion

This study investigates how child-rearing practices differ between fathers and mothers
working in government and private sectors in India. Parenting in India is deeply rooted in
cultural traditions, yet rapid socio-economic changes such as urbanization and dual-income
families are reshaping traditional roles. Fathers are increasingly participating in day-to-day
caregiving, while mothers are balancing professional responsibilities alongside nurturing roles,
challenging historical stereotypes. The research delves into critical dimensions of parenting,
including parental responsibilities, discipline methods, cultural values, and gender roles, to
uncover similarities and differences between paternal and maternal approaches. Through its
comparative lens, the study provides fresh insights into how contemporary Indian families
navigate the interplay between professional demands and traditional expectations, contributing to
the broader discourse on family dynamics and child development in a rapidly modernizing
society. After analyzing the data from each set, several key themes emerged: Parental Roles and
Responsibilities, Work-Life Balance, Cultural and Gendered Expectations, Parenting Approaches
and Discipline, and Challenges of Balancing Work and Parenting. These themes collectively
provide valuable insights into how parents navigate the intricate dynamics of modern
child-rearing in dual-income households across diverse professional sectors.

Parental Roles and Responsibilities

The study revealed clear distinctions in the roles of fathers and mothers across private
and government sectors. Fathers in both sectors primarily identified themselves as
decision-makers, focusing on career guidance and discipline. One father remarked, "My role is to
ensure that the child gets the right education and discipline and to provide for the family. My
wife, on the other hand, is more about ensuring emotional support and health." Conversely,
mothers emphasized their daily involvement in caregiving and emotional support. One mother
shared, "I find myself more involved in day-to-day emotional care. I focus on her school routine
and health, while my husband’s role is more about providing and ensuring discipline." These
responses highlight the division of responsibilities, with fathers leaning toward strategic roles
and mothers toward operational, day-to-day caregiving.

These roles largely align with traditional gendered expectations, even in the context of
modern households. Fathers often upheld traditional views of being the breadwinner, the
disciplinarian, and the family’s decision-maker, echoing findings from prior research (Ali Afrooz
et al., 2022). Mothers, on the other hand, continue to bear the primary responsibility for
child-rearing, a trend noted historically (Lamb, 1979). Craig (2006) also supports this, stating
that mothers spend significantly more time with their children than fathers, often taking on an
over-involved approach, while fathers tend to adopt a less engaged, playmate-like role (C.
Galloway, 2007). The study found that while traditional roles are prevalent, there is notable
flexibility in how parents adapt to their children's immediate needs. Both fathers and mothers
reported instances of adjusting their responsibilities to support one another. A mother explained,
"It is not that we have made an SOP or something like that. That you do this, I do this. It can't be
possible when we are both very close to our child." Similarly, a father shared, "Aisa bhi hota hai
jab meri wife ki important meetings hoti hain, tab I try to reach home early and jo daily
responsibilities hoti hain, usko complete kar leta hoon." These responses highlight a
collaborative approach to parenting, with both parents stepping in to manage caregiving and
household duties as circumstances demand “I must say that being a mother I feel more
responsible for his upbringing and for making him a good boy so that's why I used to be strict as
compared to him.” another father from Governement sector commented "I work hard to provide
for the family’s needs. My wife’s role is to keep the home running smoothly, take care of the child,
and ensure all domestic matters are handled." Fathers are seen by both parents as “helping”
rather than “sharing” parental responsibilities (Cowan & Cowan, 1992; LaRossa & LaRossa,
1981). Parenthood is also salient for men, though not as salient as the worker role. The role of
economic provider for men is supported by society through opportunities for work and higher
pay, thus leading men to be more committed to the provider role than to the parental role
(Katz-Wise et al., 2010).This exploration of parental roles and responsibilities highlights the
balancing act many employees face as they navigate professional and familial obligations. These
challenges naturally intersect with broader issues of work-life balance, emphasizing the need for
supportive workplace policies that enable individuals to thrive in both domains.

Work-Life Balance

Both fathers and mothers in the private and government sectors reported experiencing
guilt and emotional strain due to the challenges of balancing work commitments and parenting.
Mothers, in particular, expressed a deeper sense of guilt, emphasizing the difficulty of being fully
present in both roles. A mother from the government sector stated, "There’s always the guilt of
not being there enough. When I’m at work, I feel like I’m missing out on moments with my child."
Similarly, a mother from the private sector shared, "I feel torn—there’s so much I want to do for
my family, but work demands make it difficult. It’s tough to leave work behind and focus on
home."
Fathers, while also acknowledging guilt, tended to frame it differently, often emphasizing
efforts to compensate during weekends. One father mentioned, "I feel guilty sometimes,
especially when work demands take me away from the family, but I try to make up for it by
spending quality time on weekends." Overall, guilt and emotional strain are universal across
sectors, but they are felt more acutely by mothers, who often carry the weight of societal and
internalized expectations about caregiving. Fathers, while affected, report less intense strain,
likely due to the traditional view of their role as breadwinners rather than primary caregivers.
 Flexibility emerged as a critical factor influencing parents’ ability to balance
responsibilities. A father in the private sector noted, "Flexibility in the private sector is definitely
better. I can work late or adjust my hours to make sure I spend time with her." A mother echoed
this sentiment, stating, "I appreciate the flexibility of working from home. It gives me more
opportunities to interact with my child. However, I still struggle to be fully present." In contrast,
some parents highlighted the limits of flexibility. One mother shared, "Agar main regular karti,
toh mere bachchon ko dekhne wala koi nahi hota," underscoring how even with flexibility, the
demands of parenting can outweigh professional accommodations.

Flexibility is perceived as more accessible in the private sector, with options like remote
work or adjustable hours providing some relief. However, these accommodations do not fully
mitigate the emotional strain of missing family moments, particularly for mothers.
Government-sector employees often face more rigid schedules, which exacerbate challenges in
balancing work and parenting. The emotional strain of managing work and parenting roles aligns
with Hochschild’s (2003) concept of the "second shift," where women undertake an additional
load of housework and childcare after their professional workday. Mothers, irrespective of sector,
often experience this "second shift," highlighting an ongoing disparity in the division of labour at
home. Research by Craig (2006) and others (Baxter, 2002; Yeung et al., 2001) further supports
this, finding that mothers consistently spend two to three times more time on childcare than
fathers, even when employed full-time. Fathers, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in
recreational or educational activities with children, which, while valuable, represent a less
intensive form of involvement compared to daily caregiving and multitasking.

While work flexibility offers some relief, the emotional and logistical challenges of
balancing work and parenting remain significant, with mothers bearing the brunt of the strain in
both sectors. Fathers’ contributions, though increasing, are often less intensive, reflecting
persistent gendered expectations and divisions of labour.

Cultural Values and Parental Expectations

In the Indian context, cultural values play a significant role in shaping parental
expectations and practices. Fathers are traditionally seen as providers and disciplinarians, while
mothers are expected to focus on nurturing, emotional care, and household management. These
norms are consistent across both the government and private sectors, though their manifestations
may vary slightly based on work flexibility and exposure to modern parenting ideas. A father
from the private sector shared, "Meri wife ka role thoda zyada nurturing aur care-giving oriented
hota hai. Ye traditional gender roles ka part hai, jahan mothers ko bachon ki emotional needs
aur care ka zyada responsibility diya jata hai. Mera role thoda zyada goal-oriented hota hai,
discipline maintain karna, aur future ke liye career goals set karne ki or guidance dena."
Similarly, a mother reflected on the deeply rooted cultural expectations, stating, "Traditional
things will always be there; it will never go away."

Cultural values strongly reinforce traditional gender roles in parenting. Fathers often take
on a "big-picture" role, focusing on financial stability, discipline, and cultural teachings, while
mothers manage the detailed, day-to-day responsibilities of caregiving and emotional support.
One father noted, "I work hard to provide for the family’s needs. My wife’s role is to keep the
home running smoothly, take care of the child, and ensure all domestic matters are handled."
This division is further highlighted in statements like: A mother shared, "I come to the kitchen
after bathing…I tell her to take Aarti, read God’s name. She does evening puja with my
instructions being followed." A father emphasized his role in teaching values, stating, "Unko
hamesha bolta rehta hu ki jo bhi aapki baatcheet hai, respect karna badon se kuch mat
kehna."Such practices reflect the integration of cultural transmission within parenting, where the
father often provides overarching guidelines, and the mother ensures the daily continuity of these
teachings.

Although the fundamental cultural expectations remain the same, parents in the private
sector occasionally find more flexibility to challenge these norms due. For instance, flexible
work hours in the private sector allow some fathers to take a more active role in caregiving. A
father noted, "Flexibility in the private sector is definitely better. I can work late or adjust my
hours to make sure I spend time with her." In the government sector, where rigid schedules
prevail, traditional roles are more likely to persist. Mothers often bear a disproportionate burden
of caregiving responsibilities due to a lack of systemic support for shared parenting roles. The
influence of traditional values is particularly evident in the emotional labor expected of mothers.
A mother shared, "Meri mummy bolti thi ki itne chhote bache ko abhi se daycare bhejte ho, usse
toh maa hi dekhegi," reflecting societal pressure to prioritize caregiving over professional
aspirations. Hochschild’s (2003) "second shift" is also evident, as mothers juggle professional
and domestic responsibilities. Fathers' roles, while important, tend to focus on less emotionally
demanding tasks such as playing or teaching discipline (Craig, 2006).

Gendered expectations significantly shape parenting practices in both sectors. Mothers

are primarily associated with emotional care and daily involvement, while fathers focus on career
guidance, discipline, and financial provision. This aligns with Galloway (2007), who notes that
fathers' relationships with children are often undervalued despite their importance. Studies like
those by Dwairy et al. (2006) also highlight that parenting in Asian cultures, including India,
tends to emphasize control and adherence to cultural norms, reinforcing the demanding nature of
parenting roles within traditional frameworks. Cultural and gendered expectations deeply
influence child-rearing practices in India. While some variation exists between sectors,
traditional norms of caregiving and financial provision remain strong, with mothers often bearing
the larger share of emotional labour. Fathers’ roles, though evolving, are still shaped by cultural
expectations of authority and provision, perpetuating a clear division of labour in parenting.
Gender differences in identity salience support previous research suggesting that the role of
parenthood is more central to women’s identities than to men’s identities, and that the importance
of family to women is shown through fulfillment of the motherhood role, whereas the
importance of work and family to men is shown through fulfillment of the provider role
(Katz-Wise et al., 2010).

However, with the advent of industrialization and urbanization and as factories emerged
as major sources of employment, fathers became distanced from the household and their
families. Growing rates of abandonment and illegitimacy led to the development of welfare
programs to assist widowed or unmarried women in supporting their children. In more recent
decades, the changing economic role of women has greatly impacted the role of fathers. now,
The modern day father comes in various forms. Today’s father is no longer always the traditional
married breadwinner and disciplinarian in the family. He can be single or married; externally
employed or stay-at home; gay or straight; an adoptive or step-parent; and a more than capable
caregiver to children facing physical or psychological challenges. Psychological research across
families from all ethnic backgrounds suggests that fathers' affection and increased family
involvement help promote children's social and emotional development (APA, 2009). Cultural
values and parental expectations deeply influence individuals' behavior and attitudes, often
shaping their approach to structure and discipline. These cultural foundations provide insight into
how discipline is perceived and maintained in professional and personal contexts.

Parenting Approaches and Discipline

Parents across both the government and private sectors value striking a balance between
discipline and granting their children the freedom to grow and explore. This approach reflects a
modern perspective that emphasizes teaching responsibility while fostering individuality. A
father from the private sector noted, "Discipline is necessary, but freedom is equally important.
We need to teach her responsibility while allowing her space to grow." Similarly, a mother
echoed, "We sometimes use consequences to reinforce rules, but I believe communication is the
key. If it’s necessary, we set clear consequences together." In the private sector, there is a greater
inclination toward using positive reinforcement and fostering open communication. This reflects
a shift away from traditional authoritarian approaches, aligning with workplace flexibility and
exposure to contemporary parenting styles. "I believe in explaining the reasons behind rules
rather than just enforcing them," shared a private-sector parent, emphasizing a collaborative
approach to discipline.

In contrast, government-sector parents are slightly more traditional, using stricter

measures to instil discipline when needed. A government-sector mother shared, "I do use strict
measures but not always because sometimes I like making him get up for school or do his
homework." A government-sector father added, "Sometimes, punishment is necessary, especially
when she’s not following rules. But I try not to overdo it, as I want her to understand why she’s
being punished."

Both sectors employ consequences as a disciplinary measure, but private-sector parents

lean more toward positive reinforcement rather than punitive approaches. This preference
reflects an understanding that children learn better when motivated by rewards and
encouragement rather than fear of punishment. Research by Lansford et al. (2009) supports this,
noting that discipline is not isolated behaviour but occurs within the broader parent-child
relationship. Stress levels in parents influence the use of harsh or inconsistent discipline, as
physiological, emotional, and cognitive factors come into play. The forms of discipline chosen
by parents are influenced by the unique characteristics of both the child and the parent, as well as
the overall climate of their relationship. Parents who experience higher stress levels may resort to
harsher or inconsistent disciplinary measures, while those who emphasize positive reinforcement
foster a more supportive relationship dynamic.

Comparative Analysis of Parenting in Government and Private Sectors

Differences in Sector-Specific Roles

In the government sector, job stability and structured work schedules provide a sense of
security but come with limitations in terms of flexibility. Mothers often express that, while their
roles offer some degree of adaptability, it does not compensate for the time they miss with their
children. One mother remarked, "I have some flexibility, but it doesn’t make up for the time I lose
at work when I should be with my child." Fathers in this sector, while traditionally expected to
fulfil the role of disciplinarians, also grapple with the pressures of balancing work and parenting.
A government-sector father shared, "There are days when I feel overwhelmed with everything,
and it feels like I have no personal space left. I’m constantly juggling work, home, and the child’s
needs." The structured nature of government jobs restricts parents’ ability to be as emotionally
available to their children as they might wish, often reinforcing traditional gender roles in
parenting.

In the private sector, flexible work arrangements provide opportunities for parents to
engage more in child-rearing, yet the demands of long working hours create significant
emotional strain. Mothers in particular feel the weight of managing multiple roles, with one
private-sector mother sharing, "I feel drained some days, trying to keep up with work and home
life. There’s no ‘me-time’ left, and I find it tough to disconnect." Fathers in the private sector
often utilize work flexibility to spend more time with their children but still face challenges from
the competitive nature of their jobs. The pressure to perform professionally often translates into
less consistent involvement at home, with both parents struggling to maintain a balance. The
emotional strain is prevalent in both sectors, but mothers in the private sector experience
heightened stress as they navigate caregiving alongside demanding work responsibilities, another
mother stated: "Jo maine socha hai, vo poora toh nahi kar paati, par 60-70 percent zarur hota
hai or kabhi kabhi lagta hai bachon ko time nahi de paati kyuki thak k aati hu to thoda guilt bhi
hota hai or thoda bura bhi lgta hai. Or pta hai beta maa bante hi apna self time khtm ho gya or
mera sara samay bachho ko chla Gaya, bss mai ab apne liye time nhi nikal paati"

While the government sector offers stability and structure, it often reinforces traditional
parenting roles, with limited flexibility to adapt to family needs. In contrast, the private sector
provides more opportunities for flexible schedules, enabling greater involvement in
child-rearing. However, the competitive demands of private jobs create significant emotional
strain, particularly for mothers, making the balance between work and parenting equally
challenging in both sectors.

Sectoral Impact on Gender Roles

Traditional gender roles remain firmly rooted across both government and private sectors,
with mothers taking primary responsibility for emotional care and daily childcare, while fathers
focus on financial stability and authoritative decision-making. In the government sector, a
structured work environment often amplifies this division, as mothers carry the weight of
domestic and emotional labour while fathers maintain a disciplinary role. As one government
sector mother explained, “It’s a societal expectation that I manage the emotional and day-to-day
needs of the child. The father’s role is more about financial stability and big-picture decisions.”

In the private sector, work culture introduces a degree of fluidity in role-sharing,

particularly due to flexible working arrangements. However, these changes are often superficial,
with mothers still bearing the brunt of caregiving responsibilities. A private sector mother
shared, “I handle the emotional and daily aspects of care—feeding, comforting, and resolving
conflicts, while my husband steps in for discipline or school issues.” Despite some fathers
expressing a desire to balance academic involvement and family decisions, the cultural
expectation for mothers to prioritize caregiving persists strongly in both sectors.

Cultural influences continue to shape parenting practices regardless of the work sector.
Both fathers and mothers prioritize the transmission of values, traditions, and discipline, with
fathers often overseeing big-picture cultural teachings and mothers emphasizing emotional
continuity. This dynamic underscores the deeply ingrained societal norms that define parenting
roles in India, regardless of the professional environment.
Reflection and Analysis

The study of gendered expectations and traditional roles provides valuable insights into
how deeply rooted societal norms shape parenting dynamics. While there is some evidence of a
shift toward shared responsibilities in both the government and private sectors, traditional
thinking continues to dominate. Fathers often see their role as providers and disciplinarians,
while mothers take on emotional and daily caregiving. Even in the private sector, where flexible
work schedules allow for some role fluidity, the expectation for mothers to prioritize caregiving
remains prevalent. This highlights the need to challenge these entrenched roles to achieve true
equality in parenting.

To promote a more equitable distribution of parental responsibilities, interventions must

target both households and workplaces. At home, encouraging open communication between
partners about role-sharing can help dismantle traditional expectations. Workplaces can also play
a pivotal role by implementing family-friendly policies such as paid parental leave for both
mothers and fathers, flexible work schedules, and on-site childcare facilities. These steps would
not only support parents but also signal the importance of shared caregiving roles, helping to
normalize equitable parenting in broader society.

To facilitate better work-life balance, workplaces in both private and government sectors
can implement specific, actionable policies tailored to their operational structures. In the private
sector, organizations can adopt flexible work arrangements such as remote work options,
compressed workweeks, or hybrid models, as seen in companies like Google and Microsoft.
These approaches enable employees to better manage personal responsibilities while maintaining
productivity. Furthermore, offering on-site childcare facilities, wellness programs, and setting
boundaries for after-hours communication can significantly improve balance and reduce burnout.
Policies like unlimited paid time off or mental health days are also gaining traction in progressive
private organizations.

In the government sector, which often involves rigid schedules and formal hierarchies,
measures such as staggered shifts, telecommuting options, and flexi-time policies can
accommodate employees' diverse needs. For example, many government bodies adopted
telework arrangements during the pandemic, demonstrating the viability of such policies.
Additionally, simplifying bureaucratic processes for leave approvals and emphasizing mental
health resources can create a more supportive work environment. Across both sectors, fostering a
culture that respects work-life boundaries—such as explicit no-contact policies outside office
hours—can significantly enhance employee satisfaction and motivation. These concrete steps not
only address the specific demands of work-life balance but also build a more engaged, loyal, and
productive workforce.

The findings of this study reflect broader societal changes in India, particularly as
education and economic development influence evolving gender norms. Increased awareness of
gender equality has led to some shifts in attitudes, especially among younger and urban
populations. However, the persistence of traditional values suggests that these changes are
gradual and often limited by cultural and structural barriers. Efforts to challenge stereotypes
through education, media campaigns, and workplace reforms can help accelerate the transition
toward more equitable parenting practices, reflecting India’s ongoing journey toward gender
equality.

Conclusion

This study highlights the evolving yet persistent dynamics of parenting practices in India,
shaped by cultural expectations, sectoral differences, and societal norms. A key takeaway is the
gradual shift in urban families toward shared responsibilities, though traditional roles remain
deeply ingrained. Even when actively contributing to their child’s development, fathers often
default to the breadwinner role, reflecting long-standing societal constructs. Mothers, on the
other hand, continue to bear the brunt of emotional labour and caregiving responsibilities,
balancing these with increasing professional demands. Many mothers, particularly in the private
sector, reported feeling drained by the dual burden of work and home life, with limited time for
personal respite. A notable pattern observed is the consistent prioritization of cultural
transmission, where fathers oversee broad teachings, and mothers provide emotional context and
continuity. Additionally, private-sector families appear to have more fluidity in role-sharing due
to greater flexibility in work arrangements, while government-sector families lean more toward
rigid traditional roles. Disciplinary practices also reveal differences, with the private sector
favouring positive reinforcement and the government sector often employing stricter measures.
Emotional strain, although prevalent across both sectors, tends to be more pronounced for
mothers, who frequently juggle multiple responsibilities.

Looking ahead, future research could explore parenting practices across broader and
more diverse groups. A comparative study of the organized and unorganized sectors could
uncover the influence of economic and structural disparities on child-rearing. Examining
generational shifts in parenting practices could provide insights into how cultural and societal
transformations influence rearing approaches over time. Additionally, incorporating diverse
socio-economic groups would offer a holistic perspective on how parenting adapts to varying
resources and constraints. Such studies would deepen our understanding of equality in parenting
and contribute to evolving discussions on modern family dynamics in India.

Implications

The findings of this study underscore the persistent influence of traditional gender roles
on parenting practices, even amidst societal and economic evolution. These patterns have
broader implications for gender equality and work-life balance policies in India. Despite gradual
progress, the disproportionate burden on mothers to manage both professional and caregiving
responsibilities highlights the need for systemic changes to foster equitable role-sharing. Fathers’
continued identification with the breadwinner archetype points to a deep-rooted cultural norm
that must be addressed through education, workplace policies, and awareness campaigns.

From a gender equality perspective, the study calls for greater advocacy and support for
redefining parenting roles. Encouraging fathers to engage more actively in emotional care and
daily childcare, beyond discipline and financial provision, can promote shared responsibility
within households. This shift requires both societal encouragement and structural enablers, such
as paternity leave policies, workplace flexibility for all genders, and community-level initiatives
to challenge stereotypes. In terms of work-life balance policies, the contrast between private and
government sectors highlights opportunities for intervention. Private sector flexibility, while
beneficial, often comes with the cost of emotional strain due to longer working hours and high
competition. Government jobs, though more structured, may limit the time parents can dedicate
to children. Comprehensive policies that promote flexible schedules, remote work options, and
parental support programs in both sectors are essential to alleviate this strain. Additionally,
introducing child-friendly workplaces, affordable childcare options, and mental health resources
for working parents could significantly improve outcomes for families.

Ultimately, addressing these issues can contribute to a more inclusive and supportive
societal framework, where gender equality in parenting becomes the norm, and families are
better equipped to thrive amidst changing economic and cultural landscapes.

Limitations

This study is subject to several limitations that should be considered when interpreting
the findings. First, the research is based on a limited sample size, focusing exclusively on parents
working in two specific sectors, the government and private sectors. This narrow scope may not
capture the diversity of experiences across other occupational categories or unorganized labor
markets. Second, the study concentrates solely on parents of children aged 4 to 10 years, thereby
excluding insights from families with younger or older children. This age-specific focus may
limit the generalizability of the findings to broader parenting practices. Additionally, while the
analysis includes the sex of the child as a variable, it does not consider other important family
dynamics, such as the number or birth order of children, which can significantly influence
parenting roles and responsibilities. Finally, the research does not include parents of children
with physical or mental disabilities. This omission excludes a critical segment of the population
whose parenting experiences and challenges might differ significantly due to the unique demands
of caregiving in such circumstances. These limitations point to the need for broader, more
inclusive studies in the future to better understand parenting practices across diverse contexts and
populations.
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 APPENDIX I : Thematic Pooled Data: Fathers' Private Sector Perspective

Theme Sub-theme Supporting Verbatims

Parenting Guidance and "Main koshish karta hoon ki main strict rahoon,
Approach Emotional Support lekin usse baat bhi karoon, taaki usko rules ke
peeche ka reason samajh aaye. Hum baat
karte hain aur main hamesha usko guide karta
hoon, bas rules impose nahi karta hoon."

"Main ensure karta hoon ki main uski baatein

sunoon. Agar kuch chhoti si baat bhi hoti hai,
toh main usse baat karta hoon aur usko ye feel
karwata hoon ki uski opinion matter karti hai."

"Main ye ensure karta hoon ki jo bhi ho, main

uske saath hoon. Hum bohot baat karte hain."

Firm but Fair "Kabhi-kabhi mujhe strict hona padta hai, jab
Approach to vo nahi sun rahi hoti hai, lekin main hamesha
Discipline koshish karta hoon ki fair rahoon. Mujhe lagta
hai ki usko pata hona chahiye ki kya sahi hai
aur kya galat, par vo samjha bhi jaaye."

Active Listening "Main hamesha sunne ki koshish karta hoon,

and Open chahe baat kitni bhi chhoti ho, taaki usko lagay
Communication ki uski baat ka mahatva hai."

Providing "Main apni beti ke liye hamesha available

Emotional hoon. Agar usse kabhi kuch zaroorat ho, toh
Availability main hamesha uske saath hoon, chahe kaam
ka pressure ho ya nahi."

Parenting Roles Division of "Meri wife ka role thoda zyada nurturing aur
and Gender Parenting care-giving oriented hota hai. Mera role thoda
Dynamics Responsibilities zyada goal-oriented hota hai, jaise school work
manage karna, discipline maintain karna, aur
future ke liye career goals set karne ki
guidance dena."
 "Main apne kaam ke baad ghar ke kuch tasks
handle karta hoon, jaise beti ki homework mein
madad karna aur kitchen mein support dena,
taaki meri wife ka workload kam ho aur hum
dono apne roles mein balance bana paayein."

Supporting Each "Mujhe lagta hai ki hum dono milke parenting

Other's Roles karte hain, aur ek doosre ke roles ko respect
karte hain. Mera role thoda zyada practical aur
goal-oriented hai, jabki meri wife ka role zyada
nurturing hai."

Gender "Mujhe lagta hai ki parenting ka role gender ke

Expectations in hisaab se thoda badal raha hai. Hum dono
Parenting milke parenting karte hain, lekin kabhi kabhi,
society ki taraf se expectations hoti hain ki wife
zyada involved ho."

Parenting Values Encouraging "Main usse hamesha kehta hoon ki doosron ka

and Principles Positive Values izzat karna bohot zaroori hai. Main usse
remind karta hoon ki hamesha dusre logo ki
feelings ko samjho."

"Hum apne padosiyon ya friends ki madad

karte hain jab unhe zarurat hoti hai. Main
chahata hoon ki vo samjhe ki doosron ki
madad karna zaroori hai."

Teaching "Main usse kehta hoon, ‘Chahe jo bhi ho, kaam

Responsibility and karte rehna. Mehnat karna zaroori hai.’ Main
Accountability chahata hoon ki vo samjhe ki cheezein aasani
se nahi milti, lekin mehnat kaafi maine rakhti
hai."

Honesty and "Main usse hamesha kehta hoon ki vo sach

Integrity bolne ki koshish kare, chahe kuch galat kiya
ho. Main usse batata hoon ki sach bolna hari
cheez se zaroori hai."

Respect for Family "Main yuvi ko sikhana chahuga ki woh sabke

and Community saath rahe, sabko value kare."

Promoting "Main usse sikhaata hoon ki doosron ke

Empathy and dukh-sukh samjhe, aur unki madad kare,
Compassion chahe woh uska friend ho ya koi ajnabi."
Work-Life Balancing "Hamesha asaan nahi hota, lekin main apna
Integration and Professional and time manage karne ki koshish karta hoon.
Balance Family Time Weekends pe main zaroor apni beti ke saath
quality time guzarta hoon. Main hafta bhar
kaam karta hoon, lekin weekend humare liye
family time hota hai."

"Mera kaam kuch projects pe bohot lamba time

le leta hai. Aise mein kabhi lagta hai ki kuch
activities miss ho jaati hain. Lekin main
hamesha is baat ko improve karne ki koshish
karta hoon."

Dealing with "Kabhi kabhi kaam bohot stressful ho jaata hai

Work-related Stress aur uska asar mere interactions pe bhi padta
hai. Lekin main koshish karta hoon ki ghar
aake sab kuch bhool jaoon."

Weekend Family "Main weekend ko family activities ke liye

Focus reserve karta hoon. Hum ya toh bahar jaate
hain, ya ghar par rehkar kuch activities karte
hain, taaki vo time beti ke saath pura ho sake."

Disciplinary Consistency and "Usko pata hota hai ki jo rules hain, vo follow
Approach Structure in karne padte hain aur main unhe clear rakhta
Discipline hoon. Agar vo rules todti hai, toh uske
consequences hote hain, par main usse
samjhaata hoon ki vo rules kyun hain."

"Discipline mein consistency maintain karna

bhi zaroori lagta hai, toh main thoda strict bhi
rehta hoon. Jaise agar wo apna homework
time se complete nahi karti, toh mein usko TV
dekhne ki permission nahi deta."

Rewarding Positive "Main positive reinforcement pe zyada focus

Behavior karta hoon, like jab bhi vo achha behavior
show karti hai ya kuch accha karti hai, toh
main usko praise karta hoon ya kabhi-kabhi
rewards deta hoon, jaise extra playtime ya uski
favorite treat."
 Teaching "Agar wo kuch galat karti hai, toh main usse
Consequences and samjhaata hoon ki iske consequences kya ho
Responsibility sakte hain. Ye uske liye seekhne ka ek hissa
hai."

Cultural Practices Incorporating "Main chahta hoon ki meri beti ko har ek

and Values Family Traditions festival, religion rituals ki jaankari ho. Meine
usko sikhaya h ki roz subah school ke liye
ready hone ke baad mandir me 2 min haath
jod kar prayer kare."

"Main usko Krishna, Bhagwan Ram aur Sita ki

story bhi sunata hoon. Meine usko Gayatri
Mantra bhi sikhaya h but abhi usse vo acche
se yaad nhi h."

Teaching Religious "Main usko bataata hoon ki Diwali aur Holi

Values kyun manayi jaati hai. Hum family ke saath
milke ye festivals celebrate karte hain."

Celebrating "Festivals, jaise Diwali aur Holi, hum pure

Cultural Festivals family ke saath milke celebrate karte hain aur
mein usko samjhata hoon batata hoon ki ham
Holi aur Diwali kyun celebrate karte hai, what
are the reasons for celebrating these
festivals?"

Work-Life and Adapting to Work "Jab mujhe kaam ke silsile mein travel karna
Household Schedule padta hai, mera travel schedule unpredictable
Responsibilities hota hai, aur is wajah se beti ke saath kuch
daily routines, jaise bedtime story ya school ke
liye morning drop-off, miss ho jate hain."

Strategic Time "Mujhe apna time bahut soch samajh kar

Management manage karna padta hai. Main apne kaam aur
family time ke beech balance banane ki
koshish karta hoon, taaki dono important
cheezein properly manage ho sakein."

Maximizing Family "Aur jab main free ho jata hoon, toh main extra
Time effort karta hoon, jaise weekend par uske
saath zyada time spend karna ya uski favorite
activities, jaise park mein outing ya movie
night, plan karna."
 APPENDIX II : Thematic Pooled Data: Mothers' Private Sector Perspective

Theme Sub-Theme Verbatims

Parental Roles and Variation in - “No. It will be always different. Because you
Responsibilities Parental Roles know, we two are from different
backgrounds.”
- “But then, because she is a daughter,
probably her father is much more lenient
than I am.”
- “It's because of the upbringing we had and
the environment around us.”

Maternal and - “You know, mothers, the template will run to

Paternal Role a mother when she has a problem. Suppose
Distribution she has a problem with someone in school,
then maybe she will come to me rather than
going to her father.”
- “We both have our specific roles. I handle
the academic side while my husband
manages her extracurricular activities.”

Shifting Parental - “Definitely when a child will approach two

Roles different parents in a different way, so his
way of dealing with her and my way of
dealing with her will be different.”
- “It's not the same for every family, but we
try to balance it as much as we can.”

Parental - “We discussed... For her birthdays also,

Decision-Making how to celebrate it... discussion is very
important.”
- “We are thinking of putting her in creche or
daycare... we are discussing things.”
- “When we make decisions, we try to make
it jointly.”

Cultural and Traditional Gender - “If I have to wash her clothes, if I have to
Gendered Roles feed her, generally it is not the father who
Expectations in does. These are the things a mother does.”
Parenting
 - “The father provides, but I take care of
everything at home... he doesn’t usually do
housework.”

Gendered - “Traditional things will always be there, it

Expectations for will never go away. Because this is how it is.
Childcare Traditional things will never go away.
Because this is how it is mostly in Indian
societies.”
- “In our culture, it is the mother who takes
care of the children.”

Cultural Values and - “She should learn her mother tongue...

Practices initially, first language should be your mother
language.”
- “She should know her traditional ways,
what we are actually.”
- “The values we want to pass on are
important, like respect for elders, being
disciplined.”

Role of the - “We take advice from our senior citizens...

Extended Family My mother stays with me. She has a very big
impact on her... we discuss everything as a
family.”
- “I try to involve my parents as much as
possible... they give her that extra care which
I can't sometimes.”

Challenges of Guilt and Sacrifice - “Both of us have a guilt conscious that we

Balancing Work and of Working Mothers are not there with her. Most of the time we
Parenting are absent.”
- “It’s very tough at times, I am telling you.”
- “I skip many parties... because I cannot be
there.”

Impact of Work on - “Saturdays would be open... but then

Family Time leaves you know. You have to take when it’s
required... Saturdays I used to spend a lot of
time with her... it’s very difficult when I have
work.”
- “Even weekends are affected... it’s a
constant balancing act.”
 Work Flexibility and - “She grew up in COVID... the whole family
Impact on Family was at home... she doesn't have that concept
that father and mother go to offices... she
wants us both at home.”
- “Sometimes I can go back home and work
late... flexibility is there but it depends on
how you are performing.”

Emotional Strain of - “I don’t have any personal space left... you

Work-Life Balance will have to compromise on yourself... skip
many family functions.”
- “It’s draining. Sometimes I feel like I am
losing out on family time because of work.”

Parenting Balancing - “You have to take away the mobile phone

Approaches and Discipline and from her hand. Okay, you see for ten
Discipline Freedom minutes, fine. Ten minutes is okay, but not
more than that.”
- “You can’t have a very strict disciplinary
thing. They will have their own way.”

Role of Positive - “I am trying to make some, you know, some

Reinforcement disciplinary things like she should throw the
things... the waste she has in her hands, she
should go in the dustbin and throw it.”
- “Positive reinforcement works better for
her... praising her helps her stay on track.”

Use of - “Sometimes you have to raise your voice...

Punishments and you don't put it in your dustbin, I'll take a toy
Consequences of yours and throw it in the dustbin.”
- “Punishment works in some cases...
especially when she doesn’t listen.”

Parental - “I have to talk to her like what have you

Involvement in learnt and what happened today? Who are
Daily Routines your friends? So she will say me everything.”
- “She will not allow me to talk with anyone
else on Sundays.”
Emotional and Maternal Guilt and - “The mother is somebody the child is very
Psychological Attachment close to. Whether she is present or not, she
Impact of Parenting feels secure with her.”
- “She will like to sit on my lap... these are
the things a mother does.”
- “I feel guilty, but I also need to work for our
future.”

Emotional Labor in - “We are very lenient parents... we are not

Parenting there with her most of the time.”
- “She doesn't understand, she just says
‘mama is not there, papa is not there,’”
- “When I’m tired, I still have to keep her
happy, it’s emotional labor.”

Parenting - “She should put her toys in her place. And

Sacrifices and then have your food yourself.”
Compromise - “I mean we will help her but then we will not
do it in her copy.”
- “I have to compromise on things for her
benefit.”

Parent-Child Building Effective - “You have to make her understand... why

Communication and Communication father is away... make things look simpler.”
Engagement - “It’s very important to explain things to her
in a way she understands.”
- “We use stories and examples from real life
to teach her.”

Meaningful - “I cannot go from my office to pick her up,

Parental so I said, like you have a teacher... I will ask
Engagement him if he allows me, I will come... otherwise
you will have to go with your grandmother.”
- “She always wants to share everything with
me when I come home... I try to be present.”

Parental - “We want her to know her language, her

Involvement in food, her dress, and celebrate traditional
Learning functions.”
- “We do all the functions together, she will
learn more things, she will see the world.”
- “We encourage her to ask questions and
learn from everyday life.”
 Explaining to the - “She should know that sometimes mummy
Child and papa also have to work... we do not
want to be absent but we need to do this
because we want to provide for you.”
- “Explaining things to her has helped her
understand that we’re not abandoning her,
it’s just the nature of work.”

Adaptability in Flexibility in - “It is not that we have made an SOP or

Parenting Styles Role-Shifting something like that. That you do this, I do
this. It can't be possible when we are both
very close to your child.”
- “Sometimes we need to adjust to the
moment, depending on how she’s feeling.”

Adjusting to - “In the morning hours, I was very tied up,

Changing his shift started from 12, so morning hours
Circumstances he used to take care of her. In the evening I
was a little relaxed...”
- “We have to adapt to what the day
demands.”

Cooperative - “So I have this view, he has the other view,

Parenting and then sometimes… it’s okay, I mean, we
just do like that, you know, we cannot be just
fighting around.”
- “We find ways to cooperate, even when we
have disagreements.”

Parents Adapting - “We didn’t care a thing. But now we both

to Child’s Needs can't do that. So even for the father also.
Both of us have to compromise on our time.”
- “We’ve learned to compromise and adjust
according to what she needs.”

Cultural Teaching Heritage - “She should know her traditional ways,

Socialization and and Traditions what we are actually.”
Value Transmission - “She will learn more things, she will see the
world.”
- “We make sure she understands where we
come from and the values that we uphold.”
Preserving Family - “The child should always know the
Values significance of being from a family of roots
and traditions. I will always make her aware
of those.”
- “I make sure to teach her about respect,
honesty, and kindness, values that are
important to us.”

Instilling Cultural - “She will understand the significance of

Identity being part of this family... that this is what we
do.”
- “It's important that she connects with her
roots. I want her to understand the cultural
significance of the things we do as a family.”
 APPENDIX III : Thematic Pooled Data: Mothers' Government Sector Perspective

Theme Sub-theme Verbatim

1. Work-Family 1.1 Routine "Subah morning se, pehle toh bacche school
Balance and Management and jaate hai, unhe lunch waghera deke bhej dete
Parental Roles Daily Coordination hai, fir mai apna fresh huyi, ghar ka khana
banaya saara aur fir khana bana ke path puja
bhi kr li thoda."

1.2 Time "Maine chhora huya tha kuch time se, dobara
Management and se join kiya apna kyoki…family ke wajah se
Work-Life maine chhora huya tha."
Integration

1.3 Shared Parental "Mujhe tension nahi rahti khana ki agar

Responsibilities kabhi mujhe apne ghar jaana ho ya kahin bhi
jana h... mujhe pata hai mere ghar pe mere
bacche husband sab mil ke kar lenge koi
dikkat nahi hai."

1.4 Emotional "Husband ki bhi jimmedari hoti hai…vo

Support and Family pura dekh lete hai ki bacche kis time aa rahe
Logistics hai, chhodna hai, le jaana hai."

2. Child 2.1 Academic "Sabse pehle toh mai study ko lekar karti
Development and Prioritization hun, ki agar aap educated hai toh life mein
Parental kabhi bhi haar nahi sakte."
Involvement

2.2 Moral and Social "Maine apne bete ko ek chiz sikhayi

Value Education hai…attitude aur ghamand kabhi bhi nahi
hona chahiye."

2.3 Emphasis on "Aaj ke time mein school se itna work aata

Digital Learning hai agar aapko samajh nahi hogi toh aap
usko kaise aage karoge…sab kuch phone
mein aata hai."
 2.4 Encouragement of "Meri beti ke andar dancing ka bahut talent
Personal Talents hai toh mai usko kahti hun dancing apni
achhi kar le agar teri dancing achhi hogi toh
mai tereko audition ke liye bhi le jayungi."

3. Emotional 3.1 Emotional "Agar kabhi mera beta sad rahta hai toh mai
Support and Security through usse bade pyaar se samjhati hun, puchhti
Parent-Child Parenting hun, uske apne diye huye naam se bulati hun
Relationships jo maine uska pyaara sa rakha huya hai."

3.2 Building Trust "Mumma se jyda bestfriend koi bhi nahi

and Communication hota, jo father se baat karta hai vo father
se..."

3.3 Gendered "Beti apne father se kitni bhi attached ho

Emotional Support lekin jahan pe usko ek female wali problem
aayegi na vo mere paas hi aayegi."

4. Parental 4.1 Conflict "Ek insaan ki pehle puri baat sun lete hai kya
Involvement and Resolution Between sahi hai, uske kuch time baad jiski baatein
Conflict Parents sahi lagti hai toh ussi baat ko lekar ham aage
Management chalte hai…ek hi saath bahas nahi karte ki
mai sahi, mai sahi…"

4.2 Emotional "Agar kabhi mera beta sad rahta hai toh mai
Support for Children usse bade pyaar se samjhati hun, puchhti
hun, uske apne diye huye naam se bulati hun
jo maine uska pyaara sa rakha huya hai."

4.3 Trust-Building "Mumma se jyda bestfriend koi bhi nahi

through Friendship hota, jo father se baat karta hai vo father
se..."

5. Gender Roles and 5.1 Gendered "Wife ki jo hoti hai ek mother ki hoti hai, vo
Shared Parenting Parenting apni ek responsibility hoti hai, toh usko
Responsibilities bacche ki puri jimmedari nibhani hai uske
khana banane se leke."

5.2 Shifting Gender "Husband ki bhi jimmedari hoti hai…vo

Roles in Parenting pura dekh lete hai ki bacche kis time aa rahe
hai, chhodna hai, le jaana hai."
 5.3 Encouraging "Beta mera bahut samjhdaar hai, vo aayega
Responsibility in apna bag apni jagah pe rakhega, lunch
Children nikalega sink mein rakh dega."

6. Work-Life 6.1 Societal "Job karne ke baad se logo mein like achha
Balance and Perception of aap wahan pe job karte hai, LIC mein karte
Personal Fulfillment Working Women hai, bahut badiya, matlab sab na appreciate
hi karte hai."

6.2 Personal Growth "Ye work aisa hai ki aap kitna bhi sikh lo,
Through Work kitna bhi sikhna chaho toh sikhne ke liye har
mod pe aapko kuch n kuch milega."

6.3 Changing Societal "Ab vo time nahi hai ki pehle kahte the
Norms and Family achha vo job karti hai, ghar kaise
Roles sambhalegi. Ab logo ki soch bhi badal gayi
hai."

6.4 Balancing Family "Maine chhora huya tha kuch time se, dobara
and Career se join kiya apna kyoki…family ke wajah se
maine chhora huya tha."
 APPENDIX IV : Thematic Pooled Data: Fathers' Governement Sector Perspective

Theme Sub-theme Verbatim

Division of Role of the Father “Father ki responsibilities yahi hai ki time to time
Parenting unki zaroorato ko poora karna. Fees hai school ki
Responsibilities fees hai, transport ki fees hai aur sab ko fees hai
woh sab time se dena. Phir study materials
vagerah arrange karna. Yeh sab meri zimmedari
hoti hai.”

“Bacche ko samjhaana karna.. Usse time se

uthana sulana. Uski zaroorato ko dekhna..
studies vagerah se related.”

“Samjhaate hai woh bachho ko.. matlab haan

aise face toh karni hi padhti hai.. Woh toh har kisi
ka apna hai toh phit karni padhti hai. Bachho ko
samjhaana padhta hai ki bacche hume apna
profit dekhna hai. Galat cheezo mein nahi jaana.”

Role of the “Hmm ghar toh zyaadatar wife hi sambhaalti hai.

Mother Wife hi dekhti hai.”

“Haan matlab wife padha deti hai ya zyaada toh

tuition se kar aate hai.”

Listening to “Kuch wife ki hai ki inko time to time kya dena hai
Children’s kaise karna hai aur kaise samjhaana hai toh woh
Problems sab wife hi karti hai.”

Balancing Work “Kyoki time zyaada subah toh jaana nahi hai.
with Home Eleven thirty ke baad gayi ya twelve thirty ke
baad chali gayi toh aisa woh nahi hai ki burden
hai.. matlab jaldi subah jaana hai ya baccho ko
khaana nahi dena hai ya kuch aisa nahi hai.”

“Aur phir shaam ko bhi jaldi aa jaati hai toh itna

woh laga nahi.”
 Shared “Matlab dono manage kar lete hai ki mera zyaada
Responsibilities hai toh woh.. Unka zyaada hai toh main dekh leta
hu. Mere paas zyaada responsibilities hai toh
woh dekh leti hai. Dono alag karne ki koshish
karte hai.”

No Divided “Uske paas zyaada kaam hai toh main dekh lete
Boundaries hu.. Varna kuchh kaam sirf ussi ke hai jaise ghar
ke kaam ho gaye toh woh vahi karti hai. Ghar ka
kaam hai ya kuchh hai toh woh karti hai aur
market ka kaam hai ya kuchh bhi hai toh maine hi
karna hai.”

Work-Life Balance Personal Time “Main matlab seven thirty tak free ho jaata hu..
ghar aa ja jaata hu. Beech mein kahi mandir
chala gaya aur kuch hai.”

Spending Time “Time toh nikaal hi lete hai jaise ghar aa jaate hai
with the Family time se. Job itni nahi aati beech mein.. sab ho
jaata hai.”

Role in Education Schooling “Padhai theek hi chal rahi hai.. Sahi chal rahi hai.
of Children Kaho toh badiya.”

Issues in School “Unko bataate hai ki nahi padhoge toh iss tarah
se face karna padega aapko yeh face karna
padega.. dikkat hogi fail hoge aur problem khadi
ho jaayegi.. school se bhi phir call aa jaati hai,
meeting mein bhi bolti hai.”

Extracurricular “Koi stage program mein halka fulka le lete hai.

Activities Beta le leta hai uhh.. sports mein le leta hai thoda
bohot.”
“Beti thoda kabhi khel liya toh woh khel leti hai..
uhh woh.. Basket uhh basketball. Woh kam karti
hai beta zyaada kar leta hai.”

Tuitions “Uhh jaise mera beta toh all subjects jaata hai..
chhoti class mein hai toh.. aur beti.. woh science,
sst, aur.. maths ki jaati hai.. haan inki hi jaati hai.”

Help by Tuition “Tuition ma’am bhi help kar deti hai samjhaane
Teacher mein.”
 Roles of Parents “Haan matlab wife padha deti hai ya zyaada toh
in Education tuition se kar aate hai. bete ka hi hota hai zyaada
toh woh toh kar hi leta hai, beti ki toh badhi class
hai toh woh khud hi dekh leti hai..”

“Uhh.. padhai mein toh.. itni help nahi kar paata.”

Expectations from “Expectations toh nahi hai aisi koi.. bas jo kare
Children sahi se kare. Abhi toh filhaal school hi sambhal le
bas matlab jaise kare khush rahe.. Parents ko
isse zyaada kya hi chahiye.”

Enforcing “Khud hi pressure dete hai unko ki bacche yeh

Discipline karo usko aapne ne complete karna hai.. pending
work hai usko complete karo.. iss tarah se baar
baar inko kehte rehte hai ki bacche karo karo.”

“Haan toh phir uhh school se jab.. phone aata hai

toh phone kehte hai kam use kare Samajh toh
jaate hai varna phir uhh kabhi kabhi phone phir
nahi use karne dete.”

Role of Parents in “Main bhi bolta hu wife bhi bolti hai. Dono bolte
Discipline hai baccho ko ki bacche padho. Iss time yeh
kaam hai, iss time yeh kaam hai.. iss time tuition
jaana hai.. iss time khali ho toh padh lo iss time.”

Gender Roles and Gender Roles in “Market ka kaam hai ya kuchh bhi hai toh maine
Expectations Parenting hi karna hai.”

“Varna kuchh kaam sirf ussi ke hai jaise ghar ke

kaam ho gaye toh woh vahi karti hai.”

Expectations from “Pressure toh matlab.. jaise haan hota hi hai lekin
Parents responsibility hai parent ki toh haan karna hi hai.”

“Same hi hai.. matlab dono manage kar lete hai ki

mera zyaada hai toh woh.. Unka zyaada hai toh
main dekh leta hu. Mere paas zyaada
responsibilities hai toh woh dekh leti hai. Dono
alag karne ki koshish karte hai.”

Cultural Parenting in Delhi “Delhi mein facilities zyaada hai.. zyaada easy
Influences on hai.”
Parenting
 “Haan thoda.. jaise vahi facilities zyaada hai
transport vaherah ki ya study material ho gaya
kuchh bhi lena hai toh easy ho jaata hai. Kam
rate pe mil jaata hai jo bhi hai jaise bhi hai. Bahar
ke according thoda zyaada mere khyaal se
suitable hai.”

Competition “School mein toh pressure poora rehta hai par

woh toh hai. Hum chahte hai bacche involve ho
kyoki competition toh har line mein hai hi hai..
competition toh baccho ke liye hai hi hai school
mein bohot zyada. School ka bhi hai school ke
aage class aur teacher ke bhi aur baccho ke liye
toh hai hi hai.”

Need to Send “Delhi mein toh har baccha hi tuition jaata hai aur
Children to phir help bhi toh karti hai.”
Tuitions

Traditional vs Appropriate “Bachho ko samjhaana padhta hai ki bacche

Modern Values Guidance hume apna profit dekhna hai. Galat cheezo mein
nahi jaana.”

Role of “Haan.. matlab two thirty ke aas paas aata hai

Grandparents woh toh uske dadu pick kar lete hai usko. Khaana
vagerah phir woh khila dete hai.. kuchh wife bana
jaati hai aur kuchh phir uske baad meri mamma
khaana serve kar deti hai aur phir kha lete hai
bacche.”

Visits to Temple “Beech mein kahi mandir chala gaya aur kuch hai
and Gurdwara toh tab thoda sa time lag jaata hai. Woh toh beta
bhi kabhi kabhi aa jaata hai.”
“Mera beta jo hai woh punjabi seekha karta tha
gurdware mein ghar ke paas wale. Aur phir
gurupurab sab pe bhi jaata hai.. Seva karta hai.”

Changes in Changes with “Jaise uhh.. mehngai bohot zyaada hai padhai
Parenting Over Time bohot zyaada mehngi hai transport hai.. Aur bhi
Generations bohot kharche hai toh afford karna bohot mushkil
hai.”

Similar Approach “Haan matlab hume bhi iss tarah samjhaate thay..
to Father’s hum bhi samjhaate hai.”
Parents
 APPENDIX V : Indvidual Thematic Data

Themes Sub-themes Codes Verbatim

Parenting Core Values in Health as Priority

"Good health
Approaches Parenting
practices are a must
because they last a
lifetime."

"Developing habits
for a balanced diet,
regular exercise, and
sufficient rest."

"Health supports both

physical and mental
well-being."

Importance of "Carry themselves

Character with honesty."

"Keeping promises
and fulfilling
commitments."

Role of Spirituality "Spiritual values are

important for
 reflection and
improvement."

“I believe in
grounding oneself in
spiritual values.
Whatever faith or
beliefs you hold, they
should feel
meaningful to you
personally”

“as Hindus, we
follow Hindu
traditions, but
spirituality, in my
view, extends beyond
religious labels.”

“These can all offer

guidance for living a
life with integrity and
purpose”

"I believe in
grounding oneself in
meaningful traditions
and ethics."
Parental Roles in Compassion &
“My role is to provide
Development Security
compassion and
affection so that the
child feels secure and
supported”

“They should feel

that they can come to
you with anything,
whether it’s
something good or
bad”

“The goal is to build

that safe space where
they can share
freely.”

Instilling Discipline
“Discipline is
absolutely important
and serves as the
foundation for
everything they do in
life.”

“From school to
college and beyond,
discipline is the
backbone of
 achieving best.”

“If that foundation

isn’t there, then no
matter what else they
pursue, it will be hard
for them to excel”

"You should give

more than 100%, if
possible. Whatever
you choose to do,
whether it’s
something
conventional or not,
the key is to put your
heart and soul into
it."

"I believe it’s

important to have a
mix, but I let my wife
manage this side of
things more."

"I tell him, 'It's not

necessary to always
get a burger from a
fancy place.
Sometimes, it's fine to
get a simple,
 inexpensive burger.'"

Guiding Social
“providing the right
Interactions
guidance is key”

“teaching them how

to interact with
friends, neighbours,
classmates, teachers,
and even their
parents’ friends and
their children.”

“Social interaction
skills are part of
building a strong
character”

"Home and
surroundings
influence these
skills."

Discipline Routine
“it’s about
establishing a
routine, whether it’s
winter, summer, or the
 rainy season”

"Activities like study

time and playtime
must be balanced."

“structured approach
helps him understand
that each part of the
day has its purpose
and that keeping this
balance”

Supporting
“my partner tends to
be a bit more
assertive when it
comes to setting rules
and discipline”

“She’s very consistent

in keeping up with
routines”

“So, you could say I

lean towards the
lenient side.”

"Different situations
need varied
responses."
 “The key is to
communicate openly
and come to a shared
decision that we both
feel confident in,
knowing it’s the right
choice for our
family”

Work-Life Balance Challenges of Work Night Shifts and

"Night shifts impact
& Parenting Schedules Parenting
time with the child."

"Lack of energy limits

engagement after
work."

“If there are school

holidays or any
special breaks, I try
to align my time off
with those periods so
I can be there for my
child and spend
quality time with
him”

“I usually take my
weekly off days on
Saturday and
Sunday”
Managing Multiple
"Switching between
Shifts
morning, afternoon,
and night shifts
affects routine."

"You have to find a

way to manage your
professional
responsibilities while
also staying engaged
in your child’s
growth."

"Time management
becomes crucial for
both work and
parenting."

Emotional Impact of
“I believe your
Work on Parenting
commitment to
parenting is what
makes the difference”

"Irregular hours
create stress on
maintaining family
dynamics."

"Parental fatigue can

lead to less quality
 interaction."

"It’s true, there are

moments when it feels
like there's a lot of
pressure."

Prioritizing Family Quality Time

"Ensure dedicated
in a Busy Schedule
time for the child's
schooling and
extracurricular
activities."

"I try to organize my

schedule as efficiently
as possible."

Sacrifices for Child

"Parenting involves
Development
compromises,
especially with time."

"Balancing work with

child's needs is
prioritized."

Support Systems
"We always have to
come to a mutual
 agreement. It's not
about whose opinion
is more important,
but about what’s best
for the child."

Parenting as a Different Parenting

"Mother’s
Shared Styles
assertiveness
Responsibility
complements the
father’s leniency."

"Different approaches
create a balanced
parenting
framework."

Adjusting to Shifts
"Both parents adapt
Together
to irregular work
hours."

"Communication
ensures parenting
goals."

"Teamwork reduces
parenting stress."

Balancing
"It really depends on
Responsibilities
the situation at home
 and the child’s
needs."

"We both try to

contribute equally in
ways that suit the
circumstances."

Balancing Firmness "If you’re setting the

Understanding
and Flexibility right example, your
child will
automatically follow."

"You need to be
involved in their life
to understand them."

Shared Parental Roles

"We both try to
contribute equally in
ways that suit the
circumstances."

"It’s not about whose

opinion is more
important, but about
what’s best for the
child."

Spending Time
"The most important
 thing is simply to
spend time with your
child."

"By doing that, you

can guide them to
understand right from
wrong, which is also
influenced by your
own values."

Role of Cultural and Emphasizing on

Practices and "Spirituality is a big
Spiritual Values in culture
Traditions part of it."
Parenting
"Values from epics
like the Ramayana
provide ethical
lessons."

"These teachings
have deep roots in
our upbringing."

Incorporating Local
"Whether it’s reading
Beliefs
scriptures like the
Ramayana,
Mahabharata, or
learning from figures
 like Guru Nanak,
Gautam Buddha, or
Vivekananda."

"We try to keep these

values alive in our
family, as we believe
they are crucial for
building a strong,
respectful character."

Adapting Culture to
"With smartphones,
Modern Life
laptops, and social
media, children are
exposed to so many
distractions like
YouTube and
Instagram."

"In today’s world,

things are a bit
different, though."

Role of Role Models

"Figures like Swami
Vivekananda inspire
balanced living."

"Your children are

observing you all the
time, and they’re
 going to follow your
lead."

Spiritual Teachings
Cultural Influence "We emphasize
stories from the
Ramayana and
Mahabharata."

"Cultural figures like

Vivekananda inspire
the way we parent."

"Spirituality teaches
respect and character
building."

"Passing on respect
for elders and
teachers is essential."

Aspiring for
Balancing Societal "She respects the idea
Prestigious Careers
Expectations of children becoming
officers in the
government sector,
like an IPS or an IAS
officer."

"I choose to prioritize

my child’s passion
instead."
Decision-Making in Maternal
Differences in "My partner, she has
Collaborative Assertiveness
Parenting Styles a certain vision."
Parenting

"She respects the idea

of children becoming
officers in the
government sector,
like an IPS or an IAS
officer."

"Mothers focus on
ensuring routines are
followed

Paternal Leniency
"My leniency
balances out the
stricter part."

" I believe that

whatever my child is
interested in, they
should pursue it and
do their best in it."

Adapting to Child's "You have to be there

Needs to understand their
emotional state."
 "Flexibility towards
the child."

"It’s crucial to ask

them how they’re
feeling, what they’re
going through."

Open
Conflict Resolution "Decisions are based
Communication
Between Parents on what benefits the
child."

"Focus is on
teamwork rather than
individual thoughts."

Prioritizing Children's
"When you spend
Welfare
time with your child,
you learn everything
about what’s going on
in their life."

"You have to be there

to understand their
emotional state."

Consensus
"We always have to
come to a mutual
 agreement."

it’s about making

decisions based on
what is important for
the child’s growth and
happiness."

Complementary
Balancing "We both try to
Responsibilities
Individual Roles in contribute equally in
Parenting ways that suit the
circumstances."

"I let her manage

certain things more
which are her
expertise."

Financial Awareness
Budget Management "I discourage buying
too many branded
items."

"Material desires
sometimes are fine
rest we need to be
practical”

"I teach my child to

distinguish between
wants and needs."
 "It’s okay to go for
simple, affordable
options instead of
luxury."

Avoiding
"Back in my day, we
Materialism
were all about
books."

"We didn’t have

mobile phones or
social media, so I
spent a lot of time
reading books."

"Life was much

quieter and focused
compared to now."

Modern Complexities
"The exposure to
technology and
screens has changed
everything."

"With smartphones,
laptops, and social
media, children are
exposed to so many
distractions like
YouTube and
 Instagram.

Observing
"When I was a child,
Generational Shifts
things were much
simpler."

"It’s completely
different now."

"It’s interesting to see

how different families
adapt to these
changes."

Challenges in
"Parents today feel
Maintaining Balance
pressured to keep up
with others."

"Managing mental
health is also
challenging."

"At times, mental

health issues also
arise. Personally, I’ve
faced it."
 APPENDIX VI : Interview Schedule

1. How would you describe your approach to child-rearing? What values or principles guide
your parenting style?
2. What role do you believe you play in your child's development? Can you provide
specific examples?
3. How do you approach disciplining your child?
(Probes: Can you provide examples of methods you each use? How do you decide on
boundaries?)
4. How do you think your partner's approach to child-rearing is similar/ differs from yours?
5. When you and your partner have differing views on parenting, how do you reach a
resolution?
6. How do you think your work environment/ nature affects your parenting style and
decisions?
7. How do you perceive the impact of your professional demands on y/our child’s
development?
8. How do you balance work and parenting responsibilities? (Probes: Are there specific
arrangements or compromises you've made? How does your sector influence this?)
9. In what ways do you think traditional gender expectations shape your parenting roles?
10. Can you describe any negotiations or discussions you and your partner have had
regarding parenting responsibilities?
11. In what ways do you believe your professional sector influences the distribution of
parenting tasks between you and your partner?
12. Can you discuss the role of your cultural background in shaping your parenting practices?
(Probes: What values or traditions do you prioritize? How do you pass these on to your
child?)
APPENDIX VII : Informed Consent