Science, Technology Assessment,

APRIL 2020
and Analytics
WHY THIS MATTERS
CRISPR allows scientists to change DNA more quickly
and efficiently than previous methods. Thousands
SCIENCE & TECH SPOTLIGHT: of laboratories use it to research the potential

CRISPR GENE EDITING

development of new crops, medicines, and other
advances that could have a significant impact. As a
result, it has received widespread attention. However,
there are safety, ethical, and regulatory concerns.

/// THE TECHNOLOGY Researchers are already building on CRISPR to create new gene editing
systems. For example, a system known as prime editing builds on the
What is it? CRISPR is one type of gene editing technology that allows knowledge of CRISPR/CAS9 to directly exchange one piece of the DNA
scientists to modify DNA, the hereditary information in humans and almost with another, which is known as base editing.
all other organisms. Modifying DNA can lead to changes in an organism’s
characteristics, such as eye color or susceptibility to disease. How mature is it? Since its development in 2012, CRISPR has generated
significant excitement because it is faster, cheaper, more accurate,
How does it work? CRISPR leverages a natural defense mechanism of and more efficient than prior methods. As a result, interest has grown
bacteria to cut DNA at a specific location. Specifically, when bacteria are rapidly, and CRISPR is now used extensively in thousands of laboratories
attacked by a virus, they record a section of the virus’s DNA in their own worldwide.
DNA, bookending it with a repeating sequence called Clustered Regularly
Interspaced Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR). Storing part of the virus’s Further, CRISPR-based treatments for certain diseases, including sickle
genetic code allows the bacteria to “remember” it. When the same type of cell anemia and some types of cancer, are currently in clinical trials.
virus attacks again, the bacteria use a specific CRISPR-associated protein However, CRISPR has not yet been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
number 9 (CAS9) to cut the virus’s DNA, destroying the virus. Administration (FDA) for medical uses, nor has FDA issued regulations on
food safety for crops edited with CRISPR.
In the laboratory, scientists use this same CRISPR/CAS9 system to
identify and cut a specific DNA sequence. They do this by creating an /// OPPORTUNITIES
RNA sequence that matches the DNA they want to edit. (RNA may also
carry genetic information.) Then, using this RNA sequence to guide the CRISPR has the potential to help create more advanced products in many
CAS9 protein to that location, scientists can effectively reprogram CAS9 sectors that have a major impact on society. Examples include:
to cut DNA at any desired location. Once CRISPR/CAS9 cuts the specific
DNA that has been targeted, scientists use other techniques to add, ■ Development of new diagnostic tests, targeted medicines, and
delete, or modify the DNA. treatments. By pairing CRISPR with other CAS proteins that cut
the target DNA or RNA and then cut other molecules to produce
a visual signal, scientists can identify when viral components are
present. Scientists are using this technology to develop diagnostic
tests that may rapidly identify diseases such as COVID-19. CRISPR/
CAS9 is being tested for possible treatment for certain diseases,
including sickle cell anemia and some types of cancer. CRISPR may
also be used to help control certain diseases by altering the traits of
insects or other organisms that can transmit disease. For example,
scientists used CRISPR to make mosquitoes more resistant to the
parasite that causes malaria.
■ Stronger, more disease-resistant crops. CRISPR may improve
agricultural products by increasing nutrient content, disease
resistance, and survivability in adverse weather and soil conditions.
For example, when researchers deleted a small portion of a specific
cucumber gene, the plants were less susceptible to viruses known to
damage the plants and cause significant crop losses.
■ More advanced industrial products. Various industries are
exploring the potential use of CRISPR to develop new biofuels,
bacteria that could clean up environmental disasters, and new
materials.
Figure 1. CRISPR/CAS9 systems allow scientists to make targeted changes to an
organism’s DNA.

GAO-20-478SP CRISPR Gene Editing

 Science, Technology Assessment,
and Analytics

■ Regulatory challenges. Many countries are struggling with

questions of how to regulate CRISPR and other gene editing
technologies. For example, in the United States, it is currently
unclear whether gene edited crops will be subject to the same
regulations as conventional genetically modified (GM) organisms. In
2017, FDA began seeking public input on its regulatory policy, but,
as of March 2020, it has not published new guidance for industry
on its current regulatory policy. In Europe, a 2018 court ruling
determined that gene edited crops would be subject to the same
regulations as GM plants.

/// POLICY CONTEXT AND QUESTIONS

■ How should regulations address the use of CRISPR and related

gene editing technologies? How should regulations be tailored to
applications that affect animals, plants, and humans?

■ What federal agencies should be responsible for determining the

Figure 2. Examples of CRISPR’s range of possible opportunities and challenges.
safety of commercial products developed with CRISPR and related
/// CHALLENGES gene editing technologies?

CRISPR gene editing has also raised concerns in areas such as safety, ■ What are the legal, societal, and environmental implications of using
ethics, and regulation. Examples include: CRISPR and related gene editing technologies? How should the
federal government address those implications?
■ Safety concerns. There could be unintended consequences of
using CRISPR. For example, it could target an unintended location /// SELECTED GAO WORK
within the DNA, producing changes that could cause disease or
other harm. While some research indicates errors may be rare, ■ Science and Technology: Considerations for Maintaining U.S.
researchers do not fully understand the consequences of such Competitiveness in Quantum Computing, Synthetic Biology, and
errors. Additionally, CRISPR activity may stress cells and prevent Other Potentially Transformational Research Areas, GAO-18-656
editing. Further, while some cells can recover after their DNA has ■ Genetically Engineered Crops: USDA Needs to Enhance Oversight
been altered, others cannot. and Better Understand Impacts of Unintended Mixing with Other
Crops, GAO-16-241
■ Ethical concerns. Ethical concerns include whether CRISPR
would be used for enhanced human characteristics, such as /// SELECTED REFERENCES
increased muscle mass, learning aptitude, and memory, and if
there would be equitable access to all populations. The potential U.S. National Library of Medicine, NIH. What are genome editing and CRISPR-CAS9?
to use CRISPR to edit the human germline (eggs, sperm, and very
National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH. What are the Ethical Concerns of
early embryos) also raises ethical questions. For example, to what
Genome Editing?
extent might genetic changes affect future generations, and should
research on human embryos be allowed? In March 2018, a group M. Araki and T. Ishii, “International regulatory landscape and integration of corrective
of 18 scientists from seven countries, including the U.S., Canada, genome editing into in vitro fertilization,” Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, vol. 12,
France, and China, called for a voluntary moratorium on all studies no. 108 (2014).
involving gene editing of the human germline.

GAO SUPPORT:
GAO meets congressional information needs in several ways, including by
providing oversight, insight, and foresight on science and technology issues.
GAO staff are available to brief on completed bodies of work or specific reports This document is not an audit product and is subject to revision based on continued
and answer follow-up questions. GAO also provides targeted assistance on advances in science and technology. It contains information prepared by GAO
specific science and technology topics to support congressional oversight activities to provide technical insight to legislative bodies or other external organizations.
and provide advice on legislative proposals. This document has been reviewed by the Chief Scientist of the U.S. Government
Accountability Office.
Timothy M. Persons, PhD, Chief Scientist, [email protected]

Staff Acknowledgments: Karen Howard (Director), Sushil Sharma (Assistant

Director), Sarah Harvey (Analyst-in-Charge), Anika McMillon, and Louise Fickel.

GAO-20-478SP CRISPR Gene Editing