East Asia

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify the key environmental differences and
problems among the countries in East Asia.
2. Outline the distribution of major urban areas on the
map of East Asia and explain why the region’s largest cities are continuing to grow.
3. Describe how religion and other systems of belief both unify and divide East Asia.
4. Outline the geopolitical division of East Asia during the Cold War period, and
explain how the division of that period still influences East Asian geopolitics.
5. Identify the main reasons behind East Asia’s rapid economic growth in recent
decades, and discuss possible limitations to continued expansion at such a rate.

INTRODUCTION

East Asia, which consists of China, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, and North
Korea, is a core area of the world economy, due to both its advanced economies and
its huge population. China alone, with more than 1.3 billion inhabitants, has more
people than any other world region except South Asia. Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan
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are among the world’s key trading states. Although historically unified by cultural
features, in the second half of the 20th century East Asia was politically divided, with
the capitalist economies of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong separated
from the communist bloc of China and North Korea. As Japan became a leader in the
global economy, much of China remained poor. By the early 21st century, however,
divisions within East Asia had been reduced. Yet relations between North Korea and
South Korea remain hostile, and China’s rapid rise is generating concerns across the rest
of the region.
On one hand, Taiwan’s political status is ambiguous. Although Taiwan is, in
effect, an independent country, China (officially, the People’s Republic of China) claims
it as part of its own territory. As a result, Taiwan is recognized as a sovereign state by
only a handful of other countries.

Resource Pressure in Crowded Land

East Asia’s Physical Geography. East Asia is situated in the same general latitudinal
range as the United States, although it extends considerably farther north and south.
China’s northernmost tip lies as far north as central Québec, while its southernmost
point is at the same latitude as Mexico City. The climate of southern China is thus
roughly comparable to that of the Caribbean, while the climate of northern China is
similar to that of south-central Canada. Although far smaller than China, Japan also
extends over a wide range of latitude. As a result, Japan’s extreme south, in southern
Kyushu and the Ryukyu Archipelago, is subtropical, while northern Hokkaido is almost
subarctic.
East Asia’s Environmental Challenges. The region’s most serious environmental
issues are found in China, owing to its large population, its rapid industrial
development, and the unique features of its physical geography. China suffers from
some of the world’s most severe air and water pollution. Japan, South Korea, and
Taiwan, on the other hand, have invested heavily in environmental protection,
resulting in much cleaner natural environments.
Climate Change and East Asia. The potential effects of climate change in China have
serious implications globally. In June 2007, China released its first national plan on
climate change, which called for major gains in energy efficiency as well as a partial
transition to renewable energy sources. As a result, the Chinese government is heavily
subsidizing the manufacture of solar panels, which it sees as a key energy technology of
the 21st century. China’s climate change strategy also includes a major expansion of both
nuclear and wind power, along with ambitious reforestation efforts. China is currently
the world’s leading producer of renewable energy.

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 A Realm of Crowded Lowland Basins
Japanese Settlement and Agricultural Patterns. In Japan, agriculture share the
limited lowlands with cities and suburbs, resulting in extremely intensive farming
practices and densely packed cities. Most of Japan’s more remote areas, however, are
currently losing population as younger people move to the urban areas. Japanese
agriculture is largely limited to its coastal plains and interior basins. Rice is Japan’s major
crop. Japanese rice farming has long been one of the most productive forms of
agriculture in the world, helping to support a large population on a limited amount of
rugged land.
Settlement and Agricultural Patterns in Korea and Taiwan. The Korean Peninsula is
also densely populated, containing some 76 million people (25 million in North Korea
and 51 million in South Korea). As in Japan, South Korean agriculture is dominated by
rice. North Korea, in contrast, relies heavily on corn and other upland crops that do
not require irrigation. Taiwan contains more than 23 million inhabitants. Because
mountains cover most of central and eastern Taiwan, virtually the entire population is
concentrated in the narrow lowland belt in the north and west. In this area, large cities
and numerous factories are scattered amid lush farmlands.
Settlement and Agricultural Patterns in China. China still has a vast rural population,
with almost half its population living in the countryside. To the south, rice is the
dominant crop. To the north, wheat, millet, and sorghum are the most common.
Southern and central China’s population is highly concentrated in the broad lowlands.
In northern China, the North China Plain has long been one of the world’s most
thoroughly anthropogenic landscapes (that is, it is a landscape heavily transformed by
human activities).
East Asian Agriculture and Resources in Global Context. Although East Asian
agriculture is highly productive, it cannot feed the huge number of people living in the
region. Japan is mostly self-sufficient in rice, but it is still one of the world’s largest food
importers. South Korea has followed Japan in obtaining food and forestry resources
from abroad. North Korea’s inefficient, state-run agricultural system, however, cannot
supply adequate foods, resulting in periodically devastating famines. In recent years,
however, North Korean leaders have started to allow farmers to cultivate their own
small plots and sell surplus goods in small, open markets. These changes have generated
a much larger food supply, although it remains uncertain whether they will be allowed
to persist.
Through the 1980s, China remained self-sufficient in food. But growing wealth has
brought about a huge increase in the consumption of meat, which requires large
amounts of imported feed grain. Although, China is also a major exporter of high-value
crops. Many Latin American, African, and Asian countries now greatly depend on the
Chinese market.
The Urban Environment of East Asia. China has one of the world’s oldest urban
foundations. Despite this early urbanization, East Asia was overwhelmingly rural at the
end of World War II. But as the region’s economy grew after the war, so did its cities.
Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea are now between 78 and 86 percent urban, which is

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typical for advanced industrial countries. A little more than half of the people of China
now live in cities.

A Confucian Realm?
Unifying Cultural Characteristics. The most important unifying cultural
characteristics of East Asia are related to religious and philosophical beliefs. Throughout
the region, Buddhism and especially Confucianism have shaped both individual beliefs
and social and political structures. Although the role of traditional belief systems has
been seriously challenged, especially in China, traditional cultural patterns remain.
Religious Unity and Diversity in East Asia. Certain religious beliefs have worked
alongside Confucianism to unite the region. The most important culturally unifying
beliefs are associated with Mahayana Buddhism, though other religious practices
challenge this cultural unity. The variety of Buddhism practiced in East Asia—Mahayana,
or Great Vehicle—is distinct from the Therevada Buddhism of Southeast Asia. Most
important, Mahayana Buddhism simplifies the quest for nirvana, in part by putting
forward the existence of beings who refuse divine union for themselves in order to help
others spiritually. Mahayana Buddhism also permits its followers to practice other
religions.
East Asian Cultures in Global Context. East Asia has long been torn between
separating itself from the rest of the world and welcoming foreign influences and
practices. Until the mid-1800s, all East Asian countries attempted to insulate themselves
from Western culture. Japan subsequently opened its ports to Western trade but
remained uncertain about foreign ideas. After its defeat in 1945, Japan decided to make
globalization a priority. It was followed in this regard by South Korea, Taiwan, and
Hong Kong. However, the Chinese and North Korean governments sought during the
early Cold War decades to isolate themselves as much as possible from global culture.
Such a stance is still maintained in North Korea.

The Imperial Legacies of China and Japan

The Evolution of China. For many centuries, periods of unification alternated with
times of division into competing states in China. Although periods of disunity followed
the collapse of China’s various dynasties, reunification always followed. In 1644, the
Manchus toppled the Ming Dynasty and replaced it with the Qing Dynasty. From its
height in the 1700s, the Chinese Empire declined rapidly in the 1800s, as it failed to
keep pace with the technological progress of Europe. European power continued to
advance. In 1858, Russia annexed the northernmost reaches of Manchuria, and by 1900
China had been divided into separate spheres of influence in which each colonial power
had no formal political authority, but much informal influence and tremendous
economic clout. By the 1920s, it appeared that China might be completely torn apart.
The Rise of Japan. By the early 1600s, Japan isolated itself from the rest of the
world. Japan remained largely closed to foreign commerce and influence until U.S.

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gunboats sailed into Tokyo Bay in 1853 to demand trade access. Aware that China was
losing power, Japanese leaders set about modernizing their economic, administrative,
and military systems. Unlike China, Japan successfully strengthened its government and
economy.
Japan’s new rulers realized that their country remained threatened by European
imperial powers. They decided that the only way to meet the challenge was to expand
their own territory. So that their grand strategy was to unite East and Southeast Asia
into a “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere” ruled by Japan.
Postwar Geopolitics. With Japan’s defeat at the end of World War II, East Asia
became dominated by the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Japan’s military power was limited by the constitution imposed on it by the United
States. However, slowly but steadily, Japan’s military has emerged as a strong regional
force, despite the limits imposed on it. In 2014, Japan accelerated its military buildup,
and in early 2015 it signed an arm deal with France in which the two countries agreed
to cooperate on drones, underwater surveillance, and other military technologies.
At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed to divide
the Korea; Soviet forces were to occupy the area north of the 38th parallel, whereas
U.S. troops would occupy the south. This soon resulted in the establishment of two
separate governments. Korea remains divided, its two governments still technically at
war.
The Global Dimension of East Asian Geopolitics. The end of the Cold War, coupled
with China’s rapid economic growth, again altered the balance of power in East Asia.
The U.S. military has become increasingly worried about the growing power of the
rapidly modernizing Chinese army. China is also working to develop its “soft,” or
nonmilitary, power on the global stage. In 2013, for example, it announced the
development of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank. Foreign critics worry that
China is growing much more assertive under the leadership of President Xi Jinping, who
has been able to acquire much more power than his immediate predecessors. Chinese
claims over islands in the South China Sea are a particular international concern.

A Core Region of the Global Economy

East Asia’s Economy and Society. Japan was the pacesetter of the world economy
in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. In the early 1990s, however, the Japanese economy
experienced a major setback, and growth has remained slow ever since. Despite its
recent problems, Japan is still the world’s third-largest economic power. The Japanese
path to development was successfully followed by its former colonies, South Korea and
Taiwan. Hong Kong also emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a newly industrialized
economy, although its economic and political systems are different.
Chinese Development. China dwarfs all of the rest of East Asia in both physical size
and population. Its economic takeoff is thus reshaping the economy of the entire world.
Despite its recent growth, however, China’s economy has several weaknesses. For

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example, much of the vast interior remains poor, many of its heavy industries are not
globally competitive, and a number of massive housing projects are deeply in debt and
largely unoccupied. The future of China’s economy is one of the biggest uncertainties
facing both East Asia and the world as a whole.
Social Conditions in China. Despite pockets of persistent poverty, China has made
significant progress in social development. Since coming to power in 1949, the
communist government made large investments in medical care and education, and
today China has impressive health and longevity figures. The literacy rate remains lower
than those of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, but because almost all children attend
elementary school, it will rise substantially in the coming years.
The Failure of Development in North Korea. At the end of the Korean War in 1953,
North Korea had a higher level of industrial development than South Korea, as it
possessed most of the peninsula’s mines and factories. But as South Korea experienced
export-led industrialization starting in the 1970s, North Korea remained devoted to a
state-led economy that rejected globalization and failed to generate development.
North Korea did maintain close economic relations with the Soviet Union, however,
and when Soviet power collapsed in 1991, it experienced a severe blow.

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 South Asia
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe the geological relationship between the
Himalayas and the flat, fertile plain of the Indus and
Ganges river valleys.
2. Explain how the patterns of population growth in South Asia have changed over
the past several decades, and the striking variation across the region.
3. Identify the causes, benefits, and problems of the explosive growth of South Asia’s
major cities.
4. Explain why so much tension exists between Hindu and Muslim communities
today.
5. Explain why South Asia was politically partitioned following British rule.
6. Summarize the variations in economic and social development across the different
parts of South Asia, and explain why such variability is so pronounced.

INTRODUCTION

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 South Asia as a whole form a distinct landmass separated from the rest of the
Eurasian continent by a series of sweeping mountain ranges, including the Himalayas—
the highest mountains in the world.
It is often called the Indian subcontinent, in reference to its largest country. South
Asia also includes the island countries of Sri Lanka and the Maldives as well as the Indian
territories of the Lakshadweep, Andaman, and Nicobar Islands.
India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh dominate the South Asia landmass. India is by far
the region’s largest country, both in size and in population. Covering more than 1
million square miles (2.6 million square kilometers) from the Himalayan crest to the
southern tip of the peninsula, India is the world’s seventh-largest country in terms of
area and, with more than 1.2 billion inhabitants, second only to China in population.
Pakistan, the next largest country, is less than one-third the size of India. Although small
in area, Bangladesh is one of the world’s most densely populated places.
The other countries of South Asia have much smaller populations than the three
demographic giants. Nepal and Bhutan are both located in the Himalaya Mountains,
sandwiched between India and the Tibetan Plateau of China.

Diverse And Stressed Landscapes

Physical Subregions of South Asia. Mountains of the North South Asia’s northern
rim of mountains is dominated by the great Himalayan range, forming the northern
borders of India, Nepal, and Bhutan. To the east are the lower Arakan Yoma
Mountains, forming the border between India and Burma (Myanmar) and separating
South Asia from Southeast Asia. South of the mountain rim lie large lowlands created
by three major river systems (Indus–Ganges–Brahmaputra). These densely settled
lowlands constitute the core population areas of Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.
Extending southward from the river lowlands is peninsular India, made up primarily of
the Deccan Plateau, which is bordered on each side by narrow coastal plains backed by
north–south mountain ranges. At the southern tip of peninsular India lies the island of
Sri Lanka. The Maldives is a chain of more than 1200 islands off the southwestern tip of
India.
Climate Change and South Asia. The effects of climate change will be especially
severe in South Asia (IPCC, 2014). Even a minor rise in sea level will inundate large
areas of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta in Bangladesh. If the most severe sea-level
forecasts are realized, the Maldives will simply vanish beneath the waves. Many
Himalayan glaciers are retreating, threatening the dry-season water supplies of the
Indus–Ganges Plain. In some parts of South Asia, however, climate change could
increase rainfall due to an intensification of the summer monsoon which would likely
increase flooding and soil erosion.
Efforts are being made to prepare South Asia for possible climate change. India,
which has abundant sunshine, is also moving into solar energy. But at the same time,

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Indian officials are also pushing to develop new coal mines. In 2014, the country’s prime
minister pledged to double India’s coal production by 2019.
Natural Hazards, Landscape Change, and Pollution. Owing to specific features of
its physical geography, South Asia suffers from some severe natural hazards and
environmental problems. Particular problems include flooding in the region’s large river
deltas, deforestation in the uplands, and desertification in the northwest. Compounding
these problems are the immense numbers of new people added each year through
natural population growth.

The Demographic Dilemma

Migration and the Settlement Landscape. South Asia is one of the least urbanized
world regions, with around one-third of its people living in cities. But increased
mechanization of agriculture, along with the expansion of large farms at the expense of
subsistence cultivation, pushes as many people to the region’s rapidly growing urban
areas as are drawn by employment opportunities in the city.
The highest rural population densities are found in the core area of the Ganges and
Indus river valleys and on India’s coastal plains. Many South Asians have migrated in
recent years from poor and densely populated areas to less densely populated or
wealthier areas. Migrants are often attracted to large cities such as Mumbai (Bombay).
Sometimes migrants are forced out by war. Pakistan has one of the world’s largest
refugee populations. Experts are concerned about internal migration in South Asia,
which results in huge shantytowns and soaring homeless populations in the region’s
largest cities.
Agricultural Regions and Activities. Rice is the main crop and foodstuff in the lower
Ganges Valley, in the delta lands of Bangladesh, and in Sri Lanka. This distribution
reflects the large volume of irrigation water needed to grow the crop. Wheat is the
principal crop in the northern Indus Valley and in the western half of India’s Ganges
Valley. South Asia’s “breadbasket” includes the northwestern Indian states of Haryana
and Punjab and adjacent areas in Pakistan.
The main reason South Asian agriculture has kept up with population growth is
the Green Revolution. By the 1970s, efforts to breed high-yield varieties of rice and
wheat had reached their initial goals, transforming South Asia from a region of chronic
food deficiency to one of self-sufficiency. Although the Green Revolution was an
agricultural success, many experts highlight its ecological and social costs. Serious
environmental problems result from the chemical dependency of the new crop strains.
Social problems have also followed the Green Revolution. In many areas, only the
more prosperous farmers can afford the new seed strains, irrigation equipment, farm
machinery, fertilizers, and pesticides. Poorer farmers have often been forced to serve as
wage laborers for their more successful neighbors or to migrate to crowded cities.
Urban South Asia. Although South Asia remains a largely rural society, many of its
cities are large and growing quickly. Because of this rapid growth, South Asian cities

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have serious problems with homelessness, poverty, congestion, water shortages, air
pollution, and sewage disposal. Throughout South Asia, sprawling squatter settlements,
or bustees, are rapidly expanding. Clean water and sanitation are major problems in
urban slums throughout South Asia. Yet some progress is being made, as the proportion
of urban Indians with access to an improved water source increased from 72 percent in
1990 to over 88 percent in 2008.

Common Heritage & Religious Rivalry

Origins of South Asian Civilizations. The early Ganges Valley civilization gave birth
to Hinduism. One of its hallmarks is a belief in the transmigration of souls from being
to being through reincarnation. Hinduism is also associated with India’s caste system,
the strict division of society into hereditary groups that are ranked as ritually superior
or inferior to one another.
Ancient India’s caste system was challenged from within by Buddhism. Siddhartha
Gautama, the Buddha, rejected the life of wealth and power, however, and sought
instead to attain enlightenment, or mystical union with the universe. He preached that
the path to such enlightenment (or nirvana) was open to all, regardless of social
position. His followers eventually established Buddhism as a new religion.
The next major challenge to Hindu society— Islam—came from the outside.
Around the year 1000, Turkic-speaking Muslims began to enter the region from Central
Asia. By the 1300s, most of South Asia lay under Muslim power, although Hindu
kingdoms persisted in southern India. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughal
(or Mogul) Empire, the most powerful of the Muslim states, dominated much of the
region from its power center in the Indus–Ganges Basin.
Contemporary Geographies of Religion. Less than 1 percent of the people of
Pakistan are Hindu, and in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, Hinduism is a minority religion.
However, in India and Nepal, Hinduism is clearly the majority faith. Bangladesh and
especially Pakistan are overwhelmingly Muslim. The tension between Hinduism and
Islam in northern South Asia gave rise to a new religion, Sikhism. The new faith
combined elements of both religions. Many orthodox Muslims viewed Sikhism as
dangerous because it incorporated elements of their own religion in a manner contrary
to accepted beliefs.
Another religion emerged in northern India: Jainism. This religion also stressed
nonviolence, taking this creed to its ultimate extreme. Jains are forbidden to kill any
living creatures, and as a result the most devoted members of the community wear
gauze masks to prevent them from inhaling small insects. Jainism forbids agriculture
because plowing can kill small creatures.
South Asia in Global Cultural Context. The worldwide spread of South Asian
literature is nothing new. More recently, “Bollywood” films produced in Mumbai
gained popularity across much of the world. The expansion of South Asian culture
abroad has been accompanied by the spread of South Asians themselves.

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 Within South Asia, cultural globalization has brought severe tensions. Traditional
Hindu and Muslim religious norms frown on any overt display of sexuality. Religious
leaders often criticize Western films and television shows as being immoral. Although
India is a relatively free country, both the national and the state governments
periodically ban films & books considered too sexual.

A Deeply Divided Region

South Asia Before and After Independence. British East India Company, the private
organization, acted as an arm of the British government. The territories of the
indigenous states were gradually reduced, while British advisors increasingly dictated
their policies. The framework of British India began to unravel in the early 20th century,
as South Asians increasingly demanded independence. Many leaders, including
Mohandas Gandhi—the father figure of Indian independence—favored a unified state
that would include all British territories in mainland South Asia. Most Muslim leaders,
however, argued for dividing British India into two new countries: a Hindu-majority
India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. When the British finally withdrew in 1947, South
Asia was indeed divided into India and Pakistan.
Ethnic Conflicts in South Asia. Relations between India and Pakistan were hostile
from the start particularly fighting over Kashmir. Many Muslim Kashmiris would like to
join their homeland to Pakistan, others prefer that it remain a part of India, and a large
portion would rather see it become an independent country. Also, relatively obscure
series of ethnic conflicts emerged in the 1980s in the uplands of India’s extreme
northeast. Much of this area was not historically part of the South Asian cultural sphere,
and many of its peoples want autonomy or even independence. Pronounced ethnic
violence in Sri Lanka stems from both religious and linguistic differences. Sinhalese
nationalists have favored a centralized government, with some calling for an officially
Buddhist state. Most Tamils want political and cultural autonomy and have accused the
government of discriminating against them.
International Geopolitics. During the global Cold War, Pakistan allied itself with the
United States, while India leaned slightly toward the Soviet Union. Such alliances began
to fall apart with the end of the superpower conflict in the early 1990s. Since then,
Pakistan has moved closer to China, while India has done the same with the United
States.
In 1962, China defeated India in a brief war, gaining control over the virtually
uninhabited territory of Aksai Chin in northern Kashmir. This causes the relationship of
the two massive countries remain frosty. India is also concerned about China’s
development of ports in India’s neighbors, which could potentially be used as naval
bases.
The conflict between India and Pakistan, too, became more complex after the
attacks of September 11, 2001. Although Pakistan had supported Afghanistan’s Taliban
regime, it soon agreed to help the United States in its struggle against the Taliban in
exchange for military and economic aid. This decision came with large risks, as both Al

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Qaeda and the Taliban are supported by many of the Pashtun people of northwestern
Pakistan.

Rapid Growth and Rampant Poverty

South Asian Poverty. One of the clearest measures of human well-being is nutrition,
and by this measure South Asia ranks very low. Sanitation is another major problem in
the region. Despite such deep and widespread poverty, South Asia should not be
regarded as a zone of misery. More than 300 million Indians are rated by local
standards as members of the “middle class”. By the early years of the 21st century,
India’s economy was growing at a rapid rate. Major campaigns, moreover, are under
way across the region to improve nutrition, education, and sanitation.
Globalization and South Asia’s Economic Future. After independence, India’s
economic policy was based on widespread private ownership combined with
government control of planning, resource allocation, and heavy industries. India also
established high trade barriers to protect its economy from global competition. This
mixed socialist-capitalist system encouraged industrial development and allowed India
to become nearly self-sufficient. By the 1980s, however, there was a slow economic
growth. So that, India’s government began to open its economy in 1991. Many
regulations were eliminated, tariffs were reduced, and partial foreign ownership of local
businesses was allowed. Other South Asian countries followed such as Pakistan who
began to privatize many of its state-owned industries in 1994.
Social Development. South Asia has relatively low levels of health and education,
which is not surprising considering its poverty. People in the more developed areas of
western and southern India are healthier, live longer, and are better educated, on
average, than people in poorer areas, such as the lower Ganges Valley. Several key
measurements of social welfare are higher in India than in Pakistan. Several oddities
stand out when we compare South Asia’s map of economic development with its map
of social well-being. Portions of India’s extreme northeast, for example, show relatively
high literacy rates despite their poverty, largely because of the educational efforts of
Christian missionaries.
Primary References:
Rowntree, L., Lewis, M., Price, M., Wyckoff, W. (2017). Globalization and Diversity:
Geography of a Changing World (Fifth Edition). Pearson Education, Inc.
Rubenstein, J. M. (2016). Contemporary Human Geography (Third Edition). Pearson
Education, Inc.

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