Pca Notes
Pca Notes
Pca Notes
Unit 2
Q.Explain vector processing concepts.
Vector processing is a computer process that can process numerous
data component at once. It operates every element of vector in one
operation. Or in parallel to avoid the overhead of the processing
loop.when simultaneous operation must be independent on one
another process in this situation vector processing to be effective.
Dig. Of scalar and vector.
The difference between parallel processing and vector processing is
that parallel processing uses multiple processor for separate tasks.
While vector processor uses single processor for performing same
operation on multiple data element simultaneously.
It classified in two types on the basis of formation of vector and
presence of vector instruction for processing.
1.Register to register architecture.
This architecture are used in high-performance processor and
modern high performance processors because of faster register
access. In register to register archi. data is fetched and stored in
register. This architecture is complex in the case of hardware and
instruction set.
2.Memory to memory architecture.
This architecture are used in low-performance and old performance
processor because of it’s slower memory access. In this architecture
data is fetched and stored in memory. And this architecture typically
simpler.
Advantages
1.improved performance
2.Reduce loop overhead.
3.Optimized hardware
4.Reduction in instruction bandwidth.
Q. Explain the CRAY-1 processor with it’s characteristics.
The CRAY-1 is designed by seymour , it was one of the first
supercomputer and one of the milestone in history of high-
performance computing.it was introduced in 1976 by Cray Research.
The characteristics are
1.innovative design:- it was the unique and iconic cylindrical shape.
2.Speed :- it uses vector processing so it’s speed performance is high.
And it’s speed upto 160 megaflops.
3.Memory:- it had maximum memory capacity of 8 megaword
which is 64 megabytes
4.High performance:- it was vector processor supercomputer,
capable of executing single instruction using multiple data elements
5.Word length:- it had a 64-bit word-length which was considered
as quite advanced during 1970’s
Dig.
The central processing unit(CPU) is a single integrated processor
which consists of computation section, memory section, and input
or output channels section.the memory expandable from 0.25
million 64-bit to 1.0 million words.
1.computation section
The computation section contains instruction buffers, registers and
functional units which operate together to execute a program of
instructions stored in memory. It perform arithmetic operation
where the integer arithmetic is performed in two’s complement and
floating point is performed in signed magnitude representation.
2.Memory section
the memory expandable from 0.25 million 64-bit to 1.0 million
words. The CRAY-1 memory consists of normally 16 banks of bi-polar
1024-bit LSI memory. And provide three memory options such as
262,144 word , 524,288 (262,144 x 2) words and 1,048,576(262,144
x 4 )words. Each word is 72 bits long and consists of 64-bit data bits
and 8 check bits.
3.I/O section
Input and output communication with the CRAY-1 is over 12 full
duplex 16-bits channels. Each channel are control lines that
indicates the presence of data of channel(ready) , data receives
(resume) or data transfer complete(Disconnect). the channels are
divided in four groups. A group consist of either six inputs or six
output.if more then one channel group is active then the request is
resolved based on the priority. The request from the lowest
numbered channel is served first.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzECa-
TZ0cw&list=RDCMUCIs6YfZjrJ29sHd3-qDTGBQ&index=4
There are two types of interleaved memory.
1. high order interleaved
In high order memory interleaving, the most significant bits of the
memory address decide memory banks.in this type the consecutive
address are stored in same modules. As shown in fig.(number the
address via column like 1,2,3,4 in one module. And next in next
modules.). let us see below is the memory is divided into 8 modules
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rpkq9x5qnwU&list=RDCMUCIs
6YfZjrJ29sHd3-qDTGBQ&index=1
2.Low order interleaved
In low order memory interleaving, the least significant bits of the
memory address decide memory banks.consecutive address are
stored in a consecutive modules. As shown in fig.(number the
address via rows like 1,2,3,4 in different modules. And next in next
modules.). let us see below is the memory is divided into 8 modules.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Tf1wWg6tJU&list=RDCMUC
Is6YfZjrJ29sHd3-qDTGBQ&index=2
Q.Write short note on associative memory processors.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpipcaL0tRw
Unit 1
Types of pipeline
It divides into 2 categories.
1.Arithmetic pipeline
Arithmetic pipeline are mostly found in computers. They are used
for floating operations and multiplication of fixed-point numbers.
The input to the floating point pipeline is given as
X=A*2^a
Y=B*2^b
Where A and B are mantissa and a&b are exponents.
The floating point addition and substraction is done in 4 steps.
Which are
1.Compare the exponents
2.Align the mantissa
3.Add or sub mantissa
4.Produce the result
Register are used to store intermediate result of above operation.
2. Instruction pipeline
In this , a stream of instruction can be executed by overlapping fetch,
decode and execute phases of an instruction cycle. The instruction
pipeline reads instruction from memory while the previous
instruction executing in another segments of the pipeline. We can
execute multiple instruction simultaneously.
Advantages
1. reduce cycle time of processor.
2. Increase the throughput of the system
Disadvantages
1.design of pipeline processor is complex
2.High cost of manufacturing
3.The instruction latency is more.
1.level of processing
a.arithmetic pipeline:-In this type of pipeline generally breaks
arithmetic operations into multiple arithmetic steps that can be
executed one by one in segments in ALU. (Eg.4-stage pipeline in
star-100).
Dig.
b.processor pipeline:-In processor pipeline processing, the same
data stream is processed by a cascade of processor.each processor
perform specific task. The data stream passes in first processor with
result is stored in memory and this data is accessible to next
processor and then the second processor processes this result and
passes to the third processor and so on. This pipeline processor is
not much popular. So it not found in practically.
c. Instruction pipeline:-This technique is also known as look
ahead.almost all high performance computers are nowadays uses
instruction pipeline processing.the steps are fetch, decode, operand
fetch and execute.
2.pipeline configuration
a.unifunction vs multifuncion
Unifunction:- a pipeline with fixed and dedicated functions are
called as unifunction. Eg.CRAY-1 have fixed 12 unifunctional pipeline
Multifunction:- a pipeline that perform different function either at
same time or different times eg. TI-ASC
b.Static vs dynamic pipeline
Static :- this pipeline assumes only one functional configuration at a
time it either unifunctional or multifunctional. A unifunction pipeline
must be static.
Dynamic:-this pipelines assumes multiple configuration at a time. A
dynamic pipeline must be multifunctional.
2.Based on the type of instruction and data.
a.scalar pipeline :-In a scalar pipeline, each instruction processes
only one piece of data at a time. It is designed for single data
elements, meaning that each instruction operates on a single data
item.eg. IBM-360.
b.vector pipeline :-In vector pipeline instructions are designed to
process multiple data elements in parallel. It is designed for multiple
data elements. Same instruction is applied on the multiple data
elements simultaneously. Eg. Star-100, CRAY-1.
Unit 3
Q. Explain principle of multithreading
Q.What are different latency hiding techniques?
Explain any one in detail.
This mechanism is used to increase the scalability and
programmability
There are three main latency hidding mechanism or techniques
1.pre-fetching technique:-
2.Coherent caches
3.Multiple context processors
Pre-fetching technique.
1.this technique reduce latency by bringing instruction or data closer
to processor before they are actually needed.
2.It uses knowledge about the expected misses in the program.
3.It uses this knowledge to moves corresponding instruction closer
to processor before it actually need.
This technique divided into two types
1.Hardware controlled pre-fetching
2.Software controlled pre-fetching
The hardware controlled pre-fetching is done using two schema
1.Using Long cache line:-it introduce the problem of false sharing
2.using Instruction look-ahead:- it limited by branch prediction
accuracy.And finite look-ahead buffer-size.
Software controlled pre-fetching
in this approach, explicit “pre-fetch” instruction Is issued for the
data that is “known” to be remote. In this technique pre-fetching is
done selectively
Binding pre-fetching policy :- it is the responsiblility of “fetching
process” to ensure that there is no other processor will update pre-
fetched value before it is actually used.
Non-binding pre-fetching policy:-The cache coherence protocol will
make sure invalidate the pre-fetched values ,if it is updated before
it is used. The pre-fetched values remains visible to the cache
coherence protocol. And the data is kept consistent until the
processor actually reads the values.
Unit 4