Northwestern College, Iowa

NWCommons

Master's Theses & Capstone Projects Education

Summer 2021

Impact of Technology Use on Early Childhood

Paige Davidson

Follow this and additional works at: https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/education_masters

Part of the Early Childhood Education Commons, and the Educational Technology Commons
 1

Impact of Technology Use on Young Children

Paige Davidson

Northwestern College

A Literature Review Presented

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Master of Education

July 2021

Dr. Theresa Pedersen

 2

Abstract

Technology is something that has evolved immensely over the last 20 years and only continues

to grow and change. Technology has affected early childhood education, in the home and

classroom. This literature review explores the impact of technology use on young children, as

well as how educators can support students learning using technology. The literature review will

analyze how technology can positively affect student learning through increased collaboration,

enhanced engagement, strengthened motivation and creativity. In addition, the literature review

will explain how technology can improve academic skills, such as reading and math. Educators

are the key facilitators for improving student understanding and the appropriate use of

technology. With the support of school leaders and district administration, educators can improve

outcomes using technology.

Keywords: technology, early childhood education, academic achievement, growth, educational

technology, collaboration, engagement, creativity

 3

Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………....2

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………….3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..4

Review of Literature……………………………………………………………………………....6

Enhanced Collaboration…………………………………………………………………………...6

Increased Engagement…………………………………………………………………………….7

Strengthened Motivation and Creativity…………………………………………………………..8

Academic Growth: Mathematics …………………………………………………….………….11

Academic Growth: Literacy…………………………………………………………...................12

Future Research……………………………………………….………………...……………….13

Solutions…………………....…………………………………………………………………....15

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………...…..16

References……………………………………………………………………………………….18
 4

Introduction

The use of technology with children has been a healthy debate with educators, parents,

and professionals for many years. An abundant number of individuals have been debating the

positive aspects of technology use in education. Cicconi is a researcher who compared

Vygotsky’s research and the power of collaboration through his social learning theory. Cicconi

researched the idea that technology can enable children to collaborate and learn rigorous

educational concepts by using different technology tools. Many different children could be

empowered to use technology to collaborate, stay engaged, and build knowledge. NAEYC has

released specific statements on technology and young children that promote using interactive

educational technology tools to develop learning, creativity and relationships with children,

“When used intentionally and appropriately, technology and interactive media are effective tools

to support learning and development” (NAEYC, 2012). A joint statement from NAEYC and

Fred Rogers Center claims, “Intentional use requires early childhood teachers and administrators

to have information and resources regarding the nature of these tools and the implications of

their use with children” (NAEYC, Fred Rogers Center, et al., 2012).

The problem with the current research is that teachers in classrooms are not reading it,

according to advocate Fox-Turnbull (2019). He argued that educators taught how to use

technology in their classroom were quickly enjoying the tools and seeing how useful technology

can be. Researchers Mantilla and Edwards (2019) found that teachers, especially veteran

teachers, failed to gain insight about the benefits of using technology in the classroom to boost

student learning. NAEYC provided a clear declaration that technology is beneficial when used

properly, under the impression that teachers and administrators are knowledgeable in this area

(as cited in NAEYC, Fred Rogers Center, et al., 2012).

 5

This literature review will examine the impact of technology use in early childhood

education. The purpose of this review is to use the knowledge gained from ample research to

improve educator, parent, and professional outlook on technology. Experts frame technology as

harmful for children and this review will consider the effective use of technology, specifically in

the classroom. The research will address and potentially eliminate the negative perspective that

comes with technology use.

The literature review will cover the main topic of technology with a substantial amount of

research focused on the benefits of technology use in the classroom. A majority of the studies

identify technology in the classroom setting, as well as how teachers choose to use it.

Advantages include the development of, engagement, motivation, problem solving, creativity,

collaboration, interactive learning, and enhanced literacy and mathematical skills. For this

review, the key terms “technology benefits in ECE,” “effects of technology in ECE,” and

“technology in early childhood” were used as a guide to find research. Research studies were

retrieved from the following databases: ERIC, DeWitt Library, and Google Scholar, all resources

used range from the last 10 years, 2011-2021.

Review of Literature

The evidence presented from thorough research finds that educators have a lack of

training to understand what a healthy relationship with technology looks like for students. This

review supports the theory that technology is a necessary tool for children to enhance an

abundant number of abilities in school. Mantilla and Edwards (2019) agree that adults should be

educated on the appropriate use of technology at home and school. In the study by Mantilla and
 6

Edwards (2019) with 4,000 parents, evidence was found to support the necessity of training for

teachers to obtain a better idea of implementation of technology in the classroom. Alternatively,

these same scholars suggest that technology comes with an equal number of positive and

negative aspects for classroom use. Additionally, the researchers state that teachers simply need

support with the growing use of technology and appropriate ways to incorporate a healthy, useful

amount. It was found that additional training on how to implement appropriate technology use in

the classroom would boost morale, keeping teachers interested and comfortable with using

technology to teacher benefit (Al-Bataineh, Bataineh, et al., 2021). The debate on the effects of

using technology in the classroom starts with educating teachers and ends with enhanced

learners.

Enhanced Collaboration

Children who participate in the use of technology within the classroom can build collaboration

skills with and without technology in their future. Although face-to-face interactions are the

norm, the effects of collaborating through technology can justify the use in and outside of the

classroom (Fox-Turnbull, 2019). Student-created video projects are one example of enhancing

collaboration along with many other academic benefits (Morgan, 2013). The results of the study

found that allowing young students to enjoy technological activities such as creating a video to

present what a student knows promotes the students ability to stay connected in class. The

research findings from first grade students proved that students stayed attentive and motivated

while working on their videos. According to the educators, students built critical-thinking skills,

literacy skills, and collaboration skills (Morgan, 2013).

In addition, collaboration between students from different states, or countries can take

place thanks to great advancements in digital media and technology. In a study by Zhao and Li
 7

(2015), kindergarten students from Finland and Japan were assigned to share a blog to

communicate ideas and work. Moreover, the results of this research have proven that blogging

builds basic media skills while collaborating with students from other countries. Using public

blogging allows students of all ages to share their ideas in a pedagogically functional way while

learning about social media and interactions (Zhao & Li, 2015). The use of blogging, explored

by Zhao and Li indicates that 21st century skill targets can be met while encouraging

collaboration.

Enhancing collaboration may be taken to another level with social media all while

educating children on 21st century skills. Tran (2019) had similar findings when studying

collaboration while using technology and believes that computer technology skills are growing in

today’s workforce. Tran (2019) claims K-12 education has an imperative need to provide

opportunities to students in order for them to be well prepared for 21st century jobs. The research

of 200 elementary students found that children who used computational thinking during the 10-

week investigation built essential skills such as collaboration, persistence, and creativity for

success in today’s digital world. These examples provide evidence that enhanced collaboration

can take place when technology is used with young children.

Increased Engagement

According to Maureen, et al., (2018), the use of technology in classrooms helps students

stay engaged longer and leads to an increase in different academic skills compared to students

without technology as an intervention. The researchers found from 45 students aged 5-6 years

old, both paper and digital storytelling activities held students' attention and boosted literacy
 8

skills but the group with digital activities had significantly more increases in engagement

(Maureen, et al., 2018). The researchers concluded that the approach of integrating storytelling

and storytelling activities allow early childhood aged children to boost their attention span. In

addition to increased engagement, the teachers saw overall growth in literacy skills from this

approach.

Another study in early childhood by Papadakis, et al. (2018) researched 365 kindergarten

students and expressed that using technology to assist an intervention proved to keep students

attention for longer than those without assistive technology express. The results of the research

revealed that the groups of students using technology significantly outperformed the groups

learning without technology. Additionally, the results determined that developmentally

appropriate software being built into children's routines could substantially improve a child’s

attention in subjects that may otherwise disengage them leading to lower academic scores. The

researchers did however conclude in contrast to the results that a delayed post-test to measure the

persistence of the interventions might present differing results. Although allowing students to use

technology as a different learning style does not guarantee engagement. It does provide the

opportunity for a majority of students to stay attentive during learning activities, which may lead

to growth in many academic areas such as math and literacy.

Strengthened Motivation and Creativity

The role that technology plays in motivating children to learn is increasing significantly,

as the digital era takes place before us. The first motivation is the general use of technology to

create work. Researchers Campbell and Jane (2012) found the influence of technology on a
 9

student's work with 80 general education students in Australia. The motivation behind a

student’s work is one of the strongest elements in relation to a technological activity. Overall, the

research found the children feel a sense of achievement and fulfillment when interacting on a

digital tool. Furthermore, the study with rural and regional students found that children using

technology were focused on fun, completion, and difficulty when asked to do a technological

task; however, the motivation lies in the work created. This study seems to indicate the idea that

technology has an impact on the motivation behind the quality of a student's work.

According to Madanipour and Cohrssen (2020), augmented reality (AR) is a beneficial

tool in early childhood education. According to the findings from multiple research articles on

AR use in an educational setting; AR is a tool that can motivate young students to learn topics

that are not typical. The researchers argue that this technology allows students to interact with

real and virtual objects, which offers the potential for young children to understand abstract

concepts that they may not encounter otherwise. In addition, the researchers found from teacher

feedback within the articles that AR supports enhanced engagement, motivation, excitement and

enjoyment with children. Therefore, a technological tool such as augmented reality is optimal for

motivation and creativity in early childhood education.

In contrast, a study of 353 preschool students in suburban and sub-province areas claimed young

students who spent time in a digital environment provided them with preconvention constructs

for reading (Altun, 2019). The findings from Altun’s (2019) surveys claimed the motivation to

learn reading relates strongly to the experience with print-based versus digital literacy in the

classroom or home setting. The researcher found preschool aged students have the same

motivations for reading digitally as elementary aged students. Notably, the gender of preschool
 10

students has little impact on motivation. The study indicates that motivation for reading or

learning literacy skills was boosted with the use of technology and digital tools.

Technology can improve motivation through digital activities, new types of learning, and

academic goals. Nevertheless, it can also enhance positive behavior in a classroom setting.

Scholars Lynne, et al. (2017) found the use of an application called “ClassDojo” promotes

positive student behavior and is an effective tool for managing classroom behavior. The

researchers observed classroom behavior before, during and after the use of the technology. The

study of three classrooms in a southeastern state found that there was reduced student disruptive

behavior, increased academically engaged behavior, and increased behavior-specific praise

statements allowing the students to become more motivated in class. In other words, the

motivation behind behavior is reliant on technology use and incentives.

Researcher Bowden (2019) found that collaborative games build creativity and artful

skills with students when given the opportunity to work on digital practices in the classroom. In

the research, elementary students in Sweden were observed for a total of 75 hours as students

designed a digital game for others to play. In addition, students' outside experiences were

incorporated into assignments to draw upon wider social and cultural competency skills deriving

from the participation of students. Bowden (2019) claims developing students' interactions with

technology positions them as consumers, creators, and producers of media. Motivation and

creativity are lifelong skills in the 21st century that technology can help build and allow success

for students.

Academic Growth: Mathematics

 11

The effects of technology education when Kurvinen, et al. (2020) in Finland with 72

students in second grade, researched learning math. The research was acquired over one school

year based on the student’s mathematics performance in observation and fluency tests. Overall,

the data revealed students who received math lessons electronically had stronger scores on tests

than those who received a face-to-face lesson with the teacher. The findings from Kurvinen, et

al., suggest that the integration of educational technology when learning mathematics can boost

student performance on skills tests.

In other research, by Yoon, et al. (2014), integrated online STEM education was found to

help 831 elementary students score higher on assessments related to science, technology,

engineering and math (STEM). The school in the south-central United States saw significant

growth on student knowledge tests and the Engineering Identity Development Scale after

students received integrated STEM lessons online, regardless of diversity or gender. Teachers

noted in data analysis that growth was shown over time with all students; however, students who

received the integrated lessons online predominantly scored higher than those without. Overall, it

is appropriate to suggest online education as a useful tool for students learning skills such as

STEM.

Academic Growth: Literacy

In a study completed by Mitra (2019), two groups of 24 children from India and the UK

were observed in the students' classrooms. The research was completed in 90-minute increments

over six school days using qualitative research. Students using the internet as an assistive tool to

learn literacy skills were able to build reading comprehension faster than those taught

traditionally were. Using the internet, as a tool to teach reading and comprehension is advisable

based on this data.

 12

Along with Mitra, researchers Baron, et al. (2019) studied the use of educational

technology to differentiate instruction for young readers. 594 third grade students were studied

over a period of one school year using an intervention tool referred to as Lexia Core 5. The

research confirms that the majority of students using the educational technology tool performed

remarkably higher from spring to fall on reading and comprehension skill scores. Teachers

affirmed that students with mixed deficits in reading abilities such as decoding or comprehension

made great increases over the year in addition to their grade level peers. The data from Baron, et

al. insists the recommendation for educational technology use with reading.

Zhou and Yadav (2017) analyzed the effects of multimedia stories with preschool

students in the Midwest region of the United States. Over two weeks 72 students received

reading sessions with a vocabulary and comprehension test to acquire data on the effects of

online or paper stories. The evidence portrays that students who received multimedia stories built

vocabulary faster than students with paper books did, which suggests children are more engaged

with stories online. Students are likely able to enhance their own early literacy outcomes when

reading digital books and interacting with features of a digital book.

In connection to Zhou and Yadav (2017), researchers Kaynar, et al. (2020), studied the

use of electronic books (ebooks) and the idea that they improve students’ literacy skills. A group

of thirteen teachers from three different schools completed a survey and interview identifying

their perception of electronic books. The teachers noted that ebooks increase student interest and

reading competencies. According to teacher interviews, students are motivated and enjoy earning

rewards and electronic badges that come along with the electronic version of books that are not

available with paper copies. Ebooks allow student reading skills to be enhanced in multiple ways

such as their interest in reading and many skills in reading as well.

 13

Additional research by Neumann, et al. (2017), claims 122 kindergarten students' digital

literacy skills about concepts of print increased with the use of technology. The findings indicate

that digitized literacy tools can enable parents and teachers to effectively support early childhood

literacy learning skills. Additional findings from an earlier study by Neumann, et al. (2014),

support observations of 60 children under the age of eight using tablets. The research found the

competence of young children to be extremely high when navigating the interface of a tablet.

The enhancement of literacy skills such as knowledge of letters, words, print concepts, and

emergent writing are of great potential when scaffolding is provided by parents or teachers.

Future Research

With the research completed by multiple scholars in the last ten years there are many

ideas in relation to using technology in early childhood education that need to be settled. First,

scholars Park, et al. (2017) found it ideal that early educators use STEM in their classrooms to

build readiness in the elementary setting. The research with 830 early childhood educators

revealed in a survey that the majority agreed that professional development and pre-service

training programs are necessary to build appropriate STEM education and readiness in the

classroom. Therefore, for further implications to be made, administration needs a push of

willingness to address ideas within STEM and provide proper training to teachers.

Adaptive technology (AT) is another subject that has fallen into the future research

category due to the lack of evidence behind it. Huda, et al. (2017) researched the effect of

adaptive technology with children and found that AT provides guidance for children who have a

need for adaptive technology services in the educational setting. The scholars concluded parental

and educational guidance is vital for children to achieve appropriate media skills while exploring

its content and AT has not received sufficient research with general education students. Overall,
 14

adaptive technology is underused in general education and further research must be completed to

claim the best uses of an AT framework.

Researchers Mantilla and Edwards (2019) completed an analysis with 4,000 parents and

100 teachers to identify the appropriate use of technology at home and school. During the

analysis, the researchers found a lack of education on appropriate technology use and therefore

leaves room for future research on the education behind technology. Often, parents and teachers

are the adults educating children but adults lack the education needed to inform their children or

students. Mantilla and Edwards claim the information is available through statements from

Educational Credential Assessment (ECA) or National Association for the Education of Young

Children (NAEYC) regarding young children and digital technologies. Professional advice is

necessary for parents and teachers alike to understand the appropriate tools and activities to use

with children.

Another partnership between researchers Hosokawa and Katsura (2018) studied the

effects of technology on behavior of the early elementary students. A group of 1,642 Japanese

children were surveyed and observed. Children who routinely used technology seemed at higher

risk for behavioral problems, according to surveys by the children’s parents. The researchers

state that it is unclear if technology exposure is the only cause of behavioral problems or if

children with behavior problems are more attracted to technology devices. Future research is

important to identify the specific content children are viewing starting at a variety of ages in

correlation to their behavior at home or school.

Another issue needing to be addressed is the hardware available to teachers to provide

sufficient educational opportunities in their classrooms. Scholars Ntule and Kyei-Blankson

(2012) completed a survey with 56 early childhood educators in the Midwest. The study
 15

identified teachers who were willing to incorporate technology into classroom learning but the

educational games and applications had a lack of data generation. The educators who completed

the survey identified professional development and teacher support as necessities. Teachers made

it clear that support with technology was lacking and technological, pedagogical knowledge and

assessment are not taught and therefore cannot be used appropriately in the classroom setting.

Finally, researcher Ehmann (2020) claimed the shift to technology in the classroom

exploded when distance learning became necessary during COVID-19 pandemic between 2019

and today. Ehmann identified different educational platforms for learning during COVID-19.

More research is necessary to match technology to the local, district and state standards.

Solutions

Finally, in order to solve issues that come along with the abundant use of technology in

the classroom a few suggestions must be presented. Researchers Ozyurt, et al. (2018) surveyed a

group of 76 mothers. Throughout the survey and observations, mothers stated that positive

parenting with technology was the biggest concern in their home life. The mothers were

provided a positive parenting program to improve maternal well-being, family functioning and

technology use. It was suggested that parents simply need guidance to help their children and

young adults to find the appropriate balance.

Researcher Mikelic Preradovic and his team (2016) investigated parent attitudes towards

digital technology use in early childhood education. A group of 152 parents with young children

responded to surveys. At least 99% of parents admitted to owning and using devices with and

without their children. Parents claimed their children were not gaining computer literacy or other

skills when technology was in their possession- the focus was on gaming or social media. The
 16

researchers discussed concerns that digital technology can be an effective learning tool when

used appropriately and parents needed to be taught about digital literacy in order to help their

children.

Conclusion

Technology use is common, at both home and school. Digital tools affect student success

with collaboration, engagement, motivation, mathematics and literacy. The effects of educational

technologies are positive if parents and teachers are provided with proper tools to implement

learning while using digital tools. However, with certain digital tools, there are negative results

that may take place if used inappropriately. Future research should continue to examine the

effectiveness of professional development for teachers, the prevalence of specific digital tools

and applications that educate students, as researchers stated the need for additional research

(Ehmann, 2020; Huda, et al., 2017; Mantilla & Edwards, 2019; Ntuli & Kyei-Blankson, 2012;

Park, et al., 2017). Other researchers found the need for studies that investigate the connection

between technology and behavioral issues (Hosokawa & Katsura, 2018). Finally, future research

may examine the need for technological applications that provide appropriate scoring,

assessment and feedback in relation to the Common Core Standards (Ntuli & Kyei-Blankson,

2012).

In conclusion, the use of technology in early childhood is an effective way for students to

gain confidence, creativity and collaboration while learning. By using digital tools in the

classroom, teachers can educate students as 21st century learners who use technology to remain

engaged, build academic skills, and stay motivated.

17
 18

References

Al-Bataineh, A., Bataineh, M., Carstens, K., Mallon, J. (2021). Effects of Technology on Student

Learning. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology. 20:1, 105-113.

Altun, D. (2019). Preschoolers’ emergent motivations to learn reading: A grounded theory study.

Early Childhood Education Journal, 47(4), 427-443. Doi:

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s10643-019-00939-3

Baron, L. S., Hogan, T. P., Schechter, R. L., Hook, P. E., & Brooke, E. C. (2019). Can

Educational technology effectively differentiate instruction for reader profiles. Reading

and Writing, 32(9), 2327-2352.

Bowden, H. (2019). Problem solving in collaborative game design practices: epistemic stance,

Affect and engagement. Learning, Media and Technology. 44:2. 124-143. DOI:

10.1080/17439884.2018.1563106

Campbell, C., & Jane, B. (2012). Motivating children to learn: The role of technology education.

International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 22(1), 1-11. Doi:

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s10798-010-9134-4

Cicconi, M. (2014). Vygotsky Meets Technology: A Reinvention of Collaboration in the Early

Childhood Mathematics Classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 42(1), 57-65.

Doi: http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s10643-013-0582-9
 19

Donohue, C., & Schomburg, R. (2017). Technology and interactive media in early childhood

programs. YC Young Children, 72(4), 72-78. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-

com.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/scholarly-journals/technology-interactive-media-early-

childhood/docview/1942230066/se-2?accountid=28306

Ehmann, S. (2020). The educational debate continues: Old fashion education vs new fangled

technology. Distance Learning, v17, n3, p83-86. Information Age Publishing.

Fox-Turnbull, W. (2019) Enhancing the Learning of Technology in Early Childhood.

Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 44(1), 76+. Sage Publications

Hosokawa, R., & Katsura, T. (2018). Association between mobile technology use and child

adjustment in early elementary school age. Plos One, 13(7), 0199959.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199959

Huda, M., Jasmi, K. A., Hehsan, A., Mustari, M. I., Shahrill, M., Basiron, B., & Gassama, S. K.

(2017). Empowering children with adaptive technology skills: Careful engagement in the

digital ınformation age. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 9(3),

693–708.

Kaynar, N., Sadik, O., & Boichuk, E. (2020). Technology in early childhood education:

electronic books for improving students’ literacy skills. Techtrends : Linking Research

and Practice to Improve Learning a Publication of the Association for Educational

 20

Communications & Technology, 64(6), 911–921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-020-

00520-5

Kurvinen, E., Kaila, E., Laakso, M., & Salakoski, T. (2020). Long term effects on technology

enhanced learning: The use of weekly digital lessons in mathematics. Informatics in

Education, 19(1), 51-75.

Lynne, S., Radley, K. C., Dart, E. H., Tingstrom, D. H., Barry, C. T., & Lum, J. D. K. (2017).

Use of a technology-enhanced version of the good behavior game in an elementary

school setting. Psychology in the Schools, 54(9), 1049–1063.

Madanipour, P., & Cohrssen, C. (2020). Augmented reality as a form of digital technology in

early childhood education. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 45(1), 5+.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A621894455/ITOF?u=nwcollege&sid=bookmark-

ITOF&xid=4c677c49

Mantilla, A., & Edwards, S. (2019). Digital technology use by and with young children: A

systematic review for the Statement on Young Children and Digital Technologies.

Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 44(2), 182+.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A610340290/ITOF?u=nwcollege

Maureen, I. Y., van der Meij, H., & Ton, d. J. (2018). Supporting literacy and digital literacy

development in early childhood education using storytelling activities. International

Journal of Early Childhood, 50(3), 371-389. Doi:

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s13158-018-0230-z
 21

Mikelic Preradovic, N., Lesin, G., & Sagud, M. (2016). Investigating parents' attitudes towards

digital technology use in early childhood: A case study from croatia. Informatics in

Education, 15(1), 127-146. Retrieved from

http://ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-

com.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/scholarly-journals/investigating-parents-attitudes-towards-

digital/docview/1781593785/se-2?accountid=28306

Mitra, S. (2019). Does Collaborative Use of the Internet Affect Reading Comprehension in

Children? Journal of Learning for Development, 6(1), 20-36.

Morgan, H. (2013). Creating videos can lead students to many academic benefits. Childhood

Education, 89(1), 51-53. Retrieved From

http://ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-

com.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/scholarly-journals/creating-videos-can-lead-students-many-

academic/docview/1492204538/se-2?accountid=28306

Neumann, M. M., Finger, G., & Neumann, D. L. (2017). A conceptual framework for emergent

digital literacy. Early Childhood Education Journal, 45(4), 471-479.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s10643-016-0792-z

Neumann, M. M., & Neumann, D. L. (2014). Touch screen tablets and emergent literacy. Early

Childhood Education Journal, 42(4), 231-239.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s10643-013-0608-3

Ntuli, E., & Kyei-Blankson, L. (2012). Teacher assessment of young children learning with
 22

technology in early childhood education. International Journal of Information and

Communication Technology Education, 8(4), 1+.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A305370169/PROF?u=nwcollege&sid=oclc&xid=246b0d

24

Özyurt, G., Dinsever, Ç., Çalişkan, Z., & Evgin, D. (2018). Effects of triple P on digital

technological device use in preschool children. Journal of Child and Family Studies,

27(1), 280-289.

Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M., & Zaranis, N. (2018). The effectiveness of computer and tablet

assisted intervention in early childhood students’ understanding of numbers. an empirical

study conducted in Greece. Education and Information Technologies, 23(5), 1849-1871.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.nwciowa.edu/10.1007/s10639-018-9693-7

Park, M.-H., Dimitrov, D. M., Patterson, L. G., & Park, D.-Y. (2017). Early childhood teachers'

beliefs about readiness for teaching science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Journal of Early Childhood Research, 15(3), 275–291.

Tran, Y. (2019). Computational thinking equity in elementary classrooms: what third-grade

students know and can do. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(1), 3–31.

Yoon, S.Y., Dyehouse, M., Lucietto, A.M., Diefes-Dux, H.A. and Capobianco, B.M. (2014).

Effects of Integrated STEM Education on Students. School Science and Math, 114: 380-

391.

Zhao, P., & Li, X. (2015). Arts Teachers' Media and Digital Literacy in Kindergarten: A Case
 23

Study on Finnish and Chinese Children using a Shared Blog in Early Childhood

Education. International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 6(1).

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A429759544/AONE?u=nwcollege&sid=bookmark-

AONE&xid=e18e4089

Zhou, N., & Yadav, A. (2017). Effects of multimedia story reading and questioning on

preschoolers’ vocabulary learning, story comprehension and reading engagement.

Educational Technology, Research and Development, 65(6), 1523-1545