Mobile Communications

Chapter 7: Wireless LANs

• Characteristics
• IEEE 802.11 (PHY, MAC, Roaming, .11a, b, g, h, i, n … z)
• Bluetooth / IEEE 802.15.x
• IEEE 802.16/.20/.21/.22
• RFID
• Comparison
Prof. Jó Ueyama

courtesy from Prof. Dr. Jochen Schiller 7.1

 Mobile Communication Technology
according to IEEE (examples)
WiFi
Local wireless networks 802.11a 802.11h
WLAN 802.11 802.11i/e/…/n/…/z
802.11b 802.11g

ZigBee
802.15.4 802.15.4a/b/c/d/e
Personal wireless nw
WPAN 802.15 802.15.5, .6 (WBAN)
802.15.2 802.15.3 802.15.3b/c
802.15.1
Bluetooth
Wireless distribution networks
WMAN 802.16 (Broadband Wireless Access) WiMAX
+ Mobility
[802.20 (Mobile Broadband Wireless Access)]
802.16e (addition to .16 for mobile devices)
7.2
Main features of the existing wireless technologies

7.3
Characteristics of wireless LANs
• Advantages
• very flexible within the reception area
• Ad-hoc networks without previous planning possible
• (almost) no wiring difficulties (e.g. historic buildings,
firewalls)
• more robust against disasters like, e.g., earthquakes, fire -
or users pulling a plug...
• Disadvantages
• typically very low bandwidth compared to wired networks
(1-10 Mbit/s) due to shared medium
• many proprietary solutions, especially for higher bit-rates,
standards take their time (e.g. IEEE 802.11n)
• products have to follow many national restrictions if working
wireless, it takes a vary long time to establish global
solutions like, e.g., IMT-2000

7.4
Design goals for wireless LANs
• global, seamless operation
• low power for battery use (e.g. WSNs and cell phones)
• no special permissions or licenses needed to use the LAN
• robust transmission technology
• simplified spontaneous cooperation at meetings
• easy to use for everyone, simple management
• protection of investment in wired networks (i.e.
interoperable with wired LANs)
• security (no one should be able to read my data), privacy
(no one should be able to collect user profiles), safety
(low radiation)
• transparency concerning applications and higher layer
protocols, but also location awareness if necessary

7.5
Comparison: infrared vs. radio
transmission
• Infrared • Radio
• uses IR diodes, diffuse light, • typically using the license
multiple reflections (walls, free ISM band at 2.4 GHz
furniture etc.)
• Advantages
• Advantages • experience from wireless
• simple, cheap, available in many WAN and mobile phones can
mobile devices be used
• no licenses needed • coverage of larger areas
• simple shielding possible possible (radio can penetrate
• Disadvantages walls, furniture etc.)
• interference by sunlight, heat • Disadvantages
sources etc. • very limited license free
• many things shield or absorb IR frequency bands
light • shielding more difficult,
• low bandwidth interference with other
electrical devices
• Example
• IrDA (Infrared Data Association) • Example
interface available everywhere • Many different products

7.6
Comparison: infrastructure vs. ad-hoc
networks

infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP

AP wired network
AP

ad-hoc network

7.7
802.11 - Architecture of an
infrastructure network
• Station (STA)
802.11 LAN • terminal with access
802.x LAN
mechanisms to the wireless
medium and radio contact to the
access point
STA1 • Basic Service Set (BSS)
BSS1
Portal • group of stations using the same
Access radio frequency
Point
• Access Point
Distribution System • station integrated into the
wireless LAN and the distribution
Access system
ESS Point
• Portal
• bridge to other (wired) networks
BSS2
• Distribution System
• interconnection network to form
one logical network (EES:
Extended Service Set) based
STA2 802.11 LAN STA3 on several BSS

7.8
802.11 - Architecture of an ad-hoc
network
• Direct communication within
802.11 LAN a limited range
• Station (STA):
terminal with access
STA1
IBSS1 STA3 mechanisms to the wireless
medium
• Independent Basic Service
Set (IBSS):
STA2 group of stations using the
same radio frequency

IBSS2

STA5

STA4 802.11 LAN

7.9
IEEE standard 802.11

fixed
terminal
mobile terminal

infrastructure
network

access point
application application
TCP TCP
LLC – Logical Link Control – interface between different
IP medias IP
LLC LLC LLC
802.11 MAC 802.11 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC
802.11 PHY 802.11 PHY 802.3 PHY 802.3 PHY

7.10
 802.11 - Layers and functions
• MAC • PHY Management includes
– PLCP Physical Layer Convergence Protocol
• access mechanisms, clear channel assessment signal
•
fragmentation, encryption (carrier sense)

• MAC Management – PMD Physical Medium Dependent

modulation, coding, transforms bits
•
• synchronization, roaming, into signals
MIB, power management
• Station Management
• coordination of all management functions

Station Management
LLC
DLC

MAC MAC Management

PLCP
PHY

PHY Management
PMD

7.11
802.11 - Physical layer (legacy)
• 3 versions: 2 radio (typ. 2.4 GHz), 1 IR
• data rates 1 or 2 Mbit/s
• FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• spreading, despreading
• Frequency multiplexing
• DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
• Multiplexes by code (i.e. using a chipping code)
• Implementation is more complex than FHHS
• chipping sequence: +1, -1, +1, +1, -1, +1, +1, +1, -1, -1, -1
(Barker code)
• DATA XOR chipping code
• Infrared
• Wavelength around 850-950 nm, diffuse light, typ. 10 m range
• uses near visible light
• carrier detection, up to 4Mbits/s data rate

7.12
FHSS PHY packet format (legacy)
• Synchronization
• synch with 010101... pattern
• SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)
• 0000110010111101 start pattern
• PLW (PLCP_PDU Length Word)
• length of payload incl. 32 bit CRC of payload, PLW < 4096
• PSF (PLCP Signaling Field)
• data rate of the payload (0000 -> the lowest data rate)
• HEC (Header Error Check)
• checksum with the standard ITU-T polynomial generator
80 16 12 4 16 variable bits
synchronization SFD PLW PSF HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

7.13
DSSS PHY packet format (legacy)
• Synchronization
• synch., gain setting, energy detection, frequency offset compensation
• SFD (Start Frame Delimiter)
• 1111001110100000
• Signal
• data rate of the payload (0A: 1 Mbit/s DBPSK; 14: 2 Mbit/s DQPSK)
• Service
• future use, 00: 802.11 compliant
• Length
• length of the payload
• HEC (Header Error Check)
• protected by checksum using ITU-T standard polynomial error check

128 16 8 8 16 16 variable bits

synchronization SFD signal service length HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

7.14
802.11 - MAC layer I - DFWMAC
• MAC layer has to fulfill several tasks including:
– control medium access
– support for roaming
– authentication
– power conservation
• In summary, it has two key tasks:
– traffic services
– access control

7.15
802.11 - MAC layer I - DFWMAC
• Traffic services (two implementations)
• Asynchronous Data Service (mandatory)
• exchange of data packets based on “best-effort”
• support of broadcast and multicast
• Time-Bounded Service (optional)
• implemented using PCF (Point Coordination Function)
• Access methods
• DFWMAC-DCF CSMA/CA (mandatory)
• collision avoidance via randomized „back-off“ mechanism
• minimum distance between consecutive packets
• ACK packet for acknowledgements (not for broadcasts)
• DFWMAC-DCF w/ RTS/CTS (optional)
• Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC
• avoids hidden terminal problem
• DFWMAC- PCF (optional)
• access point polls terminals according to a list

7.16
802.11 - MAC layer II
• Priorities
• defined through different inter frame spaces
• no guaranteed, hard priorities
• SIFS (Short Inter Frame Spacing)
• highest priority, for ACK, CTS, polling response
• PIFS (PCF IFS)
• medium priority, for time-bounded service using PCF
• DIFS (DCF Inter frame spacing)
• lowest priority, for asynchronous data service

DIFS DIFS
PIFS
SIFS
medium busy contention next frame
t
direct access if
medium is free  DIFS

7.17
802.11 - CSMA/CA access method I
• station ready to send starts sensing the medium (Carrier
Sense based on CCA, Clear Channel Assessment)
• if the medium is free for the duration of an Inter-Frame
Space (IFS), the station can start sending (IFS depends
on service type)
• if the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free
IFS, then the station must additionally wait a random
back-off time (collision avoidance, multiple of slot-time)
• if another station occupies the medium during the back-off
time of the station, the back-off timer stops (fairness)
contention window
DIFS DIFS
(randomized back-off
mechanism)
medium busy next frame

direct access if t
medium is free  DIFS slot time (20µs)
7.18
802.11 - competing stations - simple
version

DIFS DIFS DIFS DIFS

boe bor boe bor boe busy
station1

boe busy
station2

busy
station3

boe busy boe bor

station4

boe bor boe busy boe bor

station5
t

busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.) boe elapsed backoff time

packet arrival at MAC bor residual backoff time

7.19
802.11 - CSMA/CA access method II
• Sending unicast packets
• station has to wait for DIFS before sending data
• receivers acknowledge at once (after waiting for SIFS) if the
packet was received correctly (CRC)
• automatic retransmission of data packets in case of
transmission errors

DIFS
data
sender
SIFS
ACK
receiver
DIFS
other data
stations t
waiting time contention

7.20
802.11 - DFWMAC
• Sending unicast packets
• station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS
(reservation determines amount of time the data packet needs the
medium)
• acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
• sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
• other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS

DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK
receiver

NAV (RTS) DIFS

other NAV (CTS) data
stations t
defer access contention
7.21
Fragmentation

DIFS
RTS frag1 frag2
sender
SIFS SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK1 SIFS ACK2
receiver

NAV (RTS)
NAV (CTS)
NAV (frag1) DIFS
other NAV (ACK1) data
stations t
contention

7.22
DFWMAC-PCF I (almost never used)

t0 t1
SuperFrame

medium busy PIFS SIFS SIFS

D1 D2
point
coordinator SIFS SIFS
U1 U2
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV

D – downstream data
U – upstram data

7.23
DFWMAC-PCF II

D – downstream data
U – upstram data

t2 t3 t4

PIFS SIFS
D3 D4 CFend
point
coordinator SIFS
U4
wireless
stations
stations‘ NAV
NAV contention free period contention t
period

7.24
802.11 - Frame format
• Types
• control, management (e.g. , beacon) and data frames
• Sequence numbers
• important against duplicated frames due to lost ACKs
• Addresses
• receiver, transmitter (physical), BSS identifier, sender
(logical)
• Miscellaneous
• sending time, checksum, frame control, data
bytes 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4
Frame Duration/ Address Address Address Sequence Address
Data CRC
Control ID 1 2 3 Control 4

bits 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Protocol To From More Power More
Type Subtype Retry WEP Order
version DS DS Frag Mgmt Data

7.25
MAC address format

scenario to DS from address 1 address 2 address 3 address 4

DS
ad-hoc network 0 0 DA SA BSSID -
infrastructure 0 1 DA BSSID SA -
network, from AP
infrastructure 1 0 BSSID SA DA -
network, to AP
infrastructure 1 1 RA TA DA SA
network, within DS

DS: Distribution System

AP: Access Point
DA: Destination Address
SA: Source Address
BSSID: Basic Service Set Identifier
RA: Receiver Address
TA: Transmitter Address
Address1 – destination
Address2 – source (ACK will be sent to)
Address3 – filter (often it will carry BSSID addr)
Address4 – Address of the source Access Point

7.26
Special Frames: ACK, RTS, CTS
• Acknowledgement bytes 2 2 6 4
ACK Frame Receiver
Duration CRC
Control Address

• Request To Send bytes 2 2 6 6 4

Frame Receiver Transmitter
RTS Duration CRC
Control Address Address

• Clear To Send bytes 2 2 6 4

Frame Receiver
CTS Duration CRC
Control Address

7.27
802.11 - MAC management
• Synchronization
• try to find a LAN, try to stay within a LAN
• timer etc.
• Power management
• sleep-mode without missing a message
• periodic sleep, frame buffering, traffic measurements
• Association/Reassociation
• integration into a LAN
• roaming, i.e. change networks by changing access points
• scanning, i.e. active search for a network
• MIB - Management Information Base
• managing, read, write

7.28
Synchronization using a Beacon
(infrastructure)

beacon interval
(20ms – 1s)

B B B B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame

7.29
Synchronization using a Beacon (ad-
hoc)

beacon interval

B1 B1
station1

B2 B2
station2

busy busy busy busy

medium
t
value of the timestamp B beacon frame random delay

7.30
Power management
• Idea: switch the transceiver off if not needed
• States of a station: sleep and awake
• Timing Synchronization Function (TSF)
• stations wake up at the same time
• Infrastructure
• Traffic Indication Map (TIM)
• list of unicast receivers transmitted by AP
• Delivery Traffic Indication Map (DTIM)
• list of broadcast/multicast receivers transmitted by AP
• Ad-hoc
• Ad-hoc Traffic Indication Map (ATIM)
• announcement of receivers by stations buffering frames
• more complicated - no central AP
• collision of ATIMs possible (scalability?)
• APSD (Automatic Power Save Delivery)
• new method in 802.11e replacing above schemes
7.31
Power saving with wake-up patterns
(infrastructure)

TIM interval DTIM interval

D B T T d D B
access
point
busy busy busy busy
medium

p d
station
t
T TIM D DTIM awake

B broadcast/multicast p PS poll d data transmission

to/from the station

7.32
Power saving with wake-up patterns
(ad-hoc)

ATIM
window beacon interval

B1 A D B1
station1

B2 B2 a d
station2

t
B beacon frame random delay A transmit ATIM D transmit data

awake a acknowledge ATIM d acknowledge data

7.33
802.11 - Roaming
• No or bad connection? Then perform:
• Scanning
• scan the environment, i.e., listen into the medium for beacon
signals or send probes into the medium and wait for an answer
• Reassociation Request
• station sends a request to one or several AP(s)
• Reassociation Response
• success: AP has answered, station can now participate
• failure: continue scanning
• AP accepts Reassociation Request
• signal the new station to the distribution system
• the distribution system updates its data base (i.e., location
information)
• typically, the distribution system now informs the old AP so it can
release resources
• Fast roaming – 802.11r
• e.g. for vehicle-to-roadside networks

7.34
WLAN: IEEE 802.11b
• Data rate • Connection set-up time
• Connectionless/always on
• 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbit/s,
depending on SNR • Quality of Service
• Typ. Best effort, no guarantees
• User data rate max. approx. (unless polling is used, limited
6 Mbit/s support in products)
• Transmission range • Manageability
• Limited (no automated key
• 300m outdoor, 30m indoor distribution, sym. Encryption)
• Max. data rate ~10m indoor • Special
• Frequency Advantages/Disadvantages
• Advantage: many installed
• DSSS, 2.4 GHz ISM-band
systems, lot of experience,
• Security available worldwide, free ISM-
band, many vendors, integrated
• Limited, WEP insecure, SSID in laptops, simple system
• Availability • Disadvantage: heavy
interference on ISM-band, no
• Many products, many service guarantees, slow relative
vendors speed only

7.35
IEEE 802.11b – PHY frame formats
Long PLCP PPDU format
128 16 8 8 16 16 variable bits
synchronization SFD signal service length HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

192 µs at 1 Mbit/s DBPSK 1, 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s

Short PLCP PPDU format (optional)

56 16 8 8 16 16 variable bits
short synch. SFD signal service length HEC payload

PLCP preamble PLCP header

(1 Mbit/s, DBPSK) (2 Mbit/s, DQPSK)

96 µs 2, 5.5 or 11 Mbit/s

7.36
Channel selection (non-overlapping)

Europe (ETSI)

channel 1 channel 7 channel 13

2400 2412 2442 2472 2483.5

22 MHz [MHz]
US (FCC)/Canada (IC)

channel 1 channel 6 channel 11

2400 2412 2437 2462 2483.5

22 MHz [MHz]

7.37
WLAN: IEEE 802.11a
• Data rate • Connection set-up time
• 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 • Connectionless/always on
Mbit/s, depending on SNR
• User throughput (1500 byte • Quality of Service
packets): 5.3 (6), 18 (24), 24 • Typ. best effort, no guarantees
(36), 32 (54) (same as all 802.11 products)
• 6, 12, 24 Mbit/s mandatory • Manageability
• Transmission range • Limited (no automated key
• 100m outdoor, 10m indoor distribution, sym. Encryption)
• E.g., 54 Mbit/s up to 5 m, 48 up
to 12 m, 36 up to 25 m, 24 up • Special
to 30m, 18 up to 40 m, 12 up to Advantages/Disadvantages
60 m
• Advantage: fits into 802.x
• Frequency standards, free ISM-band,
• Free 5.15-5.25, 5.25-5.35, available, simple system, uses
5.725-5.825 GHz ISM-band less crowded 5 GHz band
• Security • Disadvantage: stronger shading
• Limited, WEP insecure, SSID due to higher frequency, no QoS
• Availability
• Some products, some vendors

7.38
IEEE 802.11a – PHY frame format

4 1 12 1 6 16 variable 6 variable bits

rate reserved length parity tail service payload tail pad

PLCP header

PLCP preamble signal data

12 1 variable symbols

6 Mbit/s 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s

7.39
Operating channels of 802.11a in
Europe

36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 channel

5150 5180 5200 5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320 5350 [MHz]
16.6 MHz

100 104 108 112 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 channel

5470 5500 5520 5540 5560 5580 5600 5620 5640 5660 5680 5700 5725
16.6 MHz [MHz]
center frequency =
5000 + 5*channel number [MHz]

7.40
Operating channels for 802.11a / US
U-NII

36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 channel

5150 5180 5200 5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320 5350 [MHz]
16.6 MHz

center frequency =
5000 + 5*channel number [MHz]
149 153 157 161 channel

5725 5745 5765 5785 5805 5825 [MHz]

16.6 MHz

7.41
OFDM in IEEE 802.11a
• OFDM with 52 used subcarriers (64 in total)
• 48 data + 4 pilot
• (plus 12 virtual subcarriers)
• 312.5 kHz spacing
pilot 312.5 kHz

-26 -21 -7 -1 1 7 21 26 subcarrier

channel center frequency number

7.42