1892 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/The Products and Their Manufacture

DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE

Contents
The Products and Their Manufacture
Chemistry of the Products

The Products and Their 1. oil and vinegar dressings (most are temporary 0004

Manufacture emulsions);
2. emulsified dressings (most are permanent emul- 0005
S C Yang and L S Lal, Providence University, Taiwan, sions);
Republic of China 3. cooked salad dressings (most are emulsions 0006

Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved. containing a starch thickener);
4. low-fat/diet products (most are emulsions contain- 0007

ing hydrocolloids for viscosity and texture charac-

Introduction teristics).
0001 Salad dressings are liquid or semiliquid products used Each type of salad dressing must conform to certain
to flavor, moisturize, and enrich salads. In addition, specifications; in the USA each has a standard of
they may be used as spreads for sandwiches or as identity established by the Food and Drug Adminis-
ingredients in a variety of cold and hot recipes. tration (FDA).
0002 A two-phase emulsion may consist of oil droplets
in water phase (i.e. oil-in-water emulsion) or water
Typical Examples and Their Uses
droplets in oil phase (water-in-oil emulsion), as
shown in Figure 1. Traditional salad dressings are Oil and Vinegar Dressings
oil-in-water emulsions. Droplets of oil, the dispersed
phase, are suspended in a continuous aqueous acidic Basic French dressing and variations such as mustard 0008

phase such as vinegar or lemon juice. Other ingredi- French, herbed French, Italian, piquante, chiffonade,
ents are added to modify the flavor or texture. Nor- and avocado dressings are examples of temporary oil
mally oil and water do not combine well, but separate and vinegar emulsions. The ingredients include vin-
into layers. However, the two phases must remain egar, oil, and various dry ingredients. In these prod-
evenly dispersed in an acceptable salad dressing. ucts the liquid phase separates after mixing, although
(See Colloids and Emulsions.) dry ingredients, such as mustard and paprika, collect
0003 Salad dressings can be divided into four categories at the oil–water interface to give limited stability to
on the basis of their formulations and stability: the emulsion. These dressings should be mixed thor-
oughly immediately before they are used. The harder
the mixture is beaten or shaken, the longer it takes for
it to separate again.
Water Oil
Emulsified Dressings
The classic example of an emulsified dressing is may- 0009
w
w onnaise, a permanent oil-in-water emulsion. Mayon-
w naise is made from a vegetable oil, vinegar and/or
lemon juice, and whole egg or egg yolk. Additional
w
seasonings such as mustard, paprika, and salt are
usually added. By legal definition in many countries
w
w
(e.g., the USA), commercial mayonnaise must contain
w either egg yolk or whole egg and must have an oil
w content of not less than 65% by weight. Whole
egg or egg yolk functions as an effective emulsifier
(a) (b)
and creates a permanent emulsion. The rather high
fig0001 Figure 1 A two-phase emulsion may consist of (a) oil droplets percentage of oil contributes significantly to the vis-
in water (o/w) or (b) water droplets in oil (w/o). cosity of the dressing. The viscous nature of permanent
 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/The Products and Their Manufacture 1893

emulsions makes it difficult for the oil drops to come reduction of oil content. The oils are the same as for the
into direct contact and coalesce. (See Emulsifiers: full-fat products. Generally, soya bean oil is used.
Organic Emulsifiers.) Gums, particularly xanthum and alginates, are incorp-
0010 Emulsified French dressing is similar to basic orated to stabilize the formula, and water replaces the
French dressing, except that egg yolk is added to fat removed. These products rely totally on hydrocol-
prevent the oil and vinegar from separating. Its prep- loids for viscosity and texture characteristics.
aration is similar to that of mayonnaise. Mayonnaise Food technologists have developed ingredients that 0015

is sometimes used by itself as a salad dressing but can be used to replace or lower the fat content of food
more often serves as the base for a variety of other products. One such ingredient is Simplesse, a physic-
dressings. Thousand Island, Lousis, Russian, Chan- ally modified combination of milk and egg-white
tilly, and blue cheese dressings are all mayonnaise- proteins processed by an internationally patented
based. These dressings are generally thick and heating and blending procedure called microparticu-
creamy, and many of them contain sour cream. lation. Simplesse possesses fat-like characteristics
while providing significantly fewer calories than fat
Cooked Salad Dressings
for such items as mayonnaise and salad dressings.
0011 Cooked salad dressings resemble mayonnaise in Other recently developed fat substitutes include Oles-
appearance but differ in some of the ingredients and tra, a sucrose polyester, and Veri-Lo, a creamy white
in the method of preparation. The basic ingredients emulsion containing milk fat. All substances must
are vegetable oil, vinegar or lemon juice, whole egg or undergo review and gain official approval before
egg yolk, milk or water, and a cooked starch paste. they can be used. (See Fats: Fat Replacers.)
Homemade cooked salad dressings are usually Reduced-sodium mayonnaise and salad dressings 0016

thickened with starch and/or egg. Very little, if any, are also of interest to health-conscious consumers.
oil is used in these dressings. However, a commercial The market has grown steadily since 1980, and is
salad dressing, labeled as such, must meet the stand- expected to make up 23% of the total sauces and
ard of identity of the FDA and contain by weight no dressings market by 1995. Reduced-sodium mayon-
less than 30% vegetable oil and no less than 4% naise is made with salted egg yolk containing potas-
liquid egg yolk or the equivalent. Although these sium chloride rather than sodium chloride. Frozen
dressings are often very similar in appearance to may- salted egg yolk made with potassium chloride is less
onnaise, they cannot be labeled mayonnaise because viscous than that containing sodium chloride. How-
of the lower oil and egg yolk content, plus the fact ever, viscosity and stability of mayonnaise made from
that they may contain cooked starch. The reduced oil 10% salted (potassium chloride) egg yolk are accept-
content has the advantage of making this product able. (See Hypertension: Hypertension and Diet;
lower in calories than mayonnaise. Sodium: Physiology.)
Continued growth in the area of low-calorie, re- 0017
Low-Fat/Diet Products
duced-fat and reduced-sodium mayonnaise and salad
0012 The recent change in dietary consciousness has dressings is anticipated. The aging population, com-
affected the type of food consumers select at super- bined with increased nutritional awareness, will
markets and in restaurants. In 1985, the size of create a market for such modified products.
reduced-fat or reduced-calorie sauces and dressings
grew faster than the total market. In 1986, this
Formulations
category of food grew at an annual rate of 6% but
reduced-calorie products achieved 23% growth. The Oil and Vinegar Dressings
driving forces were the increased interest in nutritious French dressing is prepared from edible vegetable oil 0018
foods and dietary fiber, less consumption of choles- and the following acidifying and flavoring ingredients:
terol, and a marked increase in vegetarianism.
0013 By moving low-calorie/reduced-fat out of the 1. salt; 0019

diet section of supermarkets and repositioning them 2. nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners, such as sucrose, 0020

with regular, standard products, producers improved dextrose, corn syrup, glucose syrup, or honey;
the image of these products. The low-calorie/reduced- 3. mustard, paprika or other spices, spice oils or 0021

fat products are now recognized by consumers not as spice extracts;

diet foods but as nutritious, lower-calorie counter- 4. any suitable, harmless food seasoning or flavoring 0022

parts to the standard products, with good sensory (other than imitation);
properties. 5. tomato paste, tomato purée, catsup, sherry wine; 0023

0014 Reduced-fat dressings and mayonnaise require pro- 6. any vinegar or vinegar diluted with water to an 0024

cessing similar to traditional products and a one-third acidity of not less than 2.5% by weight calculated
 1894 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/The Products and Their Manufacture

as acetic acid, or any such vinegar or diluted vin- no spice oil or spice extract which imparts to the
egar mixed with an additional optional acidifying mayonnaise a color simulating that imparted by
ingredient such as citric acid, weighing no more egg yolk;
than 25% of the weight of the acids of the vinegar 4. any suitable, harmless food seasoning or flavoring 0042

or diluted vinegar calculated as acetic acid (lemon (other than imitations), provided it does not
juice is another acidifying ingredient which may be impart to the mayonnaise a color simulating that
used in place of vinegar). imparted by egg yolk;
5. monosodium glutamate; 0043
French dressing contains not less than 35% by weight
6. acidifying ingredients, which may be any vinegar 0044
of vegetable oil. The ratio of oil to vinegar in basic
of not less than 2.5% acetic acid, or frozen,
French dressing is 3:1. Some chefs prefer a 2:1 ratio.
canned, concentrated or dried lemon or lime
Less oil makes the dressing more tart, while more oil
juice with a total acidity of no less than 2.5%
makes it milder in flavor and oilier. For emulsified
calculated as acetic acid; citric or malic acid may
French dressing, eggs or other emulsifiers (vegetable
be used in a proportion not to exceed 2.5% of the
gum, propylene glycol esters of alginic acid, methyl
acid of the vinegar calculated as acetic acid.
cellulose, pectin, xanthan gum, etc.) may be added,
the total content being no more than 0.75% by A typical commercial mayonnaise formula may contain:
weight. Eggs used for French dressing can be fresh,
frozen, or dried. Vegetable oil 78.5% 0045

0025 Formulae for commercially prepared dressings and Vinegar, white (10%) 3.8% 0046

mayonnaise vary according to the specific plant and Water 11.6% 0047
equipment employed. Also, taste preference is differ- Sugar 1.8% 0048
ent from region to region. Herein, typical formulae Salt 1.2% 0049

for certain commercial products are presented. Spices (mustard, onion, etc.) 0.3% 0050

0026 A typical commercial French dressing formula may Dried egg yolk solids 2.8% 0051

contain:
This formula provides a mayonnaise with medium
Water 12.0%
viscosity. For a heavier viscosity, vegetable oil may
Vinegar (cider) 5% 22.0%
be increased to 80.5% and water decreased to 9.6%.
Sugar 8.8%
Mayonnaise may be mixed and packed in an inert
Salt 3.5%
atmosphere in which air is replaced totally or in part
Worcestershire sauce 3.5%
by carbon dioxide or nitrogen. Dried egg-yolk solids
Paprika 4.5%
may be substituted for liquid egg yolk on a total solids
Mustard, garlic, onion 4.7% basis.
White pepper 0.3%
Vegetable oil 40.0%
Gum tragacanth 0.4% Cooked Salad Dressings
Dried egg-yolk solids 0.3% Salad dressing is the emulsified semisolid product 0052

In this formula, the total solids of commercial liquid prepared from ingredients such as those of mayon-
egg yolk is about 44%. Dried egg yolk may be substi- naise plus cooked (or partially cooked) starch paste
tuted for commercial liquid egg yolk on a total solids prepared with a food starch, tapioca, wheat or rye
basis. French dressing may be mixed and packed in an flour, or any two or more of these. Salad dressing
inert atmosphere in which air is replaced totally or in under the FDA standards of identity resembles may-
part by carbon dioxide or nitrogen. onnaise in that it is an emulsion of oil in vinegar with
egg as an emulsifier. It differs from mayonnaise in that
Emulsified Dressings it also contains starch paste as a thickener. Salad
0038 Mayonnaise and mayonnaise dressing are emulsified dressing may be flavored with one or more of the
semisolid food products prepared from edible vege- following ingredients:
table oil, egg yolk-containing ingredients and the
1. salt; 0053
following acidifying and flavoring ingredients:
2. nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners; 0054

0039 1. salt; 3. mustard, paprika or other spices, spice oils or any 0055

0040 2. nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners, such as sucrose, suitable harmless food seasoning or flavoring in-
dextrose, corn syrup, glucose syrup, or honey; gredient providing they do not impart a color
0041 3. mustard, paprika or other spices, spice oils or simulating that imparted by egg yolk;
spice extracts, except turmeric or saffron, and 4. monosodium glutamate. 0056
 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/The Products and Their Manufacture 1895

Salad dressing contains not less than 30% by weight reference amount contains no or physiologically in-
of vegetable oil and no less egg yolk-containing ingre- consequential amount, specifically, < 5 cal, < 5 mg
dient than is equivalent to 4% by weight of the yolk sodium, < 0.5 g fat, < 0.5 g saturated fat and < 0.5 g
solids of liquid egg yolk. Salad dressing may also trans fatty acids, < 2 mg cholesterol, or < 0.5 g sugars.
contain not more than 0.75% by weight of any of Standards may vary by country.
several polysaccharide gums or their cellulose deriva- Various fat-replacers, including starch-derived fat 0068

tives, methylcellulose and sodium carboxymethylcel- mimetics, fiber-based fat mimetics, microparticulated
lulose; gums are not permitted in mayonnaise. The proteins, hydrocolloid gums, and synthetic fat
acidifying ingredients may be any vinegar or frozen, mimetics, have been successfully applied to reduced-
canned concentrated or dried lemon juice. Citric or fat, low-fat, and fat-free salad dressings. Formulation
malic acid may be used in a proportion not to exceed of a low-fat salad dressing containing 5% oil may
25% of the total acid of the vinegar calculated as contain:
acetic acid. A typical commercial salad dressing for-
Microcrystalline cellulose 3.2% 0069
mula may contain:
Vegetable oil 4.3% 0070

0057 Vegetable oil 30.0% Xanthan gum 0.3% 0071

0058 Starch paste mixture 68.2% Modified starch 3.6% 0072

0059 Dried egg-yolk solids 1.8% Sugar 5.8% 0073

Egg yolk 4.0% 0074

Dried egg-yolk solids may be substituted for liquid
Vinegar 4.5% 0075
egg yolk on a total solids basis.
Lemon juice 0.5% 0076
0060 The starch paste is made by cooking and cooling a
Salt 1.8% 0077
combination of ingredients in the following propor-
Water 72.0% 0078
tions:
0061 Vinegar (10%) 17.2% The reduced-fat, low-fat, and fat-free salad dressing
0062 Salt 4.0% formulations are generally designed to impart a full-
0063 Starches 7.7% fat organoleptic profile, including texture, appear-
0064 Sugar 15.0% ance, mouth feel, and body.
0065 Spices (mustard, celery, etc.) 1.1%
Major Ingredients in the Formulae
0066 Water 55.0%
Vegetable oil Oil is the major ingredient contribut- 0079
The starch may be a food starch, modified food
ing to the viscosity and body of mayonnaise. The
starch, tapioca, wheat, rye flour, or any two or more
rigidity of the emulsion depends partly on the size of
of these. Water may be added in the preparation of
the oil droplets and partly on how tightly they are
the paste. Salad dressing may be mixed and packed in
packed. The more oil that is dispersed in the emul-
an inert atmosphere in which air is replaced in total or
sion, the stiffer it will be. The choice of oil is governed
in part by carbon dioxide or nitrogen.
by quality and local preference. It should be bland.
Low-Fat/Diet Products
Strongly flavored oils can make excellent dressings
but are not appropriate with every food. Today,
0067 The Nutrition Labeling and Educational Act (NLEA) soya bean, cottonseed, sunflower, and corn oils are
of 1990 standardized the nutrient content claims on used commercially. They may be used singly or in
food labels in the USA. Additionally, the NLEA combination. Deodorized, winterized oil should be
standardized the serving sizes for each product. The used with dressings that are to be refrigerated. (See
US regulations for foods are published in Code of Soy (Soya) Beans: The Crop.)
Food Regulations 21 CFR Part 101 each year. The
three claims of particular interest here are ‘reduced,’ Vinegar The functions of vinegar are as a preserva- 0080

‘low,’ and ‘free’ as applied to calories, sodium, fat, tive and a flavoring. Acid is the main preservative
saturated fat, and cholesterol. In the USA, the term against microbial spoilage in mayonnaise. The indus-
‘reduced’ refers to a nutritionally altered product that try makes use primarily of two types of vinegar,
contains at least 25% less of a nutrient or 25% fewer namely cider vinegar and distilled vinegar. The ideal
calories than a reference food. The term ‘low’ refers vinegar for salad dressing and mayonnaise is one
to a reference amount (or 50 g of food, if the reference which is mild in odor and taste. Vinegar strength is
amount is small) that contains  40 calories, measured by ‘grain’, 100 g equalling 10% acetic acid.
 140 mg sodium,  3 g fat,  1 g saturated fat, and Most salad vinegars range from 3 to 5% and should
 15% of calories from saturated fat, or  20 mg of be standardized by dilution with water before meas-
cholesterol. The term ‘free’ refers to a serving and the uring out for a recipe. (See Vinegar.)
 1896 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/The Products and Their Manufacture

0081 Cider, malt and wine vinegars are more costly than barrier to reduce the possibilities of flocculation
distilled vinegar, but have unique flavors which con- and coalescence of fat droplets. Gums and/or starches
tribute character to mayonnaise. Distilled vinegar is are added to dressings possibly due to their thickening
used when a neutral flavor is desired. Lemon juice and/or surface-active effect. Gums and/or starches
may be used in place of, or in addition to, vinegar may improve the emulsion stability of the dressings
when its flavor is desired. by making the continuous phase more viscous, redu-
cing the possibilities of fat droplets encountering each
0082 Egg Egg yolk is the emulsifying agent most often other, and creating a yield stress which increases
used in the home for preparing emulsions requiring emulsion stability by minimizing or eliminating
stability. The fact that egg yolk is itself an emulsion creaming of the fat droplets under gravity force.
explains, at least in part, why it is such an effective
agent. (See Stabilizers: Types and Function.) Mustard Mustard flour is probably used in more 0088

0083 Eggs for mayonnaise may be fresh, frozen, or dried. dressing formulae than any other spice. It is used
Fresh broken eggs usually make a weak-bodied may- chiefly for flavor but contributes slightly to emulsifi-
onnaise, although the product may stiffen somewhat cation. Oil of mustard can be used in place of mustard
during storage. Upon freezing and storing raw egg flour without affecting the emulsion strength. Oil
yolk below  6
C, its viscosity increases and gelation of mustard must be obtained from mustard seed.
occurs. This irreversible gelation of egg yolk makes it Synthetic allyl isothiocyanate is not permitted. (See
useless for mayonnaise production. The addition of Mustard and Condiment Products.)
10% salt (sodium chloride) or 10% sugar will par-
tially inhibit the gelation. Mayonnaise made from
Procedures for Manufacture
frozen salted egg yolk is thick and creamy. Dried
yolk disperses readily in the aqueous phase of mayon- Mayonnaise is prepared commercially by both batch 0089

naise, and results in a thicker product than that and continuous methods, and there are many vari-
obtained from frozen egg when prepared with the ations with respect to order and rate of ingredient
same total egg solids content. additions. All equipment should be fabricated from
0084 Egg yolk is the primary source of color in mayon- stainless steel since vinegar will corrode ordinary steel
naise. The intensity and tone of the yellow color of and aluminum. Two-stage mixing is commonly
the yolk determine the color of the finished product, employed with high-speed turbine blades in the first
because no other coloring matter is permitted. In stage followed by more severe shearing of the oil into
mayonnaise formulation, sequestrants, including but fine droplets in the second stage. The second-stage
not limited to calcium disodium ethylenediaminete- mixer may possess close-clearance whirling teeth as
tra-acetate (EDTA) and/or disodium EDTA, may be in a colloid mill.
used to preserve color. The Dixie–Charlotte system is probably the one 0090

0085 Pasteurization of egg products in the USA became most widely used for the production of mayonnaise
mandatory on 1 June 1966 in order to eliminate and salad dressings. The system consists of two Dixie
problems with salmonella. Eggs used for dressings mixers and a Charlotte colloid mill connected by
and mayonnaise must meet this requirement. appropriate piping, valves, and a rotary positive dis-
placement pump. It is arranged so that one mixer
0086 Biopolymer Proteins and polysaccharides, such as feeds premix to the mill while another batch of pre-
soy protein isolate, whey protein concentrate, mix is being prepared in the other mixer. The Dixie
xanthan gum, sodium alginate, propylene glycol al- mixer is a deep circular tank fitted with three turbine
ginate, locust bean gum, guar gum, gum arabic, gum mixers mounted side-by-side on a horizontal shaft
acacia, starch, modified starch and microcrystalline close to the tank bottom. The shaft is turned by a
cellulose, are the two most important types of bio- variable-speed motor. This mixer can prepare mayon-
polymers used as ingredients in mayonnaise and naise requiring no further processing. The emulsion
salad dressings to enhance the texture, replace will be similar to one made with a Hobart mixer. The
part or all of the fat, and enhance the stability of creamy texture of modern mayonnaise is obtained by
emulsions. pumping this relatively soft, coarse emulsion through
0087 Proteins can form a film around the surface of the Charlotte mill. This equipment is available in a
fat droplets through three stages: (1) native protein number of sizes with capacities ranging from 60 to
molecules diffuse to the interface; (2) protein pene- 760 l per batch and yielding 230–4540 l of finished
trates the interface; and (3) molecules rearrange to mayonnaise per hour. The system is arranged on a
achieve minimum energy. Such actions not only continuous-batch basis and can be modified to be
reduce the interfacial tension, but also form a physical operated as a truly continuous system.
 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/The Products and Their Manufacture 1897

0091 Preparation of mayonnaise premix in the Dixie No matter what process is employed, starch paste 0096

mixer is started by adding mayonnaise from a previ- should be used as soon as possible after preparation.
ous run to a level which will reach the mixer shaft. The longer it stands after cooling, the more readily it
This gives the turbine blades a heavy material to work will break down on being worked into the dressing.
against while shearing the oil into fine droplets. Egg This is especially true with high-amylose starches.
and dry ingredients are then added to the mixer with Cooking starch in vinegar solution tends to degrade
low-speed agitation. Oil and vinegar are then pumped or hydrolyze the starch to some extent. Modified
or fed by gravity from supply tanks into the mixer. starches are usually more resistant to breakdown
Agitation speed is usually increased periodically as than unmodified types. Where feasible, it is best to
the level of the premix rises. If the oil is added too cook the starch with a minimum amount of vinegar
slowly the premix will be thick and only partially in the water solution. (See Starch: Modified Starches.)
emulsified. The subsequent passage through the col- The continuous method employed in the manufac- 0097

loid mill causes an overemulsification, resulting in a ture of mayonnaise and salad dressing provides con-
less viscous and stable mayonnaise. If the oil is added tinuous automatic control so that one worker can
too quickly, in relation to agitator speed, the premix process up to 7570 l of mayonnaise, salad dressing,
will develop an oily and curdled appearance; and, if and pourable dressings per hour. One operator can
the rate is not reduced, the emulsion will reverse to monitor the entire system. Manual operation is
the water-in-oil type. almost nonexistent now.
0092 The premix is pumped through the Charlotte mill Formulae are monitored from a control center. In 0098

as soon as it is made. Timing should be such that the the case of salad dressings, the system includes four
alternate premix tank should have just finished probe-controlled surge tanks: one for oil, one for
emptying. This is critical with many mayonnaise for- starch, one for egg, and one for the brine additive.
mulations as the premix can gel in the dixie mixer. Each of the surge tanks is probed at a high and low
The longer the premix is held in the mix tank prior to level so that, when a low level is reached, a signal is
milling, the softer the final product will be. sent to a pump, and the tank will be resupplied with
0093 Since salad dressings are similar to mayonnaise oil, starch, or egg until it reaches the high point. This
except for the lower oil content and the added starch maintains a constant supply of ingredients. Should
paste, the ingredients function as in mayonnaise, and any one of the tanks become empty, the entire system
principles with respect to mixing and emulsion stabil- halts. Each controlled surge tank leads to a metering
ity are similar. Special care must be given to starch pump. Each pump is monitored from the control
cooking to develop the desired degree of thickening. center so that it delivers the desired volume within
0094 Raw starch is not water-soluble, but can be dispersed 0.5%.
in cold water. It requires cooking to form a thickened By setting the predetermined speed of each pump, 0099

suspension or paste. The sugar, salt, and vinegar are the egg, brine, oil, and starch are metered accurately
also part of the paste. The process calls for cooking and at the proper flow rate ratio to the inline mixer or
cooling the paste before combining it with the egg and preemulsifier where the ingredients are thoroughly
oil emulsion. In batch processing, some of the paste is mixed and a preemulsion is created. The preemulsion
usually added to the egg before any oil is incorporated. is then pumped with a sanitary pump to a colloid mill,
This weakens the egg. The oil is thereby prevented from where an extremely fine globule emulsion is created,
forming too tight an emulsion. The oil is not whipped and then on to the filler. Using this system, up to 25
in as vigorously as with mayonnaise. When the balance different varieties of dressing can be made, all within
of the starch paste is mixed in after the oil is added, the the accuracy of 0.5% in the formulation.
entire mass must be fairly soft so that it can be pumped.
The colloid mill yields a salad dressing with high vis- See also: Colloids and Emulsions; Emulsifiers: Organic
cosity and smooth texture. If the premix is too stiff, it Emulsifiers; Fats: Fat Replacers; Hypertension:
will break down in the mill. Hypertension and Diet; Mustard and Condiment
Products; Soy (Soya) Beans: The Crop; Stabilizers:
0095 A batch-type starch paste cooker is essentially a
Types and Function; Starch: Modified Starches; Vinegar
jacketed vertical stainless-steel tank equipped with
single- or double-acting agitators having side-
scraping blades. A similar vessel is used for cooling Further Reading
the paste in which cold water or brine solution is used Anonymous (1975) Instructions for the Use of Dried Egg
as the cooling medium. The most modern method for Yolk in Mayonanise, Salad Dressing and French Dress-
processing starch paste is a continuous one employing ing. New York: Henningsen Foods.
the concept of energy regeneration resulting from the Ford LD, Borwankar R, Martin RW , Jr. and Holcomb DN
use of a plate heat exchanger. (1997) Dressing and sauces. In: Friberg SE and Larsson K
 1898 DRESSINGS AND MAYONNAISE/Chemistry of the Products

(eds) Food Emulsions, 3rd edn, pp. 361–412. New York: water-in-oil emulsions. Most food emulsions are of
Marcel Dekker. the oil-in-water type. Emulsion properties generally
Friberg SE (1997) Emulsion stability. In: Friberg SE and depend on the nature of the continuous phase and the
Larsson K (eds) Food Emulsions, 3rd edn, pp. 1–55. proportion of this phase to the dispersed phase. (See
New York: Marcel Dekker.
Colloids and Emulsions.)
Gorman JM and Ball HR, Jr. (1986) Quality control and
Standards of identity, in the USA, for mayonnaise 0002
product specifications. In: Stadelman WJ and Cotterill
OJ (eds) Egg Science and Technology, 3rd edn, pp. define the product as a semisolid emulsion made of
325–343.Westport: AVI. egg yolk, edible vegetable oil, and acetic or citric acid.
Humphreys WM (1996) Fiber-based fat mimetics: micro- It may also contain salt, spices or spices oils, natural
crystalline cellulose. In: Roller S and Jones SA (eds) sweeteners and various natural flavoring ingredients.
Handbook of Fat Replacers, pp. 131–144. New York: The oil content must be not less than 65% by weight,
CRC Press. and the product must contain at least 2.5% acetic
Lopez A (ed.) (1981) Mayonnaise and salad dressing prod- acid by weight. Citric acid in the form of lemon or
ucts. In: Processing Procedures for Canned Food Prod- lime juice may replace the acetic acid at a minimum
ucts, A Complete Course in Canning 11th edn, book II, level of 2.5%. The egg yolk may be in liquid, frozen,
pp. 380–395. Baltimore: Canning Trade.
and/or dried forms. This ingredient provides emulsi-
McClements DJ (ed.) (1999) Emulsion ingredients. In: Food
Emulsions. Principles, Practice, and Techniques. pp.
fying properties and gives the mayonnaise a pale
83–125. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. yellow color, which must not be intensified by any
McWilliams M (ed.) (1985) Salads and salad dressings. In: other ingredient. Salad dressings are also oil-in-water
Food Fundamentals, 4th edn, pp. 99–119. New York: emulsions, but the concentration of oil is only about
Wiley. 30–45% as compared to 65–82% in mayonnaise. In
Orthoefer FT (1988) Reduced-fat margarines and dressings. addition to yolk, stabilizers are permitted in this
Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 65: product. Commercial products of reduced-fat may-
574–578. onnaise and salad dressings usually contain less than
Roller S (1996) Starch-derived fat mimetics: maltodextrin. half fat content as compared to regular product. Fat-
In: Roller S and Jones SA (eds) Handbook of Fat free products should contain no or physiologically
Replacers, pp. 99–129. New York: CRC Press.
inconsequential amount of fat (< 0.5 g fat) per serv-
Tressler DK and Sultan WJ (eds) (1975) Standards of iden-
ing. All reduced/low-fat or fat-free products generally
tity for mayonnaise and French dressing. In: Food Prod-
ucts Formulary, vol. 2, pp. 394–395. Westport: AVI. rely heavily on hydrocolloids for viscosity and texture
characteristics. Table 1 shows the composition of
selected types of dressings and mayonnaise. Many
variations in formulations exist within each type of
product. (See Emulsifiers: Organic Emulsifiers; Uses
in Processed Foods; Stabilizers: Types and Function;
Chemistry of the Products Applications.)
S C Yang and L S Lal, Providence University, Taiwan,
Republic of China Physical Structure and Rheology
Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Reduction of interfacial tension is probably the first 0003

step in the formation of an emulsion. Surface-active

agents form a film around the oil globules and pre-
vent their coalescence. In surrounding the oil drop-
Introduction
lets, the lipophilic (oil-loving) portion orients itself in
0001 Food emulsions, such as mayonnaise and salad dress- the aqueous phase, forming a shell around the drop-
ings, are two-phase systems of immiscible liquids lets of the dispersed phase. By collecting itself at the
with limited stability. One phase is in the form of interface, the emulsifier prevents the dispersed par-
finely divided droplets of diameters generally larger ticles from coalescing and separating out, thereby
than 0.1 mm. This dispersed, internal, or discontinu- increasing the emulsion’s stability.
ous phase is suspended in the continuous or external The microstructure of mayonnaise, as revealed by 0004

phase. Emulsion systems can be divided into two the scanning electron microscope, contains fat glob-
categories: (1) those consisting of droplets of oil dis- ules of various sizes (Figure 1a). Both the dispersed fat
persed throughout an aqueous medium, which are and continuous phase are evident. The continuous
usually referred to as oil-in-water emulsions; (2) phase binds tightly to the fat globules (Figure 1b).
those in which droplets of water are dispersed Several very small fat globules can be seen adhering
throughout an oil or fat medium, which are termed to the large globules. Under the high magnification of