Automatic

Control system
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Upon completion of Chapter 2, students should be able to:

● Recognize that differential equations can describe the dynamic behaviour of

physical systems.
● Understand the application of Laplace transforms and their role in obtaining transfer
functions.
● Be aware of block diagrams and signal-flow graphs and their role in analysing
control systems.
● Understand the important role of modelling in the control system design process.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

II.3 Block diagram models

Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent control systems in pictorial form.

Basic Elements of Block Diagram

The basic elements of a block diagram are blocks, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us identify these elements in the block diagram of a closed loop control
system shown below:
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and
H(s). It is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the
direction of the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

Block

The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input
and single output. The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s)
and the transfer function G(s).

Transfer Function, G(s)=Y(s)/X(s)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Summing Point

❏ The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two
or more inputs and a single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It
also performs summation or subtraction or a combination of summation and
subtraction of inputs, based on the polarity of the inputs.
❏ Let us see these three operations one by one. The following figure shows the
summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B
have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y as sum of A
and B.
i.e.: Y = A + B.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

The following figure shows the summing point with two

inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and
B have opposite signs, i.e., A is positive and B is
negative. So, the summing point produces an output Y
which is the difference of A and B.

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

The following figure shows the summing point with three

inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A
and B are positive and C is negative. So, the summing
point produces output

Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Take-off Point (Pickoff point)

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed to more
than one branch. That is, with the help of the take-off point, we can apply the same
input to one or more blocks or summing points. In the following figure, the take-off
point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to feed the output C(s) as one of the
inputs to a summing point.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Block Diagram Models

Block diagram models are visual representations of the functional relationships between
system components. They simplify the analysis and design of control systems by
breaking them down into individual components and showing how these components
interact with each other.

Each block in the diagram typically represents a system element, function, or process,
and arrows indicate the flow of signals between blocks.

Block Diagram Algebra

Block diagram algebra is the algebra

involved in the connections/relationships

between the basic elements of a block

diagram.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

Series Connection

Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two
blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s)

as Y(s)=G2(s)Z(s) Where, Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)

Y(s)=G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]=G1(s)G2(s)X(s)

Y(s)={G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s),
where G(s)=G1(s)G2(s)
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

This means we can represent the series connection of two blocks as a single block.
The transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions
of the two initial blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all
those ‘n’ blocks.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
Representation of Systems

Parallel Connection

Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output formed by the algebraic sum
of the outputs from all of the subsystems.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Feedback Connection

There are two types of feedback — positive feedback and negative feedback. The
following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here, two blocks having
transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

The output of the summing point is E(s)=X(s)−H(s)Y(s)

The output Y(s) is Y(s)=E(s)G(s). Substituting for E(s) in the above equation,

Y(s)= {X(s)−H(s)Y(s)} G(s)}

Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)} =X(s)G(s)}

Y(s)/X(s)=G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)

Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)

Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a
single block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer
function of the positive feedback, i.e., G(s)/1−G(s)H(s)
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Cascade system

Parallel system

Feedback (closed-loop)
system
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Block diagram transformations

Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.

Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.

Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.

Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.

Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the
overall block diagram.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Example

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this
block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The
modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point
after the block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.
Chapter 2 : Mathematical Models and
representation of Systems

Example 2:

Consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system shown in the following
figure. Reduce this block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules and find
the transfer function.

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