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Nuclear Power Plant Working Principle Of Nuclear Power Plant HOW

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS WORK?

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Nuclear Power Plant

Working Principle Of Nuclear Power Plant

HOW NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS WORK?

The working principle of nuclear power plant depends upon mainly

four components.
1.Nuclear Reactor

2.Heat Exchanger

3.Steam Turbine

4.Alternator

Nuclear reactor is used to produce heat and heat exchanger performs to convert
water into steam by using the heat generated in nuclear reactor. This steam is fed
into steam turbine and condensed in condenser. Now steam turbine is turn to run
an electric generator or alternator which is coupled to steam turbine and thereby
producing electric energy. This is a very basic working principle of Nuclear power
plant.Here is the detail operation of the individual unit of this plant.The block
diagram of nuclear power plant shown in figure:-

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

 2

1. Nuclear Reactor:-
Nuclear reactor is the main component of nuclear power plant and
nuclear fuel is subjected to nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a
process where a heavy nucleus is spitted into two or more smaller
nuclei. . A heavy isotope generally uranium-235(U-235) is used as a
nuclear fuel in the nuclear reactor because it has the ability to control
the chain reaction in the nuclear reactor. Nuclear fission is done by
bombarding uranium nuclei with slow moving neutrons. The energy
released by the fission of nuclei is called nuclear fission energy or
nuclear energy. By the braking of uranium atom, tremendous amount
of heat energy and radiation is formed in the reactor and the chain
reaction is continuously running until it is controlled by a reactor
control chain reaction. A large amount of fission neutrons are
removed in this process, only small amount of fission uranium is
used to generate the electrical power.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:
 3

The nuclear reactor is cylindrical type shape. Main body of reactor is

enclosed by reactor core, reflector and thermal shielding. It prevent
reactor wall from getting heated. It is also used to protect alpha ( α),
bita (β) , gama (γ) rays and neutrons which are bounce back at the
time of fission within the reactor. Mainly Nuclear reactor consists,
some fuel rods of uranium, moderator and control rods. Fuel rods are
made of the fission materials and released large number of energy at
the time of bombarding with slow moving neutrons. Moderator
consists full of graphite which is enclosed by the fuel rods. Moderator
maintains the chain reaction by releasing the neutrons in a suitable
manner before they mixed with the fissile materials. Control rods are
made of boron-10 and cadmium or hafnium which is a highly neutron
absorber and it is inserted into the nuclear reactor. When control rods
are push down into the reactor core, it absorbs most of fission
neutrons and power of the reactor is reduced. But when it is pulling
out from the reactor, it releases the fission neutrons and power is
increased. Real practice, this arrangement depends upon according
to the requirement of load. A coolant, basically sodium metal is used
to reduce the heat produce in the reactor and it carries the heat to the
heat exchanger.

2. Heat Exchanger:-
Coolant is used to raise the heat of the heat exchanger which is
utilised in raising the steam. After that, it goes back to the reactor.

3. Steam Turbine:-
Steam is coming from the heat exchanger to fed into the steam
turbine through the valve. After that the steam is exhausted to the
condenser. This condensed steam is fed to the heat exchanger
through feed water pump.
 4

4. Alternator:-
Steam turbine is coupled to an alternator which converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy. The output of alternator produces
electrical energy to bus bars via major electrical apparatus like
transformer, circuit breakers, isolators etc.
Hydroelectric power is developed from Hydroelectric Power Plant or
Hydroelectric Power Station. It develops hydroelectricity to utilize the
potential energy of water. In hydroelectric power plant, water is stored
in a dam called hydroelectric dam which is located upper level from
the ground especially any hilly areas. Water head is created by
construction the dam across any river or lake.This type of water head
store huge potential energy. The water fall into water turbine and the
potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy. This kinetic
energy is converted into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft. A
hydroelectric generator or alternator is coupled with turbine shaft to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The power P is
developed-

Here,

W = Specific weight of water in kg/m3

Q = Rate of flow of water in m3/s

H = Height of fall or head in meters

η = Overall efficiency of operation

Hydroelectric power plant is becoming very popular nowadays to full

feel rapid increasing demand of electric power day by day. Every
country is trying to develop more Hydro Electric Power Station to full
 5

fill their demand for electricity. In other hand fossils, fuels ( i.e.
coal,oil, and gas) are limited stock in the world and these fuels are
expensive. So hydroelectricity may be a good alternative electrical
source. So in a single word we can say,a generating Station which
utilizes the potential energy of high-level water for the generating of
electrical energy is known as hydropower plant or hydroelectric
power plant.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Working principle of hydroelectric power plant depends on the

conversion of hydraulic energy into electrical energy. To get this
hydroelectricity,hydroelectric power plant needs some arrangements
for proper working and efficiency. The block diagram of hydroelectric
power plant is shown below:

Hydroelectric power station needs huge amount of water at sufficient

head all the time. So a hydroelectric dam is constructed across the
river or lake.an artificial storage reservoir where water is stored, is
placed back side of the dam. This reservoir creates sufficient water
 6

head. A pressure tunnel is placed in between the reservoir to valve

house and water is coming from reservoir to penstock via this tunnel.
An automatic controlling sluice valve is placed in valve house and it
controls water flow to the power station and the letter cuts off supply
of water in case the penstock bursts. Penstock is a huge steel pipe in
which water is taken from valve house to turbine. A surge tank is also
provided just before the valve house for better regulation of water
pressure in the system. Now water turbine converts hydraulic energy
into mechanical energy and an alternator which is couple to the water
turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER

PLANT

Advantages

There are lots of advantages in Hydroelectric Power Plant:

1. Since water is the main source of energy,so no fossil fuels are

required.

2.This plant is neat and clean and no smoke or as disposal is

required.

3.It is the cheapest operating and maintenance cost as compared

to the other power plants because water is freely available in the
world.

4.It is very reliable, robust and has a longer life app rocks 45 to
60 years.

5.This plant can start instantly.

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6.It can start hydroelectric power with fluctuating load demand.

7.The efficiency does not fall at the age of this plant.

8.There is no standby loss in this plant.

9.At the initial time of construction highly skilled engineers are

required and after that only few experience persons can run the
plant.
10.This plant also serves to help in irrigation and Flood control
etc.

11.Since this plants are located remote area so land is available

and competitively cheaper rates.

Disadvantages

There are some Disadvantages in hydro power plant:

1.Such plant requires large area

2.High construction cost is required due to construction of dam.

3.When experience skilled engineers are required to build this

plant

4.Scenes such plant is located as from the load areas, long

transmission line is required to transmit this hydroelectric power.

5.It doesn't supply constant hydroelectricity due to the

availability of water. In transition, power supply is most affected.
 8

SITE SELECTION FOR HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

1.Water Availability:
Main fuel of this plant is water.So, such plant should be located
nearer to river,canal etc. where sufficient water is available all the
time.

2.Water Stroge:
Storage of water in a suitable reservoir or dam has to be placed
by a careful geological study of the area to get the maximum
advantage of that water.Dam should be located across the river
to get continuous water supply throughout the year specially in a
dry season.The storage capacity of dam can be determined by
hydrograph or mass curve or using analytical method.Adequate
facilities of erection a dam and storage of water are two
important matters for site selection of hydro electric power plant.

3.Water Head:
It is an important point for site selection of hydroelectric power
plant.Water head is directly related to the cost of generation of
electric power.If effective head is increased,water storage has to
be reduced as well as capital cost of the plant is reduced.

4.Distance from the load center:

Since it is located away from the load center, more transmission
line is required to supply the power.To avoid the line loss and
economical power supply, distance of such plant should need
more attention.
 9

5.Transportation Facilities:
Good transportation facilities must be available to any hydro
electric power plant, so that necessary equipment should be
reached easily.

6.Availability of land:
Hydro electric power plant needs enough space.It should be kept
in mind that land cost must be cheap.

Types of hydroelectric power plant or hydro electric power station

may be classified different categories according to the water
flow,water head and the demand of load supply in different
season.At-first,we see the block diagram of different types of
hydroelectric power plant:
 10

1. According to the extent of water flow regulation available:

According to the extent of water flow regulation,hydroelectric power

plant may be classified into three categories:

a. Run off river power plants without pondage

b. Run off river power plants with pondage

c. Reservoir power plants
a. Run off river power plants without pondage

This type of hydroelectric power plant,water is not available all

the time. So this type of power station is not suitable for constant
steady load. There is no pondage or storage facility available in
such type of power plant. Plant is placed in such a area,where
water is coming directly from the river or pond. This type of
hydroelectric power plant is called run off power plant without
pondage. Plant produces hydroelectricity only when water is
available. This type of plan cannot use all the time.During high
flow and low load period,water is wasted and the lean flow
periods the plan capacity is very low. Power development
capacity of this type of plan is very low and it produces power
incidentally. The development cost of such a plant is relatively
cheaper than full-time power development hydro electric power
plant.Though it is not used for constant steady load supply,it's
objective is to generate electricity by using excessive flow of
water during flood or rainy season or whatever flow is available
to save some sort of our natural resource of energy such as coal
etc, diesel etc.
 11

b. Run off river power plants with pondage

This type of plant is used to increase the capacity of pond.The pond

is used as a storage water of hydro electric power plant.Increased the
pond size means more water is available in the plant,so such type of
hydro electric power plant is used fluctuating load period depending
on the size of pondage.On a certain limitation,this type of power plant
can be a part of load curve and it is more reliable than a hydro plant
without pondage.Such type of plant is suitable for both base load or
peak load period.During high flow period,this plant is suitable for
base load and lean flow period it may be used to supply peak loads
only.During high flood period,one thing should keep in mind that
flood should not raise tail-race water level.Such types of power plant
save conservation of coal.

c. Reservoir power plants

Most hydroelectric power plant in the world is reservoir power

plant.This type of plant,water is stored behind the dam and water is
available throughout the year even in dry season.This type of power
plant is very efficient and it is used both base and peak load period as
per requirement.most importantly,it can also take a part of load curve
in grid system.

2.According to the availability of water flow

As per height of water or water head,hydroelectric power plant can be

divided three categories:

a. Low Head

b. Medium Head

c. High Head
 12

Low head,medium head,high head.Though there is no rule regarding

water head height but below 30 meters is considered as low
head,above 30 meters to 300 meters is called medium head and above
300 meters is known as high head hydroelectric power plant.

a. Low head hydro electric power plant

The block diagram of low head hydro electric power plant is given in
fig:

Francis,Kaplan or propellor turbines are used for this type of

hydro electric power plant.To create a low head ,dam
construction is essential.Water resource level i.e.river or pond is
placed just behind the dam to create a necessary water head
level.Water is led to the turbine through the penstock.This type
of hydro plant is located just below the dam and it creates a
useful water level as well.No surge tank is required for this
plant,dam itself discharge the surplus water from the
river.Science head is low,huge amount of water is required for
 13

desire output.That's why large diameter and low length pipe is

used for this plant.Such types of power plant use low speed and
large diameter type generators.

b. Medium head hydro electric power plant

Block diagram of medium head hydroelectric power plant is shown

below:

A forebay is used for medium head hydroelectric power plant.This

forebay is worked as a surge tank.Forebay is tapped with the river
and water is led to the turbine via penstock.Forebay is just beginning
of penstock.For low head plant forebay itself serves as a surge tank.
 14

c. High head hydroelectric power plant

The head of this power plant is more than 300 meters.A dam is
constructed such level that maximum reserve water level is formed.A
pressure tunnel is constructed which is connected to the valve
house.Water is coming from reservoir to valve house via this pressure
tunnel and it is the starting of penstock.A surge tank is also
constructed before valve house which reduces water hammering to
the penstock in case of sudden closing of fixed gates of water
turbine.Surge tank also store some extra water which is useful for
pick load demand because it will serve extra water to the
turbine.Valve house consists of a main valve sluice valves and
automatic isolating valves,which operate on bursting of penstock and
cut off further supply of water to penstock.The penstock is a
connecting pipe which supplies water from valve house to turbine.For
high head more than 500 meters,Pelton wheel turbine is used and for
lower head Francis turbine is useful.
 15

3.According to the types of load supply

a. Base Load

b. Peak Load

c. Pumped storage plants for the peak load

a. Base load hydro electric power plant

This is a large capacity power plant.This plant work as a base portion

of load curve of power system,that's why it is called base load
plants.Base load plant is suitable for constant load.load factor of this
plant is high and it is performed as a block load.Run off river plants
without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants.

b. Peak load hydro electric power plant

This plant is suitable for peak load curve of power system.when

demand is high,this type of plant do their job very well.Run off river
plants with pondage can be employed as peak load plants.If water
supply is available,it generates large portion of load at a peak load
period.It needs huge storage area.Reservoir plants can be used as
peak load plants.This type of plant can serve power throughout the
year.

c. Pumped storage hydro electric power plant for the peak load

This is unique design of peak load plants.Here two types of water

pond is used,called upper head water pond and tail water pond.Two
water ponds are connected each other by a penstock.Main generating
pumping plant is lower end.During the off load period,surplus energy
of this plant is utilized to pumping the lower head pond water to upper
head pond water.This extra water is used to generate energy at pick
load periods.By doing this arrangement,same water is used again and
 16

again.Extra water is required only to take care of evaporation and

seepage.
Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel turbine is basically an impulse turbine.
This turbine is suitable for high head and low flow plants. Pelton
wheel turbine is used when water head is more than 200
meters.According to the turbines get,generally, two types of Pelton
turbine are used in hydroelectric power plant.When a single jet is
used horizontal shaft type Pelton turbine is used and vertical shaft
type Pelton turbine is suitable for 2 or 4 jets.Most of the Pelton
turbines are horizontal shaft type.Horizontal shaft type water turbine
have two nozzles but more than two nozzles,vertical shaft type water
turbine is used.The diagram of Pelton wheel is shown below

In Pelton turbine,The potential energy of water in the penstock is

converted into kinetic energy into water and it passes from a nozzle.
In the turbine,inside pressure of water is same as the atmospheric
pressure. It consists of the rotor which is placed in between an
elliptical shaped buckets along with the periphery of the turbine. The
rotor of the runner is made of cast steel, bronze or stainless steel. The
buckets are bolted on to the runner and integral casting of buckets
 17

with the runner is also possible. High-pressure water coming from the
penstock falls into the buckets and it causes the rotor starts to rotate.
After doing useful work, water is discharged into the tail race. But
how much quantity of water is discharged by tail race,is completely
controlled by the nozzle and a needle tip is placed in the nozzle.This
needle tip is controlled by the governor. When load the decreases on
the turbine, the governor pushes the needle tip into the nozzle and as
a result quantity of water striking reduces the buckets,thereby a small
amount of water strike into the turbine.Again load increases on the
turbine,needle tip is away from the nozzle and consequently more
waterfall into the turbine.A Needle is also controlled by a speed
deflector.The buckets are fixed with runner and it is placed nearer to
the tail race.Since this turbine is suitable for high head,so long
penstock is used.

INTRODUCTION OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

Thermal power plant or steam power plant is a generating station

which converts heat energy of fossile fuels into electrical
energy.Generally bituminous,brown or peat type coal are used as the
fuel of coal basesd thermal power plant.

In a thermal power palnt, coal is burnt in a big boiler which produces

steam at high pressure and temperature. This steam is passed
through a steam turbine which converts steam's heat energy into
mechanical energy. The steam turbine acts as a prime mover and it is
coupled to an alternator.Now alternator collects the mechanical
energy from the steam turbine and convert into electrical energy.In
this power plant,steam turbine sometimes acts as an auxiliary
equipments like pumps,strokes etc.This is very basic introduction of
coal based thermal power plant.Read thermal power plan operation in
details.
 18

Though thermal efficiency and overall efficiency of thermal power

plant is comperatively less than other power plant like nuclear power
plant but still it is very popular.The only reason behind that,is coal.It
is very cheap and easily available as well. Still, now maximum energy
is supplied by the coal-based thermal power plant.

TYPES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

1. Condensing Type Thermal Power Plant:-

In Condensing type thermal power plant, discharges exhaust steam is
coming to a condenser which creates suction at very low pressure
and it allows the expansion of steam in the turbine to a very low
pressure. As a result, turbine's efficiency increases. This type of
thermal power plant plays an important role where there is a question
of availability of pure water. Because condensed steam water in the
condenser can be re-circulated to the boiler with the help of pumps.
This plant extracts more energy from per kg of steam and develops
the greater amount of power according to the size of turbine.
Condensing type plants are used to supply electrical energy all type's
of consumers (domestic, industrial and commercial). Since this type
of plant is very economical, so it is used both hydro power plant and
thermal power plants for economical power supply all the time. The
condensing type system is also used in central power plant.

2. Non-Condensing Type Thermal Power Plant:-

In non-condensing type thermal power plant, exhaust steam is
coming from turbine and steam pressure greater the atmospheric
pressure. This type of thermal power plant, a continuous supply of
fresh feed water is required. Industrial and Captive power plants are
the non-condensing types. In industries, steam is used for process
purpose and it is also used in the steam turbine for generation of
 19

electrical energy. This types of thermal power plant is basically small

capacity power plants (nearly 10 MW).

ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

These are the following advantages of thermal power plant:

1. The fuel (i.e. coal) is used is quite cheap.

2. Less initial cost as compared to the other generating

stations of the same capacity.
3. It requires less space as compared to the hydro-electric
power station.

4. The cost of generation is lesser than the Diesel power

station.

5. According to the demand, the load can be changed

frequently without any difficulty.

6. Thermal Power plant can be installed anywhere

irrespective of the availability of fuels. Fuel can be
transferred to the site of the plant by rail, road etc.

7. This type of plants is installed near load centre.

8. Thermal Power plant can be run with overload condition

(around 25%).
 20

DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

The disadvantages of thermal power plant are:

1. It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of a large

amount of smoke.

2. Maintenance cost and operating cost is high.

3. A Huge amount of water is required.

4. Running cost is high as compared to the diesel power plant.

5. Coal handling and ash disposal is quite difficult.

THERMAL POWER PLANT OPERATION

The working principle of thermal power plant operation depends

on Rankin Cycle. In a thermal power plant, coal is coming from
coal storage and burnt in the boiler. It converts water into steam.
This steam is expanded in the prime-mover (i.e. turbine) which
produces mechanical power driving the alternator coupled to the
turbine. The steam is expanded again the turbine and usually
condensed in the condenser to be fed into the boiler. But in real
practice, the conversion of heat from coal combustion into
electrical energy needs some modern arrangements and
improvements, in which it will run in proper working efficiency.
Here are some basic circuit arrangements of the modern thermal
power plant operation.
 21

1. Fuel and Ash Circuit:-

The fuel (coal) is transported from supply points to power station
by roads, rails or water and is stored in coal storage plant.
Generally, coal is delivered into power station by rail wagon but
in a case of small power plants, it may be transported by road or
water. After that this coal is stored in the coal storage plant.
From the coal storage plant, it is conveyed to the coal handling
plant. In the coal handling plant, coal is pulverised (i.e. crushed
into small pieces) to increase its surface tension to help rapid
combustion without using a large amount of excess air. This
pulverised coal is taken into boiler bunkers by conveyer belt.
Coal is now stored into the boiler bunker and fall into the
hoppers by gravity. From the hopper, required amount of coal
either fall on the grate or fall into the coal spreaders. If it is fall to
the coal spreaders, maximum coal combustion is done in the air
and remaining portion burnt at the rear end of the grate. The
grate is types of boiler, where combustion is controlled by its
speed. The grate is made a move from rear end to front end with
the help of spreaders or without spreaders; it is move from front
to rear. The total coal combustion in the grate is controlled by its
speed. After complete combustion of coal, ash is delivered to the
ash storage plant by scrap conveyors for disposal. Generally, it
is seen that a 100 MW power plant which operates 10% to 12%
load factor may burn 20,000 tons of coal per month and ash is
produced nearly 2000 to 3000 tons per month.The block diagram
of thermal power plant is shown in figure:-
 22

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

2. Air and Fuel Gas Circuit:-

The thermal power plant consists of a boiler and other auxiliary
equipment which is required to utilize the air and flue gases. In the
above picture, it is seen that air is coming from the atmosphere by a
forced or induced draught fan through the air pre-heater. In the
air-preheater, air is heated by the heat of flue gases which passing to
the chimney. This flue gases are passing through boiler, super heater,
air per heater and finally exhausted to the atmosphere through the
chimney. The boiler is an essential equipment of the thermal power
plant operation. In the boiler, heat is produced by coal combustion, is
utilised to convert water into steam at high pressure and temperature.
The steam is the wet condition in the boiler and it is converted dry
 23

and superheated condition by the flue gases when it is passed

through the superheater. Superheated steam means the steam
temperature is above the boiling point of water and this will provide
added advantages to the turbine. This steam is increased the overall
efficiency of the turbine and protect the turbine's blade from
corrosion. Economiser and air preheater are such type of devices
which extract the heat from flue gases on their way to a chimney and
increased the temperature of the feed water. Economiser is basically a
feed water heater which recovers heat from flue gases and increase
the temperature of the fed water before it is supplied to the boiler. Air
is also supplied for the coal burning. Air preheater also extracts the
heat from flue gases when it is passed in it. Air preheater increases
the heat of air as well as improves the overall efficiency of the turbine.
It also increases the steam capacity per square meter of boiler
surface. Now this dry and superheated steam is fed to the blades of
steam turbine through the main valve. Here steam energy is
converted to the mechanical energy.

3. Feed water and steam circuit:-

Condensed steam is coming out of the turbine and the condensate is
extracted from the condenser by the condensate extraction pump.
Exhaust steam is passed through the low-pressure feed water heater
where its temperature is raised by the bled steam. The feed water is
now pumped by deaerator to high-pressure feed water heater where
this feed water is heated by the heat from bled steam extracted at
suitable point of steam turbine. Deaerator is to reduce dissolved
oxygen content in the feed water. Feed water is pumped into the
boiler the boiler and it is passing through the economiser where it is
heated by the heat of flue gases. This will increase the overall
efficiency. Some steam and water are lost when it is passed through
the different component of the system. Turbine is directly coupled to
 24

the alternator which converts the mechanical energy of turbine into

electrical energy and delivers the electrical output to the bus bar.

4. Cooling water circuit:-

Cooling water is supplied from a natural source of supply such as
river, channel, sea, etc. This water is circulated through the
condenser for condensing the steam. It will increase the overall
efficiency of the plant. The circulating water absorbs heat from the
exhaust steam and becomes hot. This hot water is coming out from
the condenser and discharged at a suitable position like a lake, river
etc. To ensure the availability of cold water throughout the year, a
cooling tower is used. During the scarcity of water, hot water of
condenser is passed to the cooling tower where it is cooled. The
circulation of cooling water to the condenser is to maintain low
pressure in the condenser.

WHAT IS THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF THERMAL POWER PLANT?

Thermal Efficiency of Thermal Power Plant is the ratio of equivalent

heat energy which is converted to mechanical energy flow to the
turbine shaft to the heat energy of coal combustion.

The thermal efficiency of thermal power plant is nearly 30%. It means,

if 1000 calories of heat energy is produced by coal combustion then
only 300 calories will be flow to the turbine shaft. Maximum energy is
lost by condenser and rest of energies are lost in flue gases, ash etc.
 25

WHAT IS OVERALL EFFICIENCY OF THERMAL POWER PLANT?

Overall Efficiency of Thermal power plant is the ratio of equivalent

heat energy which is ultimately converted to electrical energy coming
from turbine shaft to the heat energy of coal combustion.

The overall efficiency of thermal power plant is determined by the

multiplication of the thermal efficiency of the power plant and the
efficiency of generation or electrical efficiency.

The overall efficiency of a thermal power plant is nearly 29% and it is

less than the thermal efficiency because some energy is lost by
alternator. Now some heat sharing device is used in modern
super-critical-pressure steam power plant to increase the overall
efficiency and the efficiency is reached nearly 50% using this device.

THERMAL POWER PLANT EFFICIENCY

Efficiency of thermal power plant is quite low. It mainly depends upon

following three major factors:

1. Pressure

2. Temperature of the steam entering into the turbine

3. Pressure in the condenser

 26

A huge amount of heat is lost in the condenser due to various stages

of the plant. Heat energy cannot be converted into mechanical energy
without temperature difference and according to the thermodynamics
law we know, greater the temperature difference, greater the heat
energy is converted into mechanical energy. So, thermal efficiency
increases with the increase in temperature and the pressure of steam
are entering the turbine. The thermal efficiency is also effectively
increased by decreasing the pressure in the condenser but if the
pressure of the condenser is too low (nearly 0.04kg/cm2), the plant
will run at low efficiency according to the thermodynamics law .

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION PROCESS:

In nuclear chain reaction process, a heavyweight isotope

generally uranium-235 is used for a nuclear chain reaction.
Uranium-235 is natural and it will give higher fission percentage
too. Some other fissionable materials (U-233, PU-239) are present
in the world. But U-235 is the most common isotope to use for a
nuclear chain reaction. Because it produces comparatively
higher amount of energy and heat from the other fissionable
materials. One of the most common nuclear chain reaction
process is: 23592U + 10n = 13956Ba + 9436Kr + 3 10n

In the above reaction, it is shown that a heavy nucleus

uranium-235 strikes one neutron and it produce alternative three
neutrons. These three neutrons again strikes U-235 which
produce nine neutrons and striking nine neutrons produce
another twenty-seven neutrons and so on, showing in the
picture:
 27

In each reaction, neutrons are released with the multiplication of

three and this reaction is continuously running until original
nuclei are fission. A single fission reaction generates a large
amount of energy, so the complete nuclear chain reaction
process will generate many times greater energy. Though all
neutrons are not used nuclear chain reaction. Some of these
neutrons are lost to the surroundings. If this reaction is not
controlled, it will produce explosive violence’s. The working
principle of atom bomb blasting is an uncontrolled nuclear chain
reaction process.

NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS:

Nuclear fission process is the most practical method used in all

modern fission reactors. Nuclear chain reaction is not possible
without this process. A heavy nucleus is split into two or more
smaller nuclei, is called nuclear fission process. This is a very basic
defination of a nuclear fission process. When a heavy-weight nucleus
 28

like23392 or 23592U or 239949U is bombarded with high-energy particles

such as protons, neutrons or X rays, a large amount of energy is
released for this reaction. Generally, neutrons are used for this
process. Because it is natural and it does not hold any charge. So it
can easily make their way to electrons. Here is an example:

235
U + 10n = 13956Ba + 9436Kr + 3 10n + Energy
92

This reaction was discovered by Hahn and Strassmann in the year

1939. Generally Uranium-235 is used for nuclear Fission Process.It is
a fissionable material and also it is used all modern nuclear reactors .

In the above picture, a heavy atomic nucleus uranium-235 is

bombarded with single neutrons and produces two nuclei. First
uranium will be an unstable ‘compound nucleus’ to absorb neutrons.
The radioactive atom of any nucleus is unstable for continuous
emission of an alpha() or bita() particles. This will change the
proton-neutron composition of the nucleus to built a stable nucleus.
U-235 will be an unstable nucleus when it absorbs a neutron. This
unstable nucleus will be split into two daughter nuclei (i.e. 23592U and
94
Kr) with some neutrons and release a large amount of energy. It is
36
 29

seen that one fission reaction of 23592U release nearly 200 MeV of
energy.

200MeV energy: 200 X 1.6 X 10-13 = 3.2 X 10-11joules (or watt-seconds)

The working principle of nuclear power plant depends upon

mainly four components.
1.Nuclear Reactor

2.Heat Exchanger

3.Steam Turbine

4.Alternator

Nuclear reactor is used to produce heat and heat exchanger

performs to convert water into steam by using the heat
generated in nuclear reactor. This steam is fed into steam
turbine and condensed in condenser. Now steam turbine is
turn to run an electric generator or alternator which is
coupled to steam turbine and thereby producing electric
energy. This is a very basic working principle of Nuclear
power plant.Here is the detail operation of the individual unit
of this plant. The block diagram of nuclear power plant
shown in figure:-
 30

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:

1. Nuclear Reactor:-
Nuclear reactor is the main component of nuclear power plant and
nuclear fuel is subjected to nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a
process where a heavy nucleus is spitted into two or more smaller
nuclei. . A heavy isotope generally uranium-235(U-235) is used as a
nuclear fuel in the nuclear reactor because it has the ability to control
the chain reaction in the nuclear reactor. Nuclear fission is done by
bombarding uranium nuclei with slow moving neutrons. The energy
released by the fission of nuclei is called nuclear fission energy or
nuclear energy. By the braking of uranium atom, tremendous amount
of heat energy and radiation is formed in the reactor and the chain
reaction is continuously running until it is controlled by a reactor
control chain reaction. A large amount of fission neutrons are
removed in this process, only small amount of fission uranium is
used to generate the electrical power.
 31

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF NUCLEAR REACTOR:

The nuclear reactor is cylindrical type shape. Main body of reactor is

enclosed by reactor core, reflector and thermal shielding. It prevent
reactor wall from getting heated. It is also used to protect alpha ( α),
bita (β) , gama (γ) rays and neutrons which are bounce back at the
time of fission within the reactor. Mainly Nuclear reactor consists,
some fuel rods of uranium, moderator and control rods. Fuel rods are
made of the fission materials and released large number of energy at
the time of bombarding with slow moving neutrons. Moderator
consists full of graphite which is enclosed by the fuel rods. Moderator
maintains the chain reaction by releasing the neutrons in a suitable
manner before they mixed with the fissile materials. Control rods are
made of boron-10 and cadmium or hafnium which is a highly neutron
absorber and it is inserted into the nuclear reactor. When control rods
are push down into the reactor core, it absorbs most of fission
neutrons and power of the reactor is reduced. But when it is pulling
 32

out from the reactor, it releases the fission neutrons and power is
increased. Real practice, this arrangement depends upon according
to the requirement of load. A coolant, basically sodium metal is used
to reduce the heat produce in the reactor and it carries the heat to the
heat exchanger.

2. Heat Exchanger:-
Coolant is used to raise the heat of the heat exchanger which is
utilised in raising the steam. After that, it goes back to the reactor.

3. Steam Turbine:-
Steam is coming from the heat exchanger to fed into the steam
turbine through the valve. After that the steam is exhausted to the
condenser. This condensed steam is fed to the heat exchanger
through feed water pump.

4. Alternator:-
Steam turbine is coupled to an alternator which converts mechanical
energy to electrical energy. The output of alternator produces
electrical energy to bus bars via major electrical apparatus like
transformer, circuit breakers, isolators etc.

Hydroelectric Power Plant or Hydroelectric Power Station

⇒ WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER?

⇒ ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER
PLANTS
⇒ SITE SELECTION FOR HYDRO POWER PLANT

Hydroelectric power is developed from Hydroelectric Power Plant or

Hydroelectric Power Station. It develops hydroelectricity to utilize the
potential energy of water. In hydroelectric power plant, water is stored
 33

in a dam called hydroelectric dam which is located upper level from

the ground especially any hilly areas. Water head is created by
construction the dam across any river or lake.This type of water head
store huge potential energy. The water fall into water turbine and the
potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy. This kinetic
energy is converted into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft. A
hydroelectric generator or alternator is coupled with turbine shaft to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The power P is
developed-

Here,

W = Specific weight of water in kg/m3

Q = Rate of flow of water in m3/s

H = Height of fall or head in meters

η = Overall efficiency of operation

Hydroelectric power plant is becoming very popular nowadays to full

feel rapid increasing demand of electric power day by day. Every
country is trying to develop more Hydro Electric Power Station to full
fill their demand for electricity. In other hand fossils, fuels ( i.e.
coal,oil, and gas) are limited stock in the world and these fuels are
expensive. So hydroelectricity may be a good alternative electrical
source. So in a single word we can say,a generating Station which
utilizes the potential energy of high-level water for the generating of
electrical energy is known as hydropower plant or hydroelectric
power plant.
 34

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Working principle of hydroelectric power plant depends on the

conversion of hydraulic energy into electrical energy. To get this
hydroelectricity,hydroelectric power plant needs some arrangements
for proper working and efficiency. The block diagram of hydroelectric
power plant is shown below:

Hydroelectric power station needs huge amount of water at sufficient

head all the time. So a hydroelectric dam is constructed across the
river or lake.an artificial storage reservoir where water is stored, is
placed back side of the dam. This reservoir creates sufficient water
head. A pressure tunnel is placed in between the reservoir to valve
house and water is coming from reservoir to penstock via this tunnel.
An automatic controlling sluice valve is placed in valve house and it
controls water flow to the power station and the letter cuts off supply
of water in case the penstock bursts. Penstock is a huge steel pipe in
which water is taken from valve house to turbine. A surge tank is also
provided just before the valve house for better regulation of water
 35

pressure in the system. Now water turbine converts hydraulic energy

into mechanical energy and an alternator which is couple to the water
turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Advantages

There are lots of advantages in Hydroelectric Power Plant:

1. Since water is the main source of energy,so no fossil fuels are

required.

2.This plant is neat and clean and no smoke or as disposal is

required.

3.It is the cheapest operating and maintenance cost as compared to

the other power plants because water is freely available in the world.

4.It is very reliable, robust and has a longer life app rocks 45 to 60
years.

5.This plant can start instantly.

6.It can start hydroelectric power with fluctuating load demand.

7.The efficiency does not fall at the age of this plant.

8.There is no standby loss in this plant.

9.At the initial time of construction highly skilled engineers are

required and after that only few experience persons can run the plant.
10.This plant also serves to help in irrigation and Flood control etc.

11.Since this plants are located remote area so land is available and
competitively cheaper rates.
 36

Disadvantages

There are some Disadvantages in hydro power plant:

1.Such plant requires large area

2.High construction cost is required due to construction of dam.

3.When experience skilled engineers are required to build this plant

4.Scenes such plant is located as from the load areas, long

transmission line is required to transmit this hydroelectric power.

5.It doesn't supply constant hydroelectricity due to the availability of

water. In transition, power supply is most affected.

SITE SELECTION FOR HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

1.Water Availability:
Main fuel of this plant is water.So, such plant should be located
nearer to river,canal etc. where sufficient water is available all the
time.

2.Water Stroge:
Storage of water in a suitable reservoir or dam has to be placed by a
careful geological study of the area to get the maximum advantage of
that water.Dam should be located across the river to get continuous
water supply throughout the year specially in a dry season.The
storage capacity of dam can be determined by hydrograph or mass
curve or using analytical method.Adequate facilities of erection a dam
and storage of water are two important matters for site selection of
hydro electric power plant.
 37

3.Water Head:
It is an important point for site selection of hydroelectric power
plant.Water head is directly related to the cost of generation of
electric power.If effective head is increased,water storage has to
be reduced as well as capital cost of the plant is reduced.

4.Distance from the load center:

Since it is located away from the load center, more transmission
line is required to supply the power.To avoid the line loss and
economical power supply, distance of such plant should need
more attention.

5.Transportation Facilities:
Good transportation facilities must be available to any hydro
electric power plant, so that necessary equipment should be
reached easily.

6.Availability of land:
Hydro electric power plant needs enough space.It should be kept
in mind that land cost must be cheap.

Types Of Hydroelectric Power Plant or Hydroelectric

Power Station

Types of hydroelectric power plant or hydro electric power

station may be classified different categories according to the
water flow,water head and the demand of load supply in different
season.At-first,we see the block diagram of different types of
hydroelectric power plant:
 38

1. According to the extent of water flow regulation available:

According to the extent of water flow regulation,hydoelectric power

plant may be classified into three categories:

a. Run off river power plants without pondage

b. Run off river power plants with pondage

c. Reservoir power plants

a. Run off river power plants without pondage

This type of hydroelectric power plant,water is not available all the

time. So this type of power station is not suitable for constant steady
load. There is no pondage or storage facility available in such a type
of power plant. Plant is placed in such a area,where water is coming
directly from the river or pond. This type of hydroelectric power plant
is called run off power plant without pondage. Plant produces hydro
electricity only when water is available. This type of plan cannot use
 39

all the time.During high flow and low load period,water is wasted and
the lean flow periods the plan capacity is very low. Power
development capacity of this type of plan is very low and it produces
power incidentally. The development cost of such a plant is relatively
cheaper than full-time power development hydro electric power
plant.Though it is not used for constant steady load supply,it's
objective is to generate electricity by using excessive flow of water
during flood or rainy season or whatever flow is available to save
some sort of our natural resource of energy such as coal etc, diesel
etc.

b. Run off river power plants with pondage

This type of plant is used to increase the capacity of pond.The pond

is used as a storage water of hydro electric power plant.Increased the
pond size means more water is available in the plant,so such type of
hydro electric power plant is used fluctuating load period depending
on the size of pondage.On a certain limitation,this type of power plant
can be a part of load curve and it is more reliable than a hydro plant
without pondage.Such type of plant is suitable for both base load or
peak load period.During high flow period,this plant is suitable for
base load and lean flow period it may be used to supply peak loads
only.During high flood period,one thing should keep in mind that
flood should not raise tail-race water level.Such types of power plant
save conservation of coal.

c. Reservoir power plants

Most hydroelectric power plant in the world is reservoir power

plant.This type of plant,water is stored behind the dam and water is
available throughout the year even in dry season.This type of power
plant is very efficient and it is used both base and peak load period as
 40

per requirement.most importantly,it can also take a part of load curve

in grid system.

2.According to the availability of water flow

As per height of water or water head,hydroelectric power plant can be

divided three categories:

a. Low Head

b. Medium Head

c. High Head

Low head,medium head,high head.Though there is no rule regarding

water head height but below 30 meters is considered as low
head,above 30 meters to 300 meters is called medium head and above
300 meters is known as high head hydroelectric power plant.

a. Low head hydro electric power plant

The block diagram of low head hydro electric power plant is given in
fig:
 41

Francis,Kaplan or propellor turbines are used for this type of hydro

electric power plant.To create a low head ,dam construction is
essential.Water resource level i.e.river or pond is placed just behind
the dam to create a necessary water head level.Water is led to the
turbine through the penstock.This type of hydro plant is located just
below the dam and it creates a useful water level as well.No surge
tank is required for this plant,dam itself discharge the surplus water
from the river.Science head is low,huge amount of water is required
for desire output.That's why large diameter and low length pipe is
used for this plant.Such types of power plant use low speed and large
diameter type generators.

b. Medium head hydroelectric power plant

Block diagram of medium head hydroelectric power plant is shown

below:

A forebay is used for medium head hydroelectric power plant.This

forebay is worked as a surge tank.Forebay is tapped with the river
 42

and water is led to the turbine via penstock.Forebay is just beginning

of penstock.For low head plant forebay itself serves as a surge tank.

c. High head hydroelectric power plant

The head of this power plant is more than 300 meters.A dam is
constructed such level that maximum reserve water level is formed.A
pressure tunnel is constructed which is connected to the valve
house.Water is coming from reservoir to valve house via this pressure
tunnel and it is the starting of penstock.A surge tank is also
constructed before valve house which reduces water hammering to
the penstock in case of sudden closing of fixed gates of water
turbine.Surge tank also store some extra water which is useful for
pick load demand because it will serve extra water to the
turbine.Valve house consists of a main valve sluice valves and
automatic isolating valves,which operate on bursting of penstock and
cut off further supply of water to penstock.The penstock is a
connecting pipe which supplies water from valve house to turbine.For
 43

high head more than 500 meters,Pelton wheel turbine is used and for
lower head Francis turbine is useful.

3.According to the types of load supply

a. Base Load

b. Peak Load

c. Pumped storage plants for the peak load

a. Base load hydro electric power plant

This is a large capacity power plant.This plant work as a base portion

of load curve of power system,that's why it is called base load
plants.Base load plant is suitable for constant load.load factor of this
plant is high and it is performed as a block load.Run off river plants
without pondage and reservoir plants are used as base load plants.

b. Peak load hydro electric power plant

This plant is suitable for peak load curve of power system.when

demand is high,this type of plant do their job very well.Run off river
plants with pondage can be employed as peak load plants.If water
supply is available,it generates large portion of load at a peak load
period.It needs huge storage area.Reservoir plants can be used as
peak load plants.This type of plant can serve power throughout the
year.

c. Pumped storage hydro electric power plant for the peak load

This is unique design of peak load plants.Here two types of water

pond is used,called upper head water pond and tail water pond.Two
water ponds are connected each other by a penstock.Main generating
pumping plant is lower end.During the off load period,surplus energy
 44

of this plant is utilized to pumping the lower head pond water to upper
head pond water.This extra water is used to generate energy at pick
load periods.By doing this arrangement,same water is used again and
again.Extra water is required only to take care of evaporation and
seepage.

PELTON TURBINE OR PELTON WHEEL TURBINE

Pelton turbine or Pelton wheel turbine is basically an impulse turbine.

This turbine is suitable for high head and low flow plants. Pelton
wheel turbine is used when water head is more than 200
meters.According to the turbines get,generally, two types of Pelton
turbine are used in hydroelectric power plant.When a single jet is
used horizontal shaft type Pelton turbine is used and vertical shaft
type Pelton turbine is suitable for 2 or 4 jets.Most of the Pelton
turbines are horizontal shaft type.Horizontal shaft type water turbine
have two nozzles but more than two nozzles,vertical shaft type water
turbine is used.The diagram of Pelton wheel is shown below
 45

In Pelton turbine,The potential energy of water in the penstock is

converted into kinetic energy into water and it passes from a nozzle.
In the turbine,inside pressure of water is same as the atmospheric
pressure. It consists of the rotor which is placed in between an
elliptical shaped buckets along with the periphery of the turbine. The
rotor of the runner is made of cast steel, bronze or stainless steel. The
buckets are bolted on to the runner and integral casting of buckets
with the runner is also possible. High-pressure water coming from the
penstock fall into the buckets and it causes the rotor starts to rotate.
After doing useful work, water is discharged into the tail race. But
how much quantity of water is discharged by tail race,is completely
controlled by the nozzle and a needle tip is placed in the nozzle.This
needle tip is controlled by the governor. When load the decreases on
the turbine, the governor pushes the needle tip into the nozzle and as
a result quantity of water striking reduces the buckets,thereby a small
amount of water strike into the turbine.Again load increases on the
turbine,needle tip is away from the nozzle and consequently more
waterfall into the turbine.A Needle is also controlled by a speed
deflector.The buckets are fixed with runner and it is placed nearer to
the tail race.Since this turbine is suitable for high head,so long
penstock is used.

Introduction and Types Of Thermal Power Plant

INTRODUCTION OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

Thermal power plant or steam power plant is a generating station

which converts heat energy of fossile fuels into electrical
energy.Generally bituminous,brown or peat type coal are used as the
fuel of coal basesd thermal power plant.
 46

In a thermal power plant, coal is burnt in a big boiler which produces

steam at high pressure and temperature. This steam is passed
through a steam turbine which converts steam's heat energy into
mechanical energy. The steam turbine acts as a prime mover and it is
coupled to an alternator.Now alternator collects the mechanical
energy from the steam turbine and convert into electrical energy.In
this power plant,steam turbine sometimes acts as an auxiliary
equipments like pumps,strokes etc.This is very basic introduction of
coal based thermal power plant.

Read thermal power plan operation in details.

Though thermal efficiency and overall efficiency of thermal power

plant is comperatively less than other power plant like nuclear power
plant but still it is very popular.The only reason behind that,is coal.It
is very cheap and easily available as well. Still, now maximum energy
is supplied by the coal-based thermal power plant.

TYPES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

1. Condensing Type Thermal Power Plant:-

In Condensing type thermal power plant, discharges exhaust steam is
coming to a condenser which creates suction at very low pressure
and it allows the expansion of steam in the turbine to a very low
pressure. As a result, turbine's efficiency increases. This type of
thermal power plant plays an important role where there is a question
of availability of pure water. Because condensed steam water in the
condenser can be re-circulated to the boiler with the help of pumps.
This plant extracts more energy from per kg of steam and develops
the greater amount of power according to the size of turbine.
Condensing type plants are used to supply electrical energy all type's
of consumers (domestic, industrial and commercial). Since this type
 47

of plant is very economical, so it is used both hydro power plant and

thermal power plants for economical power supply all the time. The
condensing type system is also used in central power plant.

2. Non-Condensing Type Thermal Power Plant:-

In non-condensing type thermal power plant, exhaust steam is
coming from turbine and steam pressure greater the atmospheric
pressure. This type of thermal power plant, a continuous supply of
fresh feed water is required. Industrial and Captive power plants are
the non-condensing types. In industries, steam is used for process
purpose and it is also used in the steam turbine for generation of
electrical energy. This types of thermal power plant is basically small
capacity power plants (nearly 10 MW).

ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

These are the following advantages of thermal power plant:

1. The fuel (i.e. coal) is used is quite cheap.

2. Less initial cost as compared to the other generating stations of the

same capacity.
3. It requires less space as compared to the hydro-electric power
station.

4. The cost of generation is lesser than the Diesel power station.

5. According to the demand, the load can be changed frequently

without any difficulty.
 48

6. Thermal Power plant can be installed anywhere irrespective of the

availability of fuels. Fuel can be transferred to the site of the plant by rail,
road etc.

7. This type of plants is installed near load centre.

8. Thermal Power plant can be run with overload condition (around 25%).

DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANT:

The disadvantages of thermal power plant are:

1. It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of a large amount

of smoke.

2. Maintenance cost and operating cost is high.

3. A Huge amount of water is required.

4. Running cost is high as compared to the diesel power plant.

5. Coal handling and ash disposal is quite difficult.

Researcher By
Engineer Bulbul Ahammed
Ph.D In Mechanical Engineer
The Institution of Engineers(india),

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (AMIE),Post-Doc.

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