CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES
The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill training
programme designed to expose and prepare students of universities, polytechnics and
Colleges of Education for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after
graduation. The scheme also affords students the opportunity of familiarizing and
exposing themselves to the needed experience in handling equipment and machinery that
are usually not available in their institutions. Before establishment of the scheme, there
was a growing concern among our industrialists that graduates of institutions of higher
learning lacked adequate practical background studies preparatory for employment
industries. Thus, the employers were of the opinion that the theoretical education going
on in higher institutions was not responsive to the needs of the employers of labour. It is
against this background that the rationale for initiating and designing the scheme by the
fund during its formative years – 1973/74 was introduced to acquaint students with the
skills of handling employers’ equipment and machinery. The ITF solely funded the
scheme during its formative years. But as the financial involvement became unbearable
to the fund, it withdrew from the scheme in 1978. The federal government handed over
the scheme in 1979 to both the National Universities Commission (NUC) and the
National Board for Technical Education (NBTE). Later, the federal government in
November 1984 reverted the management and implementation of the scheme to ITF and
it was effectively taken over by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in July 1985 with the
funding being solely borne by the federal government. (Culled from Job Specifications
on Students Industrial work Experience Scheme).

1.2 GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

SIWES is strategized for skill acquisition. It is in fact designed to prepare and expose
students of universities, polytechnics and colleges of education to the real-life work
situation they would encounter after graduation. Therefore, SIWES is key factor required
to inject and engender industrialization and economic development in our nation through

1
 the induction of scientific and technological skills on students. (Culled from Detailed
Manual on SIWES Guidelines and Operations for Tertiary Institutions).

1.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF H & W ENERGY LIMITED

Hannah and Walter Energy Limited is a Nigerian company formed in 2017. With a
staff of approximately 50, including contract staff From Multinational to locally based
companies, H&W Energy Limited provides outstanding client support, operating
excellence and industry knowledge to ensure reliable and consistent performance. We
have the experience, expertise and infrastructure to support the most diverse range of
services; well service, mechanical & Civil Construction, marine services,
offshore/onshore facility management etc. Wherever we operate, we stand by our clients,
and the work we do.

1.4 MISSSION STATEMENT

At H&W Energy, we are committed to being a leader in the services we provide by:
 Providing services which exceed our client's expectations
 Maintaining a work environment that is satisfying to our employees
 Conducting our business in accordance with the highest ethical standards
 Generating a financial return to our shareholders that encourages their continued
investment in the Company

1.5 VISION
That means completing our work efficiently to industry and client standards without
injury to people, damage to property or adverse impact to the environment
We strive to fulfill our misions commitment by getting the job done right, every time.

2
 CHAPTER TWO
LITRAETURE REVIEW

2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN OIL SECTOR

The Nigerian oil and gas industry has been vibrant since the discovery of crude oil in
1956 by the Shell Group. However, the sector was largely dominated by multinational
corporations until the early 1990s when Nigerian companies began to make a foray into
the industry. Local participation was boosted with the implementation of the Nigerian
Content Directives issued by the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) about
a decade ago, and eventually, by the promulgation of the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry
Content Development (NOGIC) Act (The Act) in 2010. The Act seeks to promote the use
of Nigerian companies/resources in the award of oil licenses, contracts and projects.
In terms of structure, the industry is broadly divided into:

 Upstream sector,
 Downstream sector, and
 Services sector.

The mid-stream operations are usually included in the downstream sector. However, a
distinction is now being made between the two sectors. Mid-stream covers the
processing, storage, marketing and transportation of crude oil, gas, gas-to Liquids and
liquefied natural gas.

2.1.1 UPSTREAM SECTOR

This sector is characterized by exploration and production of crude oil and gas
(petroleum operations). The income of companies engaged in these activities is subject to
tax under the Petroleum Profits Tax Act, 2004 (PPTA), as amended.

The upstream oil sector is the single most important sector in the economy, accounting
for over 90% of the country’s exports and about 80% of the Federal Government (FG’s)
revenue. Crude Oil is currently produced from three different basins: the onshore

3
Anambra, the offshore Benin/Dahomey (deep-water and ultra deep-water) and the Niger
Delta (shallow and deep offshore basins). The Niger Delta and Benin basins are known to
be the richest basins and hold the vast majority of reserves, and the source of a large
portion of current production. During the late 1990s, exploration focus turned to high risk
ventures in the frontier basins of deep water offshore, with encouraging success. These
ventures are becoming increasingly attractive, with developments in deep-water
exploration and production technology.

Nigeria’s crude oil generally has a gravity between 21oAPI and 45oAPI. Its main export
crudes are Bonny Light (37o) and Forcados (31o). About 65% of Nigeria’s oil is above
35oAPI with a very low sulphur content. The country’s proven oil reserves is estimated at
about 37.2bn bbl as at the end of 2010, according to the report by the US Energy
Information Administration (EIA). Exploration activities have slowed down recently due
to the uncertainties surrounding the passage of the proposed Petroleum Industry Bill into
law. The PIB is an omnibus legislation, which will introduce significant changes to oil
and gas operations in the country.

With respect to gas, a recent BP Statistical Energy Survey1 put the proved natural gas
reserves at 5.29 trillion cubic metres, 2.82% of the world’s estimated reserve. Estimates
of Nigeria’s undiscovered gas reserves range from 300 – 600 TCF. Nigeria has therefore
been described largely as a gas province with some oil. The gas quality is high –
particularly rich in liquids and low in sulphur. Due to the lack of gas infrastructure, 75%
of associated gas is flared and only about 12% is re-injected.

Types of Arrangements in the Upstream Sector;

The major forms of oil and gas arrangements in Nigeria’s upstream sector are as follows:

 Joint Venture (JV)

 Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs)
 Service Contract (SC)
 Marginal Field Concession (MFC)

4
  Joint Venture

This is the standard agreement between the national oil company i.e the Nigerian
National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and a multinational oil company (MOC). Under
this arrangement, both NNPC and the MOC contribute to funding oil operations in the
proportion of their JV equity holdings, and generally receive crude oil produced in the
same ratio.

Companies engaged in this form of arrangement are assessed to tax under the PPTA at
the rate of .75% of chargeable profits for the first five years of operation (when the
company is yet to fully recover its capitalized pre-production cost), and 85% thereafter.
The tax payable is modified by the provisions of the Memorandum of Understanding
(MOU) between the parties. The MOU seeks to guarantee certain profit margins to the
MOC, when crude oil market price falls below certain thresholds. The Parties have since
suspended the application of the MOU provisions since crude oil price now exceeds the
reference price of $30 per barrel. Major operators in the JVs with the NNPC are Shell,
ExxonMobil, ChevronTexaco, TotalFinaElf and Agip.

It is however important to note that the JV model is currently being phased out in the oil
and gas industry, due mainly to the inability of the NNPC to fund its share of JV costs.

 Production Sharing Contracts

As a result of the increasing funding pressure from the JVs, the Federal Government of
Nigeria (FGN) adopted the PSC model in 1993 as the preferred petroleum arrangement
with MOCs. Apart from awards restricted exclusively to indigenous companies, awards
for upstream operations are now made on PSC basis. Under this arrangement, the
concession is held by NNPC. NNPC engages the MOC or the indigenous company as
Contractor to conduct petroleum operations on behalf of itself and NNPC. The Contractor
takes on the financing risk. If the exploration is successful, the Contractor is entitled to
recover its costs on commencement of commercial production. If the operation is not
successful, the Contractor bears the loss.

5
The first set of PSCs was signed in 1993, followed by those executed in 2001, after the
2000 licensing rounds. Several other models of PSCs have been signed since then. The
principles in the PSCs remain largely the same, except for variation in the profit oil
sharing formula and cost oil recovery cap. The PPT rate applicable to PSC companies is
50% of chargeable profits for the contract area.

 Service Contract

Under this model, the Contractor undertakes exploration, development and production
activities for, and on behalf of, NNPC or the concession holder, at its own risk. The
concession ownership remains entirely with the NNPC/ holder, and the Contractor has no
title to the oil produced. The Contractor is reimbursed cost incurred only from proceeds
of oil sold and is paid periodical remuneration in accordance with the formulae stipulated
in the contract. The Contractor has the first option to buy back the crude oil produced
from the concession The Contractor is assessed to tax on its service fees under the
Companies Income Tax Act as amended (CITA) at 30%; while the concession holder (or
the NNPC) is assessed to tax under the PPTA.

 Marginal Field Concession

The Federal Government (FG), in furtherance of its Nigerian Content agenda, encourages
MOCs to surrender their marginal fields for assignment to indigenous concession holders.
To provide special incentives to marginal field operators, the FG promulgated the
Petroleum (Amendment) Act No. 23 and the Marginal Field Operations (Fiscal Regime)
Regulations 2005 on the development of marginal fields. Generally, a Marginal Field is
defined as any field that has reserves booked and reported annually to the DPR and has
remained unproduced for a period of over 10 years.

The main objectives of the government for introducing Marginal Field regime include:

(i) Expand the scope of participation by small (indigenous) players in Nigeria’s oil
industry.

(ii) Increase the country’s oil and gas reserves base.

6
 (iii) Provide opportunity for portfolio rationalization.

(iv) Enhance employment opportunity.

2.1.2 AWARD OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION LICENSES

Oil licences are granted to companies by direct negotiation and/or discretionary

allocation by the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN). This approach was prevalent
prior to the return of the country to democratic governance in 1999. However, to facilitate
more transparency and increased revenue from award of oil licences, the FGN has
competitive tenders as the preferred mode for the award. With tenders, the process
becomes more competitive and brought industry players with the most persuasive
technical and financial capabilities to the fore. The Department of Petroleum Resources
(DPR), under the Ministry of Petroleum Resources, is responsible for organizing oil bid
rounds. The last bid round was in 2007.

2.2 DOWNSTREAM
The key segments in the downstream sector are discussed below:

Transmission and Conveyance:

This involves the transportation of oil and gas to the refinery and gas stations. There is a
pipeline network from the wellhead to the refinery or plant. Tankers and purpose-built
vessels are also used for this purpose

Refining:
Nigeria has four refineries: two situated in Port Harcourt and one each in Warri and
Kaduna. The refineries are all wholly owned by the NNPC. The four oil refineries have a
combined nameplate capacity of 505,000b/d. However, these refineries are only working
at about 30% of their installed capacity; necessitating the importation of refined products
to meet growing local demand. The FGN has recently awarded contracts for Turn-
Around- Maintenance to be performed on the refineries to boost the level of their
production.

7
The number of refineries in the country is expected to increase in future as new licences
have been granted. In addition, the Government’s strategy of tying award of new oil
licences to securing commitment on the part of licence holders to build new refineries,
railway lines, gas pipelines or power plants should help in this regard.

 Distribution and Marketing:

Distribution and Marketing of refined petroleum products are complementary activities.
Distribution involves the transportation of refined petroleum products from the refineries
through pipelines, coastal vessels, road trucks, rail wagon etc to the storage/sale depots.

Petroleum products are supplied in Nigeria principally through the Petroleum Product
Marketing Company’s (PPMC) pipeline system, which links the refineries to the about 21
regional storage/sale depots.

The pipelines currently in use by the PPMC are divided into three phases. Phase 1 and 2
have five systems, which are referred to as 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, and 2E . Phase 3 has three
systems which are referred to as 2cx, 2dx and 2ex2 .

Petroleum product marketing involves the procurement and sale of refined petroleum
products. Marketers lift products from PPMC depots and deliver to their various retail
outlets. They also import refined products from outside of Nigeria to meet the demands
of their customers.

There are however guidelines issued by the DPR to prevent importation of substandard
products.

The FGN currently regulates the prices of refined petroleum products. The Petroleum
Product Pricing Regulatory Commission (PPPRC) is responsible for fixing the prices of
the products. However, as part of the energy sector reform of the FGN, there is a plan to
deregulate fuel pricing and privatize the refineries. The proposed energy reforms
currently faces stiff opposition from the organized labour and civil society groups in the
country.

8
  Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

Nigeria holds the largest natural gas reserves in Africa but has limited infrastructure in
place to develop the sector. Nigeria’s first and most ambitious gas project, the Nigeria
LNG (NLNG)facility on Bonny Island has six LNG trains currently operational with a
total annual capacity of 31bcm.

2.3 OIL SERVICE SECTOR

The classification of services under this sector is summarized in the table below:

Exploration - Seismic data acquisition

support services - Processing and interpretation
- logging
- fishing
- cementing
Drilling services -Welding services
-Well drilling
-Cementing
-Logging
-Fishing
Production -Wireline services
support services -Work over services
-Production testing services
-Construction of oil & gas facilities
Downstream services -Wireline services
-Refinery maintenance
-Pipeline/depots construction
-Petroleum products haulage
-Petroleum product marketing
Others Banking services,
Communication services
2.4 PIPELNE OPERATIONS
9
This generally consists of pipeline systems operation and control [including supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) and leak detection] as well as field operation and
maintenance, and is generally applicable across the pipeline industry whether
transporting gas or liquids.

North American Crude Oil (A) and Refined/Batched (B) Products Pipelines and Facilities

However, operational planning and management of liquid pipelines differ from those of
gas pipelines depending on the number of liquid products that are simultaneously
transported from different suppliers/shippers, storage facilities available and delivery
locations or customers. Typical of North American oil and refined products (including
batched) pipeline systems are those that stretch between Canada (Alberta) and through
the USA. Multi batched products pipelines usually transport many (between 75-120)
different commodity products including crude (light, medium and heavy), condensate,

10
refined petroleum products (motor gasoline, diesel fuels, aviation fuels), synthetic oil and
natural gas liquids (NGL) (propane, butane and condensate mixtures) from different
shipping sources with line fill capacities of several million barrels.
An example of this is the KMP Product Pipelines (Morgan, 2002) covering more
than16000 km of pipeline transporting over 2 million barrels per day of gasoline, jet fuel
and diesel fuel, as well as natural gas liquids. This system includes associated storage
terminals and transmix processing facilities. It has 12 liquids terminals with a storage
capacity of 35.6 million barrels.

Another example is the Colonial Pipeline systems which carries about 20% of petroleum
product shipped on pipelines in the U.S. Colonial systems moves 2.2 million barrels (>
90 million gallons) refined petroleum products through about 10,000 km of pipelines
from 30 refineries in the Gulf Coast to markets in the Southeast, Mid-Atlantic and
Northeast. It operates in 13 US states and indirectly serves the Mid-West and New
England by delivering products to other pipelines and barges. (Jacobs, 2002, AOPL,
2004)

Prior to the 1970s pipelines typically moved from 10 – 20 products. In the mid-1970s
pipelines began to transport low lead and unleaded gasolines that were segregated to
avoid contamination. Products were tested as they moved through the pipeline system to
minimize degradation. Leaded gasolines were mostly eliminated in the 1980s, but by this
time the vapor pressure of gasolines began to be regulated requiring segregation of
pipeline batches based on regional or local, as well as summer and winter, vapor pressure
requirements, (API-AOPL, 2001).

Typical large refined petroleum pipelines operators transport from 30 – 50 products

regularly moving on each system over a cycle. A cycle is the period of time from
pumping of a certain grade until all other grades are pumped and the initial grade is
pumped again beginning the new cycle. However, pipelines have been carrying as many
as a total of 100 – 120 product grades for which they may occasionally provide
transportation services for specialized fluids.

11
 In general government regulation drive the majority of segregated batches, followed by
customer specifications, and individual state or city requirements. The number and mix of
products and specifications shifts by the regions as serviced by the pipeline operators
(EIA,2001).

One pipeline operator in the Midwest USA carries 43 grades of product on a typical 10-
day cycle (34 grades of gasoline, 5 grades of fuel oil, and 4 grades of jet fuel). Although
the pipeline usually has 43 grades of product in the pipeline at one time, it actually carries
a total of 85 fungible and segregated products for 60 different shippers. Typically
pipeline operators batch the products in sizes of 5,000-6500 m3 (32,000 - 40000 bbl.), or
larger, for each individual product. All commodities are usually segregated, e.g.: regular
gasoline, mid-grade gasoline, premium gasoline, jet fuel, aviation fuel and diesels for
different refineries. All batches combined in "slug/batch train" with each "box car" = one
individual batch.

Batch slug/train can be about 65,000 –100,000m3 in size (400,000 – 600,000 bbl). Liquid
product viscosity ranges that are transported through a batched system may include those
shown in Table 1:

Viscosity (mm 2/s) Density (kg/m3) Classification

100–350 904–940 Heavy crude

20–99 876–903 Medium crude
2–19 800–875 Light crude
0.4 – 1 600–799 Products and condensate
to 0.3 to 599 NGL

Table 1. Range of Product Viscosities Transported Through a Batched Pipeline.

From the above, the complexity of operational management of a liquid pipeline

transporting different liquid petroleum products can be realized. In liquid pipelines,
inventories and deliveries are managed through a system of tankage/storage facilities and

12
 pipeline/pumping to the withdrawal, transport and delivery of dedicated products to
customers without mixing of similar or dissimilar products from different shippers.
However, while a gas pipeline network (Figure.2) can be very complicated and can have
many more supplies (producers) than a liquid pipeline network, gas mixing is normally
allowed within acceptable gas specification limits. Typical gas compositions transported
are shown in Table 2 and allowables are given inTable.3.

Gas Pipeline Transmission Network Canada–USA (Schematic Courtesy ofTransCanada

PipeLines Limited

Component Light gas Heavy gas

CO2 0.0388 5.01995

C1 98.0276 78.4436

C2 0.2523 10.3178

C3 0.0542 3.86919

IC4 0.0171 0.609872

NC4 0.0088 0.729847

13
IC5 0.0060 0.169964

NC5 0.0022 0.119975

C6 0.0046 0.0599874

C7+ 0.0144 0.0299937

Nitrogen 1.5687 0.61987

Hydrogen 0.0053 0.0099979

Total 100.000 100.000

Table 2. Typical Gas Supplies to Pipeline Network (14.7 psia and 60 oF)

Component Limit
Water content < 65 mg/m3
Dew point <-10 oC
Temperature <49 oC
Gross heating value (GVH) > 36 MJ/ m3
H2S < 23 mg/m3
S2 < 112 mg/ m3
CO2 < 2% by volume, 0.02 ppm
O2 < 4% by volume, 0.04 ppm

Table 3 Typical Natural Gas Pipeline Specification

Gas pipeline operation is generally managed by balancing the supplies and deliveries
within the contractual arrangements while ensuring that line-pack within a gas network is
maximized. The function is thus to estimate gas supply/demand for ascertaining the

14
ownership of the gas flowing into and out of the gas pipeline system at any time and
declaring an estimated balance each day.
Gas mixing from different shippers are allowed and are not an operational management
concern as long as each gas quality received meets the industry standard of quality
specifications. In liquid lines on the other hand, line-pack is not a consideration from
delivery points of view. It is the dedicated product delivery that dictates operational
management concerns.
An example of supply of natural gas from two different locations in a gas pipeline
network can be those provided in Table 2. Resulting gas delivery at some 120 km away
after mixing is shown in Table 4. In a gas pipeline system, depending on the industry
served (industrial, power generation, commercial or residential), delivery volumes can be
time-/seasonal dependent depending on the number of customers served and storage
availability. An example is provided in Figure.3

A pipeline can be used to link two lands or to cross rivers. What is probably the first
initiative to transport oil between two lands is the pipeline installed between England and
France during the Second World War. The purpose was to provide the allies with
vehicles after the invasion planned to recover the European Continent. The oil
transportation by means of ships brings the flexibility of taking oil from a production
center to practically anywhere in the world. The investment is relatively small once the

15
ship, one loading terminal and one offloading terminal, is the required structure. The
transportation by means of pipelines requires a bigger initial investment, but once it is
installed, the overall efficiency of oil transportation is bigger than the one performed by
cargo ships.

By the middle of the 20th century, the oil started to be explored offshore. The discovery
of oil provinces under the seabed nearby some countries coasts brought the need for oil
transportation from the offshore fields to land. The offshore oil production today is a
significant part of the total world oil production. In an offshore production field, usually a
production plant facility, also called offshore platform, is placed nearby the wells used to
explore the field. Then many pipelines, called intrafield pipelines are used for the
connection between the wells and the production facility, between the wells and subsea
equipment, and between two platforms. In general terms, the offshore production
platforms are intended to take the multiphase produced flow that contains oil, gas,
condensate and water, and separate basically into two products to be exported: oil and
gas. Therefore, the output of an offshore platform is usually taken by export pipelines,
which are much longer than intrafield lines because they need to carry the production
from a production province to the land, often 200 km away or even farther. An exception
exists, for the cases where export pipelines are not available: the platform can be planned
to store oil and an ocean offloading terminal must be planned in order to periodically
transfer oil to cargo ships.

Imagine an oil reservoir located 2 or 3 km below the seabed, and then the wells making
the connection between the reservoir and the seabed. The offshore platform can then be
located over the wells, and in this case a vertical pipeline placed to carry oil to the sea
surface is called riser. When the platform is placed far from the wells, then a certain
length of intrafield pipeline is required to cover the distance between the well and the
platform. The part of the pipeline which is designed to be laid over the seabed is called
flowline, and the part of the pipeline which lifts off the seabed and goes towards the sea
surface to connect to the platform is called riser. In the beginning of offshore field
exploration, the gas was burned, but the overall system has evolved to the use of the

16
associated produced gas, which besides adding more energy, is considered to be a “clean
energy”, when used to run cars, for domestic use and for industry power supply. It has
also the advantage of not causing environmental pollution generated by the direct burning
of the gas. The gas transportation by ships is much more complex than oil transportation.
Special ships must be used to transport compressed, frozen or liquefied gas in a volume
that can compensate the cost of the trip. The use of gas pipelines is cost effective, but has
brought the need for bigger diameters than those used for oil transportation.

In the aforementioned intrafield pipelines, besides the function of bringing the produced
fluids from the wells, there are also other functions such as the water injection in order to
keep the internal pressure and to help pushing the oil from the reservoir. Sometimes gas
is injected into the wells and pipelines to increase the flow pressure, when it is needed, to
help the multiphase production to reach the sea surface level on the platform. Between
the main offshore provinces, the Gulf of Mexico, North Sea, West Africa and Brazil, are
currently the main ones, but the exploration is not restricted to these locations. Many
others do exist, but these locations have received more attention because they concentrate
the efforts to reach deeper waters and other challenging situations such as uneven
seabeds. One of the main challenges in the exploration of offshore fields is to be able to
overcome the water depth and the pressures associated to it. The definition of deep water
used to be the water depths that correspond to a level beyond the capacity of diver’s
intervention, which is limited to 300 meters. In the primary phases of oil production, one
important feature was that the offshore platforms used to be framed steel structures,
called jacket type platforms, installed over the seabed, and made high enough to reach a
height of 20 to 30 meters above the sea surface level.

With the increase of the water depth, the fixed type structures had to be replaced by
floating units. The record nowadays for the operation of a floating production unit is
around 3000 meters of water depth. The offshore pipelines differ from the land pipelines
mainly by three factors: the difficulty for the construction and/or installation; the high
external pressure as a function of the water column; and the corrosive and relatively cold
environment represented by the seawater. The offshore pipelines must fulfill a number of

17
operational requirements, but among them, the structural integrity is one of the most
critical one, because if a mechanical failure occurs, leakage of products causing
environmental damage and even the loss of human lives can be reminded as the main
risks involved. Considering a pipeline as a structure that needs to withstand operational
and accidental loads, one can easily conclude that it is a kind of structure with no
redundancies. When, in the framed structure, one part is damaged, it is possible that the
applied loads can be redistributed and withstood by the remaining intact parts. For the
pipelines, once damage occurs, no redundancy does exist to help carrying out the loads.
So, it is a feature of the pipeline engineering activity that makes the design sometimes
challenging. The topic cover many aspects in order to give an idea of the main aspects
involved in the pipeline design, not aiming to cover how a design is to be undertaken but
to highlight the main physics involved on that.

Wherever possible, the technology limits and the newest technologies are pointed out in
order to give an idea of the directions being taken by the industry and by the technical
community, in order to achieve the production and transportation under the most harsh
and risky situations.

The installation of offshore pipelines is very commonly interconnected to the

construction. If one thinks about the most common pipeline construction practices, it
consists of several welded steel pipes measuring around 12 meters. By this process, it is
possible to achieve any total length required to be covered by a pipeline. In order to get a
string of welded pipes deployed in the ocean, it was realized that specialized naval units
would be necessary. Any floating unit needs to be provided with means of keeping its
position under the action of environmental effects. In the beginning, the floating units
used to get the pipes to the ocean were kept in position by mooring lines and anchors. It
means that the movement of the installation vessel was associated to the repositioning of
the anchors, as the pipeline installation progressed.

The naval technology then has progressed to the dynamic positioned vessels. These units
are equipped with a set of propellers that can be turned on to compensate the tendency of

18
a movement. Each propeller usually covers a certain range of directions. A central system
gets the position and the orientation of the vessel on a continuous basis, and
automatically activates the thrusters, in terms of power and direction, in order to keep the
vessel aligned and in the expected position. The installation methods considered today by
operators for offshore pipeline installation can be named as: Reel-lay, S-lay, J-lay, and
Tow method. The first three methods are based on laying the pipeline on the seabed from
the vessels on the water surface. The vessel needs to put a certain level of tension to the
pipeline in order to avoid high stresses on the pipeline sag bend. The assumed
configuration is a catenary, where the higher the tension, the higher will be the departure
angle with respect to the vertical direction, and the lower will be the curvature at the
touch down point (point that correspond to the first point of the pipeline that reaches the
soil when we imagine coming from the sea surface towards the seabed) and at the sag
bend, which is the region were the pipeline presents the higher curvature level as it
changes angle to be able to achieve the soil level in an asymptotic profile.

The Reel-lay method (Figure 1) consists of welding on land a certain number of pipes
achieving lengths of about 1 km or more, called stalks. This fabrication process is
performed at an onshore site having a port capable of receiving the installation vessel,
which is equipped with reeling drums and positioned nearby the construction facility.

One end of the stalk is then pulled to the vessel and connected to the reel drum that
rotates and makes the pipes to conform to the drum geometry. In this process, one stalk
can be welded to the other, such that the reel drum can be loaded to achieve its total
capacity of pipeline length transportation. This capacity is a function of the drum
diameter and also a function of pipe diameter. The order of magnitude of a typically
reeled length is around 3 km. The characteristic of the reeling method is that the
construction is made onshore and the vessel goes offshore with the only task of laying the
pipeline, making the installation process faster. According to the required pipeline length,
it is possible that more than one vessel trip is necessary. In this case, the vessel goes back
to land to be loaded again. When it is back to the offshore location, one end of a
previously installed segment will be pulled from the seabed back to the installation vessel

19
to be welded to the subsequent segment of pipeline. The process can be repeated as many
times as it is necessary to fulfill the overall pipeline construction

Reel-lay Method.

Another important feature of the reel method is that the pipes must go beyond the elastic
limit in the reeling process. The elastic limit corresponds to the point from where the pipe
will return to its straight configuration after being bent. After being submitted to
permanent deformation (or going beyond elastic limit), a steel pipe will present a curved
geometry. The vessel then puts onto the pipes an inverse plastic deformation, before
laying it, in order to make the pipes to recover their straight geometry. The application of
a plastic deformation brings requirements to the pipe steel and also to the welding. A
minimum wall thickness is also required in order to allow pipes to withstand the bend
applied without the formation of wrinkles. After the process, the level of ovalisation of
the pipe sections is increased. Today the 18-inch diameter is considered as a limit to the
Reel method. One of the concerns regarding the Reel method is that whether severe
fatigue damage can be applied to the pipe during the process. Another important point of
concern is when the pipeline is planned to operate with fluids containing H2S. After the
reeling-unreeling process the steel would be more susceptible to the process called
Sulphide Stress Corrosion. This problem tends to increase the criticality as higher steel
grades are considered.

In the S-lay and J-lay methods, individual pipes or pipe sections are transported in the
ship and welded offshore. The ship is moved as the pipe sections are welded and a longer
pipeline length is made available. The S-lay is named this way because the pipe is welded

20
in the horizontal position and then it leaves the vessel in a shape similar to the shape that
is assumed close to the seabed, thus making an S-shape (Figure 2). In the departure
region, in order to protect the pipeline from large bending strains, a framed structure
called stinger is used to promote a gradual change in the curvature of the pipeline. To
guarantee pipeline integrity, not only the stinger but also a control on the pipeline tension,
which is done by the control of vessel position is required. Rollers are installed along the
framed structure (stinger) through which the pipe can oscillate and can be installed
avoiding the wear of the outer surface.

The J-lay method was meant to be the one used for deeper waters because it requires a
lower laying tension. In this case, the pipeline is welded in the vertical position. The
departure angle is taken as minimum to assure pipeline integrity in the bottom region
where the curvature radius has the minimum values (Figure 3). Here again the vessel
position controlling the pipeline lay tension is critical to keep the sag bend region free
from plastic strains. For the J-lay method the stinger is also used but usually a smaller
length is required concerning what is used in the S-lay method. While in the S-lay
method a horizontal long production line is available, in the J-lay method, only a working
station is usually available, as the pipeline is run in an almost vertical position. To fasten
the method, dual, triple or even quadruple joints are loaded into the vessel. Automated
welding process as well as automated welding inspection is also employed with the same
objective.

21
The installation speed is a very important parameter, as the laying vessels can have high
daily rental rates representing an important percentage of total pipeline cost. Another
good reason for performing offshore operations as fast as possible is the weather. The
installation of a pipeline needs to be made under a certain limit of weather conditions. For
any of the installation methods, the environmental conditions can govern the feasibility of
the operation. As waves become higher, the vessel motions will increase and then impose
to the pipeline unacceptable deformations. Also, the winds and currents can bring
difficulties for the installation vessel to keep in position. When planning an offshore
installation, the designer needs to establish contingency plans for the extreme situations;
which usually includes the pipe abandonment at the seabed for future recovery. This is
the extreme measure to avoid damage to the pipeline.

Depending on the world region and time of the year, different weather conditions may
exist. In some of the regions offshore installations during winter are avoided. Even in a
time of the year when harsh conditions are not expected, cold masses and other nature
events might happen, requiring the determination of an operational window during the
design phase. The installation of a pipeline is usually a critical path for business of
several billions of dollars, making the installation in any part of the year desirable to
avoid delays that have high-cost impacts. It means that during the operation, the weather
conditions and the weather forecast need to be carefully followed. Sometimes the
measurement of vessel motions, waves, currents, winds will be implemented in order to
assure that the specified conditions required for pipeline integrity are not violated at any
moment.

The last installation method is the tow method that has the main advantage in the
elimination of the requirement for the use of a specialized pipeline installation vessel.
Tugboats can be used to tow a long pipeline length from a beach site to the intended
location (Figure 4). Some difficulties appear, though; a proper site must be provided,
where a long section is assembled. The other difficulty consists in launching the pipeline
into the water and then overcoming the shallow waters. It is not possible to simply drag a

22
 long section of pipeline against the beach sea bottom when pulling it from the land. It is
then necessary to make the pipeline buoyant and the employment of buoys or floaters are
extremely important in this phase of the operation, in order to reduce the friction forces
with the soil. After inserting the entire section length into the water and reaching a

minimum water depth, the pipeline stalk can be suspended by two vessels, one at each
end, and the vessels will then travel with the same speed to the intended offshore
location. This method has another advantage, besides using cheaper vessels, which is
making the pipeline construction on land. The transportation process however, is
sometimes complex and can cause fatigue, damage or excessive strains to the pipeline or
riser section if not very well planned and executed.

2.5 CORROSION

Corrosion in the oil and gas industry is a very expensive and harmful phenomenon
similar to other natural disasters, such as earthquake, which damage the human health
ecosystem, and facilities. Kermani had evaluated the effect of corrosion on three
important areas of capital expenses (CAPEX); operation expenses (OPEX); and health,
safety, and environment (HSE). In addition, he concluded that 25% of the failures in the
petroleum industry are associated with corrosion failures. As per a research conducted by
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), in 2001, the cost of corrosion
had reached more than US $ 600 billion, which was evaluated as approximately 4%–6%
of the gross national product (GNP) of the country. The serious negative impacts of
corrosion on the economy and safety have caused engineers and scientists to accept more
challenging roles to control and mitigate this phenomenon. Although extensive academic

23
 research has been conducted so far on different types of corrosion and its mechanism in
the oil and gas industry by engineers, metallurgists, and scientists [2,3,4], no study has
specifically addressed material selection for and corrosion of 'piping' in the 'offshore
industry.' In fact, selecting materials for piping and valves adds new requirements and
parameters in addition to corrosion such as mechanical strength, weight reduction,
availability of the material in the market, and cost. Moreover, choosing and designing the
materials for offshore industry introduces different requirements regarding the external
corrosion risks in a marine environment. Therefore, development of a comprehensive and
practical material selection tool, specifically designed for piping in the offshore section of
the oil and gas industry is essential.

In addition to the academic papers, there are several international and national codes and
standards such as by the American Society of Test and Materials (ASTM), American
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and Norwegian Petroleum Standard
(NORSOK), specifying the practical material limitations in different process conditions,
which are referred when performing the material selection analysis. However, the issues
with the above-mentioned standards are that they do not propose any material for a
certain application and they are mostly concerned with material limitations. Thus, the
need for a systematic material selection and strategy to identify the best choice of
material for a certain application taking into consideration the limits defined in the
standards is the main motivation of this research. The key contribution of this study is the
development of a material selection flow chart summarizing the key findings as a basis
for a software development. According to the study conducted on commercial corrosion
software, there is no software for selecting a material specifically for piping in the
offshore industry. More specifically, the research has the following main objectives:
1. Development of a model for offshore piping material selection
2. Validation of the proposed material selection concept based on cases in real industry
practices;

2.6 MATERIALS SELECTION

24
 Material selection as a part of engineering design is the process of choosing the best
material for a specific process via a systematic material selection approach. In this study,
the optimal material selection strategy includes three well-known methods of screening:
Cambridge material selector, value engineering (VE), and technique for order preference
by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS). Ashbey methods as well as a computer-based
system development known as the Cambridge engineering system (CES) are the
approaches selected for the preliminary screening. In practice, the design requirements
should be translated into a material specification, and then the materials that do not
satisfy these requirements should be screened out. VE is a systematic method of ranking
the materials based on their performance indices and the weighting properties method
(WPM) implemented for quantitative analysis. In fact, the materials are ranked using
WPM as a part of VE to achieve an optimized and lowest cost. In addition to the above
two methods, TOPSIS, developed by Yoon and Hwang, is a method based on multi-
criteria decision making (MCDM). The selection made through TOPSIS is the option that
is as close as possible to the ideal solution.

2.6.1 SELECTION METHODS

CES selector software is the core analysis tool for screening. The screening method can
be detailed and is summarized as follows:
1. Problem definition and the main function of the component (piping) for which the
analysis will be conducted.
2. Model definition identifying the constraints, goals, objectives, and free variables.
3. Defining an object to reduce and screen the candidates to a short list of candidates.
It is important to translate the design conditions and requirements into the specifications
of the materials. A chart will be produced based on software such as CES to delete and
screen out the materials that cannot satisfy the specification and design requirements.
Using the software for initial screening is the starting point of the systematic material
selection. Table 1 includes the candidate materials and their limitations based on
international codes and standards as well as their corrosion resistance. Table 2 includes
the material selection result for each process application after screening process.

25
 Three applications are defined in this research as follows: 1. Process Service
(Hydrocarbon), Temperature Range: Between -46°C to 200°C, H2S Level: Maximum 1,
5 Psi, CO2 Level: Different Range. 2. Process Service (Hydrocarbon), Temperature
Range: Between -101°C to 200°C, H2S Level: Maximum 1, 5 Psi, CO2 Level: Different
Range.
3. Process Service (Hydrocarbon), Temperature Range: Between -46°C to 200°C, H2S
Level: more than 1, 5 Psi CO2 Level: Different Range.

Candidate Materials, Properties and Limitations

2.7 OFFSHORE PIPELINE OPERATIONS

The pipelines were drawn into the waters initially with the function of taking sewage to
the rivers and oceans. The necessity of oil transportation by means of cargo ships brought
the need for loading and offloading terminals by the coast. In order to allow the access to
big ships near coastal areas, which were not prepared to serve as harbors, the offloading
terminals were placed at some distance from the land. These situations correspond to one
of the first usages of offshore pipelines but, at this time they were used to cover a
relatively small distance.

26
2.8 PIPING SYSTEMS DEFINITIONS

 Flowlines

Flowlines are essential components in the oil and gas industry, used to transport
hydrocarbons from the wellhead to processing facilities, manifolds, or gathering systems.
They can be installed onshore or offshore and are vital for the initial stage of oil and gas
transportation.

 Pipline designs

Pipeline design refers to the comprehensive process of planning and constructing

pipelines for transporting liquids and gases, such as oil and natural gas.

 Risers

Risers are vertical or near-vertical segments of pipe that connect subsea pipelines to
facilities above water, such as platforms or vessels. They play a crucial role in offshore
oil and gas operations by enabling the transfer of fluids between the seabed and the
surface.

 Thermo mechanical behaviors

Thermo-mechanical behavior in pipelines refers to how materials respond to combined

thermal (temperature) and mechanical (stress/strain) loads. This is particularly important
in the oil and gas industry, where pipelines often operate under high temperatures and
pressures

 Free spans

a free span refers to a section of pipeline that is unsupported along its length on the
seabed. This can occur due to seabed irregularities, scouring, or other factors such as the
movement of the pipeline during installation or operation2. Free spans are a concern

27
because they can lead to vortex-induced vibrations (VIV), which can cause fatigue
damage and potentially lead to pipeline failure.

 Extreme loading in piping systems

Extreme loading in piping systems refers to the high-stress conditions that can occur due
to various factors such as pressure surges, thermal expansion, seismic events, and
environmental forces. These extreme loads can significantly impact the integrity and
safety of the piping system.

 Wave induced fatigue

Wave-induced fatigue in pipelines is a significant concern in offshore oil and gas

operations. It occurs when the cyclic loading from ocean waves causes stress and strain
on the pipeline, leading to potential fatigue damage over time.

 Vortex induced fatigue

Vortex-induced fatigue (VIV) is a significant concern in offshore oil and gas pipelines.
It occurs when alternating vortices shed from the flow of water around a pipeline, causing
it to vibrate. Over time, these vibrations can lead to fatigue damage, potentially causing
cracks and structural failure.

 On-bottom stability

On-bottom stability refers to the ability of a pipeline to remain stable on the seabed
under various environmental conditions, such as waves, currents, and soil interactions.
Ensuring on-bottom stability is crucial to prevent issues like pipeline movement,
buckling, and fatigue.

 Gathering system

28
 Gathering system is one or more segments of pipeline, usually interconnected to form a
network, that transports gas from one or more production facilities to the inlet of a gas
processing plant. If no gas processing plant exists, the gas is transported to the most
downstream of
(1) the point of custody transfer of gas suitable for delivery to a distribution system, or
(2) the point where accumulation and preparation of gas from separate geographic
production fields in reasonable proximity has been completed.

2.9 MANIFOLDS
Manifolds are widely used in the oil and gas industry for the distribution of process fluid
such as oil, gas, and water. Manifolds are designed to either merge multiple junctions into
a single channel or divide one flow line to multiple outputs. As an example, a production
manifold is located before the separator and it collects the oil from different flow lines
coming from wellheads. It transfers the produced fluid into a single channel, including
three phases of oil, gas, and water, to the separator for further treatment. On the contrary,
a gas lift or water injection manifold collects the produced gas as a single line and divides
them into different reservoirs for advanced or secondary production. In fact, secondary
production methods are used to increase the production through boosting the pressure
inside the formation or reservoir, The production of oil and gas continually decreases
because the pressure in the reservoir has been decreased, so one solution for advanced
hydrocarbon recovery is gas or water injection to the reservoir. Figure 1 and Figure 2
illustrate the production manifold in 20” header and 8” branch sizes and the gas lift
manifold in 6” header and 2” branch sizes, respectively.
The size of a manifold is selected by process engineers based on the flow rate passing
through the manifold.

Manifold shown in Figure 1, or by using a standard pipe as a header and welding olets to
the pipe header, such as the gas lift manifold in shown in Figure 2. The sizes of the
header and branch affect the choice between a standard tee or a standard pipe with
welding tees. As a rule of thumb, a standard tee cannot be used for branch connection

29
sizes with 1/3 or less than 1/3 of the header size. This is the reason why a 6”x 2”
manifold is made of a pipe header with olets for branches. The optimized manufacturing
solution for a manifold made of tees is to weld the long-length tees directly together
without any pipe between. Figure 4 shows a manifold made of tees that are connected to
each other through pieces of pipe. Alternatively, Figure 5 shows the same manifold made
of long length tees connected directly together. The advantage of the optimized solution
is to reduce the number of welding joints by deleting the pipe pieces and using a faster
fabrication process.

20” x 8” production manifold during welding

Manifolds usually handle high pressure fluid, so they may be designed based on a
pressure nominal of 250Barg equal to Class 600, based on the ASME B31.3 standard. for
example. The following sections of this paper will focus on the manufacturing process for
manifolds.

30
8” x 2” manifold during the clamping of Thread-O-Lets

31
The wrought made tees are based on ASME B31.3 standard through forming or a hot
extrusion process illustrated in Figure numbers 6 and 7 respectively. In the forming
method, the piece of pipe is placed in a hydraulic die, liquid is poured into the pipe, and
hydraulic pressure pushes out the branch in the fixed-opening die. The alternative method
for thick tees is a hot extrusion method in which the branch outlet is extruded from the
pipe with the assistance of an extrusion tool. Tees will be heat-treated and machined for
making bevels at three ends after forming or extrusion.

32
 Forming a Tee

Hot Tee extrusion

This method cannot be used for very thick tees. Seamless pipe with a heavy wall is
selected for manifolds that are made of pipe. Seamless pipe has a joint efficiency equal to
1 since there is no longitudinal seam weld on that which is higher. On the other hand,
welded pipes have welded seams, which reduces the joint efficiency of the pipe to 0.8 or
0.85, for example, depending on the method of welding. Seamless piping is made of a
solid cylinder named a billet shown in Figure 8, which is pierced through the center with
a mandrel

33
 Seamless pipe and billet

The mechanical joints (hubs and clamps) instead of standard ASME flanges [3] are used
for closing some manifold header ends as well as some of the branch connections (see
Figure 9) to save weight and space in the offshore industry (see Figure 10).

34
 Applications of mechanical joints on Manifolds

Comparison between ASME flange and mechanical joint assembly

2.9.1 MANIFOLD HEADER WELDING PROCESS

The bevel ended long length tees on a manifold should be welded together through butt
welding. Traditionally, the welding technique and preparation of the welded ends was
done as per ASME B16.25, the common standard for butt welded connections in piping
systems including manifolds. Figure 11 shows the butt weld end preparation as per
ASME B16.25 standard. Two scenarios of the bevel end preparation based on the piping
thickness are shown in Figure 11, one for wall thickness (t) up to and including 22mm,
and one for thicknesses greater than 22mm. On average, 1.6mm root face is prepared, and
the bevel end fitting or pipe has 37, 5 ° angle on average to the vertical line for wall
thicknesses up to and including 22mm, according to ASME B16.25 (see Figure 11). The
angle should be reduced to 10° on average for thickness values above 22mm on the extra
thickness over 19mm on average. Narrow gap welding is an advanced welding end
preparation in which the angle of the bevel end fitting has 7° to the vertical line, as shown
in this example. The advantages of narrow gap welding (see Figure 12) include using
fewer weld electrodes, faster welding processes, and less heat input. The advantage of
less heat input production during the welding of 22Cr DSS material is a lowered risk of

35
sigma formation. In fact, DSS may undergo different structural transformations due
tohigh temperature and heat, such as temperature ranges between 600°C to 1000°C. One
of those structural transformations in the form of intermetallic compounds is sigma phase
made of chromium and molybdenum.

Figure 11. Butt weld end preparation according to ASME B16.25

36
37
 A-B. Narrow gap welding with 7 degree angle

2.10 PIGGING DEVICES AND PIG LAUNCHING/RECEIVING FACILITIES

Pipeline pigs come in a wide variety of sizes and designs. Pigs are inserted into the
pipeline while it is operational and are carried along by the fluid being pumped. Because
they are solid devices constructed of various materials including metal, plastics, and
rubber derivatives, pigs must be removed before reaching the next pump. Typically, pig
traps, launchers, and recovery facilities are colocated with pump stations. Pigs are
designed to perform a wide array of functions. Their basic purpose is threefold:
(1) provide a way to clean debris and scale from the inside of the pipe,
(2) inspect or monitor the condition of the pipe,
(3) or act as a plug or seal to separate products in multi-product commercial pipelines or
to isolate a segment for repair without depressurizing the remainder of the pipeline. Pigs
designed to clean the pipe can use mechanical means (often called scraper pigs) or
chemicals. Pigs that monitor the condition of the pipe are categorized as in-line
inspection tools. Monitoring pigs, also sometimes called “instrument pigs” or “smart
pigs,” can perform a wide variety of functions. Geometry pigs check for deformation of
the pipe (which can greatly influence throughput efficiencies, but can also be an early
indicator of significant problems that could compromise pipeline integrity). Pipeline
curvature, temperature and pressure profiles, bend measurements, corrosion detection,
crack detection, leak detection, and product sampling represent some of the other major
functions performed by smart pigs. Magnetic flux leakage and ultrasonic technologies are
employed for some of these inspections. Another type of pig recently developed is the gel
pig. As the name implies, gel pigs consist of a series of gelled liquids that are introduced
for a variety of purposes, including serving as a separator between products in a multi-
product pipeline, collecting debris (especially after initial construction or repairs that
involved opening the pipeline, and dewatering the pipeline. Figure 2.1-2 provides
examples of the various types of pigs in use today, while

2.11 DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS

38
 Marketing and distribution terminals temporarily store products removed from the
pipeline. There also may be loading racks and transfer operations. In most instances,
terminals are proximate to, but not necessarily within the pipeline ROW, even if the
terminal is owned and operated by the pipeline operator.

2.12 SCADA
A typical SCADA system collects data from, and supervises control of, third-party
programmable logic controllers at each of the pipeline’s pumping stations, mainline
valves, and other areas where monitoring of critical conditions takes place. Along the
entire length of the pipeline, block valves are remotely monitored and controlled using
advanced real-time SCADA processors designed to support complex remote applications.
The communications for the system

39
Examples of the Types of Pigs in Use Today

40
Pig Launcher/Receiver

41
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 LINE PIPE

A line pipe is a type of steel pipe that is used to transport crude oil, natural gas, and
refined petroleum products over long distances. These pipes are typically made from
high-strength steel to withstand high pressures and harsh environmental conditions. Line
pipes can be used in both onshore and offshore pipeline systems.

3.2 VALVES

Valves in the oil and gas industry are essential components used to control, direct, and
regulate the flow of fluids (oil, gas, water, etc.) within a pipeline system or processing

42
 facility. These valves can handle high pressures, extreme temperatures, and corrosive
substances, making them critical for operationalsafety and efficiency.

3.2.1 PLUG VALVES

Plug valves are a type of quarter-turn valve used to start, stop, or regulate fluid flow in
pipelines. Their defining feature is a cylindrical or tapered plug that rotates inside the
valve body to control flow. These valves are widely used in the oil and gas industry for
their simple design, durability, and versatility.

3.2.2 CHOKE BOX

A choke valve is a specialized type of control valve designed to regulate the flow rate
and pressure of fluids, particularly in high-pressure and high-velocity systems like those
in the oil and gas industry. These valves play a crucial role in ensuring the safe and
efficient operation of wells and production systems.

43
3.2.3 SWING CHECK VALVE

A check valve is a type of valve that allows fluid to flow in only one direction,
preventing backflow. These valves operate automatically, meaning they do not require
manual or external control, making them crucial in systems where reverse flow could
cause damage, contamination, or operational inefficiencies.

44
3.2.4 GATE VALVE

A gate valve is a type of valve designed for fully open or fully closed operation. It uses a
flat or wedge-shaped gate that slides up or down to block or allow fluid flow. Gate valves
are widely used in the oil and gas industry due to their ability to handle high-pressure and
high-temperature systems with minimal pressure loss.

3.3 PRESSURE PUMP

A pressure pump is a mechanical device designed to increase the pressure of a fluid

(liquid or gas) as it flows through a system. These pumps are widely used across various
industries, including oil and gas, water treatment, manufacturing, and HVAC, to ensure
efficient fluid transport, process control, and equipment protection.

3.4 FLANGES

45
 A flange is a mechanical device used to connect pipes, valves, pumps, and other
equipment to form a piping system. Flanges provide easy access for cleaning, inspection,
and modifications, making them essential components in various industries, including oil
and gas, water treatment, and chemical processing.

3.5 GASKETS

A gasket is a mechanical seal used to prevent leakage of fluids or gases between two
mating surfaces, typically in flanged joints, valves, pipes, and other equipment. Gaskets
fill the gap between the surfaces, compressing to form a tight seal when the components
are bolted or pressed together.

46
3.6 WELD-O-LETS

Weld-O-Lets are a versatile and efficient way to create branch connections in a piping
system. They are used widely in industries such as oil and gas, chemical processing, and
water treatment. With their ability to provide strong, leak-proof connections and their
cost-effectiveness, Weld-O-Lets are an essential fitting for many piping applications.
However, careful attention must be paid to the welding process to ensure the integrity of
the connection.

3.7 THREAD-O-LETS

A Thread-O-Let is a type of pipe fitting used to create a threaded branch connection in a

piping system. Unlike the Weld-O-Let, which is welded to the side of a pipe, a Thread-O-
Let has internal threads that allow a threaded pipe or fitting to be screwed directly into
the fitting. This makes it ideal for applications where a branch connection needs to be
added without welding, using threaded connections instead.

47
3.8 ACTUATOR

Actuator is a device used to automate the control of a mechanism or system by

converting energy (usually electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic) into mechanical motion.
In the context of industrial automation, actuators are essential components for controlling
the movement of valves, dampers, gates, and other equipment in processes such as
manufacturing, oil and gas, water treatment, and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning) systems.

3.9 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING MACHINE

The NDT Radiographic Machine is commonly known as a Radiographic Testing (RT)

Machine or X-ray Machine used for Non-Destructive Testing (NDT). This machine

48
 utilizes X-rays or gamma rays to inspect the internal structure of materials and
components without causing damage, allowing for the detection of flaws, cracks, voids,
or other defects that may compromise the integrity of the material.

3.10 BARREL DOOR

Barrel door refers to a closure door or end closure on the pig launcher or pig receiver
barrel. This component allows for safe loading and unloading of pipeline pigs (devices
sent through the pipeline) into the barrel.

49
3.11 THE MAIN PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE FABRICATION AND
CONSTRUCTION OF INLET MANIFOLD CLASS 600

The fabrication of an inlet manifold (or intake manifold) involves a series of steps to
create a component that efficiently delivers air (or an air-fuel mixture) to an engine's
cylinders. Inlet manifolds can be made from materials like aluminum, steel, or
composites, and their fabrication process depends on the manufacturing method and
material chosen. Below is an overview of the major processes involved in fabricating a
typical inlet manifold:

3.11.1 DESIGN AND PROTOTYPING

The fabrication process begins with extensive design and prototyping to ensure the inlet
manifold meets performance requirements and fits the intended engine.

3.11.2 COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD):

Engineers use specialized software (e.g., SolidWorks, CATIA) to design the manifold.

Optimizing airflow: Ensuring smooth and efficient air or air-fuel delivery to the engine
cylinders.

Minimizing pressure losses: Designing channels and shapes that reduce turbulence.

Matching engine requirements: Ensuring the manifold matches the engine's mounting
points and performance specs.

Prototype Creation:

Rapid Prototyping:

Techniques like 3D printing or CNC machining are used to create physical models.

50
Prototypes are tested for fit, function, and airflow performance before mass production
begins.

2. Material Selection

The choice of material affects performance, weight, durability, and cost. Key options
include:

Aluminum:

Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and excellent for heat dissipation.

Ideal for high-performance and racing applications.

Steel:

Strong and durable but heavier. Common in older or heavy-duty applications.

Plastic/Composites:

Lightweight and cost-effective. Widely used in modern engines for mass production.

Can include glass-reinforced composites for added strength and heat resistance.

Titanium (rare):

Extremely strong and lightweight but expensive. Used in specialized applications like
aerospace or high-end racing.

3. Fabrication Processes

The fabrication method depends on the material and design. Here are the main processes:

A. Casting (for Metal Manifolds)

Mold Creation:

Sand Casting:

51
A sand-based mold is created around a pattern of the manifold.

Common for aluminum manifolds.

Permanent Mold Casting:

A reusable metal mold is used, often for higher production volumes.

Metal Pouring:

Aluminum or steel is melted in a furnace and poured into the mold.

Degassing: Removes impurities to ensure a strong, uniform material.

Cooling and Solidification:

The molten metal cools and hardens into the manifold shape.

De-Molding:

The solidified manifold is carefully removed from the mold.

Finishing:

Machining: Precise cutting and drilling of mounting points, ports, and channels.

Deburring: Removal of rough edges or excess material.

Polishing: Smoothing internal surfaces to improve airflow.

B. Forging and Machining (for Custom or Billet Manifolds)

Forging:

A billet (solid block) of metal is heated and pressed into the rough shape of the manifold.

Increases material density and strength compared to casting.

CNC Machining:

52
Computer-controlled machines cut, drill, and shape the manifold from the forged or billet
piece.

Extremely precise and ideal for custom designs or low production volumes.

C. Plastic/Composite Molding

Injection Molding:

Plastic pellets or composite materials are melted and injected into a pre-made mold.

Ensures uniformity and smooth internal surfaces.

Cooling and Solidification:

The material cools and hardens into the manifold shape.

De-Molding and Trimming:

The finished manifold is removed from the mold, and excess material is trimmed.

D. Welding and Assembly (for Custom Manifolds)

Tube Cutting and Bending:

Individual tubes are cut and bent to the required shapes using tube benders.

Flange Fabrication:

Flanges are machined to match the engine’s intake ports and ensure a tight seal.

Welding:

Tubes, flanges, and plenum chambers are welded together, typically using TIG welding
for precision.

Leak Testing:

53
The assembled manifold is tested for air or fluid leaks using pressurization or vacuum
methods.

4. Surface Treatment

After fabrication, the manifold undergoes treatments to enhance performance, durability,

and aesthetics:

Anodizing:

Adds a corrosion-resistant layer (common for aluminum manifolds).

Powder Coating:

Applies a durable, heat-resistant coating to improve appearance and protect against

corrosion.

Polishing:

Internal surfaces are polished to improve airflow and reduce turbulence.

5. Quality Inspection

Each manifold is inspected to ensure it meets specifications and quality standards:

Dimensional Inspection:

Tools like calipers and CMMs (Coordinate Measuring Machines) are used to verify
critical dimensions.

Airflow Testing:

Conducted on a flow bench to ensure the manifold provides even airflow to all cylinders.

Pressure Testing:

The manifold is pressurized to check for leaks or structural weaknesses.

54
6. Final Assembly and Packaging

Assembly:

Additional components like sensors, gaskets, or vacuum ports are installed as required.

Packaging:

Cleaned, labeled, and securely packaged for shipment or installation.

7. Installation and Testing

After fabrication, the manifold is installed on the engine and tested under real-world
conditions to confirm performance and durability.

Dynamometer Testing:

Simulates engine operation to measure the manifold’s effect on power, torque, and
efficiency.

55
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The findings are analyzed within the context of the specific cases detailed in Chapter
Three, arranged according to the identified systems. Each process system is explored in a
dedicated subsection, showcasing various results obtained from the applied
methodologies. Supporting these analyses, relevant figures and tables displaying key data
are provided for thorough reference.

56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED

The main problem associated with a piping system is corrosion owing to the corrosive
offshore environment containing a large amount of chloride and corrosive and untreated
internal hydrocarbon (process) fluids. Generally, corrosion resistance alloys (CRAs),
such as duplex and nickel alloys, should be selected for an offshore piping system in
critical corrosive hydrocarbon fluids to minimize the corrosion. In addition, it is
important to select a material with a high mechanical strength and low mass to withstand
the loads as well as reduce weight on the platform.

5.2 SOLUTION TO PROBLEM

To address corrosion in piping systems, consider the following solutions:

1. Material Selection: Use corrosion-resistant materials like stainless steel, plastic, or

alloys.
2. Protective Coatings: Apply coatings such as epoxy, polyurethane, or galvanization
to protect pipe surfaces.
3. Cathodic Protection: Implement sacrificial anodes or impressed current systems to
prevent corrosion.
4. Corrosion Inhibitors: Add chemicals to reduce corrosion reactions in the fluid.
5. Proper Design: Avoid stagnation, ensure smooth flow, and provide drainage to
minimize corrosion.
6. Maintenance and Inspection: Conduct regular inspections and use non-destructive
testing (NDT) methods.
7. Environmental Control: Control humidity, pH, and contaminants to reduce
corrosive effects.
8. Section Replacement: Replace severely corroded pipe sections.

64
 9. Advanced Monitoring: Use smart sensors and electrochemical monitoring for real-
time data.
10. Training: Educate staff on preventing and managing corrosion.

These strategies help protect pipes, reduce maintenance costs, and enhance system
longevity

5.3 CONCLUSION

Manifolds are widely used in the oil and gas industry for the distribution of process fluid
such as oil, gas, and water. The sizes of manifolds are selected by process engineers
based on the flow rate passing through the manifold. Manifolds normally handle high-
pressure fluid, so they may be designed based on pressure nominal of 250Barg, as an
example. In the offshore industry, manifolds are made in 22Cr DSS instead of carbon
steel to save thickness and weight. The manifolds described in this paper are made of
either welding wrought tees or using a standard pipe as a header and welding olets to the
pipe header. Bevel ended long length tees on the manifolds should be welded together
through butt welding. Traditionally, welding technique and preparation of the welded
ends was done as per ASME B31.3, the common standard for butt welded connections in
piping systems including manifolds. However, narrow gap welding is an advanced
welding end preparation in which the angle of bevel end fitting has 7° to the vertical line
in this example. The advantages of narrow gap welding include using fewer weld
electrodes, having a faster welding process, and requiring less heat input. The method
shown in this paper for calculation of welding consumables volume and weight in one-
meter shows that the amount of welding electrodes used for standard ASME welding is
more than double the amount of narrow gap welding.

65
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

To promote continuous improvements and maintain high-quality standards, the following

recommendations are put forward:

1. Ongoing Investment in Technology: The production factory should continue to

invest in advanced technology and equipment to enable more accurate testing and
enhance production processes.

2. Financial Support for SIWES Trainees: It is recommended that the funds for
SIWES trainees be provided either before the program begins or during its duration, to
better support their learning experience.

3. Employee Training: Regular training sessions on the latest industry standards and
quality control practices will help ensure consistency in production and compliance with
safety protocols.

4. Improvement of the SIWES Program: The current structure of the SIWES program
could be improved, as many students face delays in securing placements. A more
effective solution could involve schools and the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) jointly
handling student placements, ensuring a more timely and equitable learning process.

5. Expansion of Student Placement Opportunities: Companies should be encouraged

to offer more placement positions for students, and the government should offer
incentives to businesses that participate.

6. Comprehensive Student Preparation: Universities should focus not only on

academic education but also on teaching general etiquette and life skills to better prepare
students for the workforce. Collaboration between universities and businesses would
provide students with hands-on training without unnecessary stress.

These suggestions aim to enhance the SIWES program, improve student training, and
better prepare students for entering the workforce.

66
 REFERENCES

American Society of Mechanical Engineering B16.9. (2012). Factory made wrought buttwelding
fittings. New York, NY: ASME.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). (2004). Carbon, alloy and stainless steel
pipes. ASME B36.10/19. New York, NY: ASME.

API 2RD – Design of Risers for Floating Production Systems (FPSs) and Tension Leg
Platforms (TLPs)

Bai, Y. – Pipelines and Risers – School of Science and Technology – Stavanger University
College

Guo, B., Song, S., Chacko, J., Ghalambor, A. – Offshore Pipelines – GPP

Hardhatengineer. (2018). Pipe fitting manufacturing process [Online]. Available from:

https://hardhatengineer.com/pipe-fittings/pipe-fittings-manufacturing-process/

Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, MSS SP 97. (2002).
Integrally reinforced forged branch outlet fittings- socket welding, threaded and butt-welded
ends.

NORSOK L-001, (2017). Piping and valves. 4th revision, Oslo, Norway.

67
Palmer, A.C., King, R.A. – Subsea Pipeline Engineering – PennWell

68