2.

1 Atomic Theory

Chemistry is founded on four assumptions which

together make up Atomic Theory.
1. All matter is composed of atoms.
2. The atoms of a given element differ from the
atoms of all other elements.
3. Chemical compounds consist of atoms
combined in specific ratios. Only whole atoms
can combine.
4. Chemical reactions change only the way
atoms are combined in compounds.
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 2.1 Atomic Theory

Atoms are composed of tiny subatomic particles

called protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Protons carry a positive electrical charge.
• Neutrons have a mass similar to that of a
proton, but are electrically neutral.
• Electrons have a mass that is only 1/1836 that
of a proton and carry a negative electrical
charge.
• Electrons are so much lighter than protons and
neutrons that their mass is usually ignored.
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 2.1 Atomic Theory

• The masses of atoms and subatomic particles

are expressed on a relative mass scale.
• The basis for the scale is an atom of carbon that
contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons. This carbon
atom is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic
mass units (amu) or daltons.
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 2.2 Elements and Atomic Number

• Atomic Number (Z) is the number of protons in

atoms of a given element. All atoms of a
particular element have the same number of
protons in the nucleus.

• Atoms are neutral because the number of

positively charged protons and the number of
negatively charged electrons are the same in
each atom.

• Mass Number (A) is the sum of the protons and

neutrons in an atom.
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 2.2 Elements and Atomic Number

• Isotopes are atoms with identical atomic

numbers but different mass numbers.
• Protium, deuterium, and tritium are three
isotopes of hydrogen.

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 2.2 Elements and Atomic Number

• A specific isotope is represented by showing its

mass number (A) as a superscript and its atomic
number (Z) as a subscript in front of the atomic
symbol.
• For example, the symbol for tritium is:

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 2.2 Elements and Atomic Number

• The isotopes of most elements do not have

distinctive names.

• The mass number (A) is given after the name of

the element.

• The isotope used in nuclear reactors is usually

referred to as uranium-235, or U-235

• Most naturally-occurring elements are mixtures

of isotopes.

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 2.2 Elements and Atomic Number

Atomic Weight is the weighted average mass of an

element’s atoms.
• The individual masses of the naturally occurring isotopes
and the percentage of each must be known.
• The atomic weight is calculated as the sum of the
masses of the individual isotopes for that element.

Atomic weight = [(isotope abundance) × (isotope mass)]

• The Greek symbol  indicates summing of terms.

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 2.4 The Periodic Table

Mendeleev produced the forerunner of the modern periodic

table, which has boxes for each element with the symbol,
atomic number, and atomic weight.

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 2.4 The Periodic Table

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 2.4 The Periodic Table

The vertical groups on the periodic table have

similar chemical properties and are divided into
categories.
• Main Groups—The two groups on the far left
(1–2) and the six on the far right (13–18) are the
main groups.
• Transition Metal Groups—Elements in these
groups are numbered 3 through 12.
• Inner Transition Metals—The 14 elements
following lanthanum are the lanthanides and the
14 elements following actinium are the actinides.
Together these are the inner transition metals.
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 2.4 The Periodic Table

Groups are numbered in two ways, both shown in

Figure 2.2.
• The main group elements are numbered 1A
through 8A.
• The transition metal elements are numbered
1B through 8B.
• Alternatively, all 18 groups are numbered
sequentially from 1 to 18.
• The inner transition metal elements are not
numbered.
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 2.5 Some Characteristics of Different Groups

• The periodic table has the name it does because the

elements in it show an obvious periodicity.
• Many physical and chemical properties exhibit
periodic behavior.
• The various elements in a group show remarkable
similarities in their chemical and physical properties.

• Although the resemblances are not as pronounced

as they are within a single group, neighboring
elements often behave similarly as well.

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 2.5 Some Characteristics of Different Groups

Group 2A—Alkaline earth metals

• Beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca),
strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra)
• Lustrous, silvery metals
• Less reactive than their neighbors in group 1A
• Never found in nature in the pure state

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 2.5 Some Characteristics of Different Groups

Group 7A—Halogens
• Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine
(I), and astatine (At)
• Colorful and corrosive nonmetals
• Found in nature only in combination with other
elements, such as with sodium in table salt
(sodium chloride, NaCl)
• The group name, halogen, is taken from the
Greek word hals, meaning salt.

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 2.5 Some Characteristics of Different Groups

Group 8A—Noble gases

• Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton
(Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn)
• Colorless gases
• Labeled the “noble” gases because of their
lack of chemical reactivity
• Helium, neon, and argon don’t combine with
any other elements. Krypton and xenon
combine with very few.

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 2.6 Electronic Structure of Atoms

• Electrons in an atom are grouped around the

nucleus into shells.
• The farther a shell is from the nucleus, the larger
it is, the more electrons it can hold, and the
higher the energies of those electrons.
– The first shell (closest to the nucleus) can
hold two electrons.
– The second shell can hold 8 electrons.
– The third shell can hold 32 electrons.

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 2.6 Electronic Structure of Atoms
• Within the shells, electrons are further grouped
into subshells of four different types, identified
as s, p, d, and f in order of increasing energy.
• The first shell has only an s subshell; the
second shell has an s and a p subshell; the
third shell has s, p, and d subshells, and the
fourth has s, p, d and f subshells.
• The number of subshells is equal to the shell
number.
• A specific subshell is symbolized by writing the
number of the shell, followed by the letter for
the subshell.
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 2.6 Electronic Structure of Atoms
• Within each subshell, electrons are grouped
into orbitals, regions of space within an atom
where the specific electrons are most likely to
be found.
• An s subshell has 1 orbital, a p has 3 orbitals, a
d has 5 orbitals, and an f has 7 orbitals.
• Each orbital holds two electrons which differ in
a property known as spin.

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 2.6 Electronic Structure of Atoms
• Any orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
with opposite spin.
• The first shell has one 1s orbital and holds 2
electrons.
• The second shell holds 8 electrons; 2 in a 2s
orbital and 6 in three 2p orbitals.
• The third shell holds 18 electrons; 2 in a 3s
orbital; 6 in three 3p orbitals; and 10 in five 3d
orbitals.
• The fourth shell holds 32 electrons; 2 in a 4s
orbital; 6 in three 4p orbitals; 10 in five 4d
orbitals; and 14 in seven 4f orbitals.
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 2.6 Electronic Structure of Atoms
The overall electron distribution within an atom is
summarized in Table 2.2:

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 2.7 Electron Configurations

The exact arrangement of electrons in an

atom’s shells and subshells is the atom’s
electron configuration. It can be predicted
by applying three rules.

Rule 1: Electrons occupy the lowest energy

orbitals available. This is complicated by
“crossover” of energies above the 3p level.

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 2.7 Electron Configurations
Below is a simple scheme to help remember
the order in which the orbitals are filled.

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 2.7 Electron Configurations
• Rule 2: Each orbital can hold only two
electrons, which must be of opposite spin.
• Rule 3: Two or more orbitals with the same
energy are each half-filled by one electron
before any one orbital is completely filled by
addition of the second electron.
– The number of electrons in each subshell is
indicated by a superscript.

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 2.7 Electron Configurations

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 2.7 Electron Configurations

These are the electron configurations for B – N in

which the 2p shell begins to fill.

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 2.7 Electron Configurations

These are the electron configurations for O – Ne in

which the 2p shell is completed.

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 2.8 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
The periodic table provides a method for
remembering the order of orbital filling.

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 2.8 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
Elements in the same group of the periodic table
have similar electron configurations in their
valence shells.
• A valence shell is the outermost electron shell of an
atom
• A valence electron is an electron in the valence
shell of an atom.
• The group numbers from 1A through 8A give the
numbers of valence electrons for the elements in
each main group.
• Valence electrons are the most loosely held, and
they are the most important in determining an
element’s properties.
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 2.8 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

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 2.9 Electron-Dot Symbols

Electron-dot symbol—An atomic symbol

with dots placed around it to indicate the
number of valence electrons.

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