THE CELL

Cell is the structural and functional unit of living organism. The human body develops from
a single cell called zygote, which results from the fusion of the ovum and spermatozoon.

A cell consists of plasma membrane inside which are number of organelles suspended in a
watery fluid called cytoplasm. These organelles are enclosed in their own membrane within
the cytoplasm and each of them has its own membrane within the cytoplasm and each of them
has a specialized function. These organelles include; nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes and cytoskeleton.

CYTOPLASMIC STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

S/N ORGANELLES FUNCTIONS

1 Plasma membrane Mechanical cell boundary, selectively permeable
barrier with transport systems, mediates cell-cell
interactions and adhesion to surfaces, secretion
2 Nucleus Controls all activities of the cell, synthesis of RNA,
storage of hereditary information in genes and
control of cell division.
3 Centrosomes Movement of chromosomes during cell division

4 Ribosomes Synthesis of protein

5 Cytoskeleton Determine the cell shape
6 Golgi apparatus Processing, packaging and delivery of proteins and
lipids, lysosome formation.
7 Rough endoplasmic reticulum Synthesis of protein and degradation of worn out
organelles
8 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Synthesis of lipid and steroids, storage and
metabolism of calcium
9 Nucleolus Ribosomal RNA synthesis, ribosome construction

10 Lysosomes Intracellular digestion

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 CELL THEORY
Cell theory is the scientific theory which states that all living organisms are made up of cells
as the smallest functional unit.

The three scientists that contributed to the development of cell theory are; Matthias Schleiden,
Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow.

THE MODERN CELL THEORY

The modern theory regarding the cell is given below;

1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. Living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cell division.
4. Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division.
5. All cells are the same in chemical composition.
6. Energy flow(metabolism) occurs within cells.

CELL PROPERTIES

The following are the properties of cell;

1. Each cell in the body needs nutrition and oxygen.

2. Each cell provides its own energy necessary for its growth, repair and other activities.
3. Each cell eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic waste.
4. All cells are enclosed by a lipid bilayer.
5. All cells use nucleic acids for genetic information.

CELL DIVISION

Cell division is the process by which a cell divides into two or more cells. Many damaged,
dead and worn out cells can be replaced by growth and division of other similar cells.

The two main types of cell division are;

(a) Mitiosis
(b) Meiosis

Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells, while meiosis results in four sex cells.The
period between two cell divisions is known as the cell cycle and it has two phases which are;
mitotic phase(M phase) and interphase.

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 Cell Cycle

INTERPHASE

This is the longer phase and three stages are recognized;

1. First Gap phase(G1): This is the longest phase and most variable in length.
2. S phase: The chromosomes replicates forming two identical copies of DNA.
3. Second Gap phase: There is further growth and preparation for cell division.

MITOSIS

This is a continuous process involving four distinct stages;

1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase

PROPHASE
• During this stage the replicated chromatin becomes coiled and easier to see under the
microscope.
• Each of the 46 chromosomes( called a chromatid at this stage) is paired with its copy
in a double chromosome unit.
• The mitotic apparatus( 2 centrioles separated by mitotic spindle) appears
• The centrioles migrate, one to each end of the cell and the nuclear envelope disappears.

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METAPHASE

• The chromatids are lined up at the centre/equator of the cell

• The mitotic spindles are attached to the centromeres of the chromatids

ANAPHASE

The centromeres separate, and one of each pair of sister chromatids( now called chromosomes
again) migrates to each end of the spindle as the microtubules that form the mitotic spindle
contract.

TELOPHASE
The mitotic spindle disappears, the chromosomes uncoil(no longer visible under light
microscope) and the nuclear envelop reforms around each chromosome set.

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Following telophase, cytokinesis occurs; the cytoplasm, intracellular organelles and plasma
membrane split forming two identical daughter cells. The organelles of the daughter cells are
incomplete at the end of cell division but develop during interphase.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

S/N MITOSIS MEIOSIS

1 Nucleus divides only once Nucleus divides twice
2 Daughters cells are identical to Daughter cells are different from parent cell
parent cell
3 Two daughter cells are formed Four daughter cells are formed
4 Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in reproductive cells
5 Diploid cells are formed Haploid cells are formed

TISSUE
The tissues of the body consist of large numbers of cells and they are classified
according to the size, shape and functions of these cells.

TYPES OF TISSUES
They are four main types of tissue, which are;
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
This group of tissue is found covering the body and lining cavities, hollow organs and
tubes. It is also protect against mechanical damage. Epithelial tissue may be simple(a
single layer of cells) or stratified(several layers of cells).
Simple epithelium: consists of a single layer of identical cells and is divided into
three main types. It is usually found on absorptive or secretory surfaces, where the
single layer enhances these processes, and not usually on surfaces subject to stress.

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 (a) Squamous(pavement) epithelium: this is composed of a single layer of
flattened cells. It forms the lining of the heart(endocardium), blood and lymph
vessel(endothelium), alveoli of the lungs and the lining of the collecting ducts
of nephrons in the kidneys.
(b) Cuboidal epithelium: consist of cube shaped cells fitting closely together lying
on a basement membrane. It forms the kidney tubules and is formed in some
glands.
(c) Columnar epithelium: this is formed by single layer of cells, rectangular in
shape, on a basement membrane. It is found in the lining of the stomach(simple
columnar), small intestine(simple columnar), trachea(ciliated columnar),
uterine tube(ciliated columnar).
Stratified epithelium: consist of several layer of cells of various shape. Basement
membranes are usually absent. The main function of stratified epithelium is to protect
underlying structures from mechanical wear and tear.
There are two main types of stratified epithelia; stratified squamous and transitional.
Stratified squamous epithelium: is composed of a number of layers of cells. In the
deepest layers the cells are mainly columnar and as they grow toward the surface,
they become flattened and are then shed.
➢ Keratinized stratified epithelium: This is found on dry surfaces subjected to
wear and tear,i.e, skin, hair and nails. The surface layer consists of dead
epithelial cells that have lost their nuclei and contain the protein keratin.
➢ Non keratinized stratified epithelium: This protects moist surfaces subjected
to wear and tear, and prevents them from drying out, e.g the conjunctiva of the
eyes, the lining of the mouth, the esophagus, and the vagina.
Transitional epithelium: This is composed of several layers of pear-shaped cells. It is
found lining the urinary bladder and allows for stretching as the bladder fills.

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 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body. It is the tissue that connects,
separates and supports all other types of tissues in the body. All connective tissue
consists of three main components, which are; cells, fibers( elastic & collagen fibres)
and ground substance. Together the fibers and ground substance make up the
extracellular matrix. The cells present in connective tissue include; fibroblast, fat cells,
macrophages, leukocytes and mast cells.
Examples of connective tissues are; cartilage, bone, adipose tissue, blood and lymph.
Major functions of connective tissues are;
• Binding and structural support
• Protection
• Transport
• Insulation
Types of connective tissue
Based on the cells present and the extracellular matrix structure, we have two types
of connective tissue;
(a) Connective tissue proper: further divided into loose and dense connective
tissue.
(b) Specialized connective tissue: reticular, blood, cartilage and adipose tissue

Loose connective tissue: is the most generalized type of connective tissue. It is found
almost in every part of the body, providing elasticity and tensile strength. For
example, it is found under the skin, between muscles, supporting blood vessels, etc.
Dense connective tissue: this contains more fibres and fewer cells than loose
connective tissue.
Adipose tissue: consist of fat cells and matrix of areolar tissue. There are two types;
white and brown adipose tissue.
➢ White adipose tissue: makes up 20 to 25% of body weight in well-nourished
adults. It is found supporting the kidneys and the eyes, between muscle fibres
and under the skin, where it acts as a thermal insulator and energy store.
➢ Brown adipose tissue: is present in the newborn and it helps in the maintenance
of body temperature. In some adults it is present in small amounts.

Cartilage: is firmer than other connective tissue; the cells are called chondrocytes and
are less numerous. There are three types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage
and elastic fibrocartilage

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 ➢ Hyaline cartilage: provides flexibility, support and smooth surfaces for
movement at joints. It is found; on the end of long bones that forms joints,
forming the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to the sternum and forming
part of the larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
➢ Fibrocartilage: it is a tough, slightly flexible, supporting tissue found; as pads
between the bodies of the vertebrae, as ligaments joining bones, etc.
➢ Elastic fibrocartilage: it provides support and maintains shape of structures,
e.g. the pinna or lobe of the ear, the epiglottis, etc.
MUSCLE TISSUES
Muscle tissue is able to contract and relax, providing movement within the body and
of the body itself. Muscle contraction requires an adequate blood supply to provide
sufficient oxygen, calcium and nutrients and to remove waste products. There are
three types of specialized contractile cells, known as fibres(muscle fibres);

(a) Skeletal muscle

(b) Smooth muscle
(c) Cardiac muscle

SKELETAL MUSCLE

It is described as skeletal because it forms the muscles that move the bones, while it is
said to be striated because striation(stripes) can be seen on microscopic examination
and voluntary as its under conscious control. Examples are bicep muscle, pectoralis
major, buccinator muscle, etc

SMOOTH MUSCLE

This type of muscle can be described as non striated, visceral or involuntary. It does
not have striations on microscopic examination and it is not under conscious control.
Smooth muscle has the intrinsic ability to contract and relax. It is found in the walls of
hollow organs e.g blood vessels, urinary bladder, uterus, alimentary tract, etc.

CARDIAC MUSCLE

This type of muscle tissue is found only in the heart wall. It is not under conscious
control but, when viewed under a microscope, cross stripes(striations) characteristics
of skeletal muscle can be seen.

NERVOUS TISSUE

Two types of tissue are found in the nervous system;

• Excitable cells: These are called neurons and they initiate, receive, conduct and
transmit information.

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 • Non Excitable cell: also known as glial cells, these support the neurons in the
nervous system.

MEMBRANES
The two main types of membranes are; Epithelial and Synovial membranes

1. Epithelial Membranes

These membrane are sheets of epithelial tissue and supporting connective tissue that
cover or line many internal structures or cavities. The main ones are mucous
membrane, serous membrane and the skin( cutaneous membrane)

Mucous Membrane: is the moist lining of the alimentary tract, genitourinary tract and
respiratory tract which is sometimes referred to as the mucosa. The membrane surface
consists of epithelial cells, some of which produce a secretion called mucus. Organs
lined by mucous membrane have a moist slippery surface. Mucus protects the lining
of membrane from drying and mechanical and chemical injury.

In the respiratory tract it traps inhaled foreign particles, preventing them from
entering the alveoli of the lungs.

Serous Membrane: also known as serosa, it secretes a fluid called serous fluid. They
consist of double layer of loose areolar connective tissue lined by simple squamous
epithelium. The parietal layer lines cavity and the visceral layer surrounds
organs(viscera) within the cavity. The two layers are separated by serous fluid
secreted by the epithelium.

There are three sites where serous membranes are found in the body;

➢ The pleura lining the pleura cavity and surrounding the lungs
➢ The pericardium lining the pericardial cavity and surrounding the heart
➢ The peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding the abdominal
organs

2. Synovial Membrane

This membrane lines the cavities of moveable joints and surrounds tendons that could
be injured by rubbing against bones. It secretes clear, sticky, oily synovial fluid, which
lubricates and nourishes the joints.

BY: SIMON OCHE

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