Histology

Dr Yaser Abdullah
The Cell Structures
- The Cell is the structural and functional unit of life( and of
disease processes)in all tissues, organs,and organs systems.

Nucleus:
The nucleus is made up of the following 4 components:
_ Nuclear membrane
_ Nuclear sap
_ Chromatin
_ Nucleus
 Cytoplasm:
 The cytoplasm is made up of cytoplasmic
matrix,organelles,and inclusion.
 Organelles are specialized structures with
performance specific function . The membranous
organelles are bounded by unit membranes while the
non_ membranous are not.
 Inclusion are temporary non_living components of
the cytoplasm which appear and disappear at different
periods of the cells life .Examples are stored food
(glycogen,fat)
 pigments (exogenous_endogenous),crystals etc.
Cell structures
 Membranous Organelles
 Cell or Plasma Membrane(Plasmalemma):
 Definition
 The Cell membrane is the protoplasmic boundary of
the cell that controls permeability and may serve other
functions through surface specializations.
 Chemical composition:
 a_lipid molecular.
 1_cholesterol molecules in cytoplasmic aspect.
 2_phospholipid molecules(Hydrophilic part).
b_protein molecules: Extrinsic or peripheral protein ;
lie outside lipid bi_layer, loostely_bound to both
membrane surfaces. Intrinsic or integral protein are
small protein embedded in cell membrane.

c_carbohydrate molecules are bound to the outer

surface of cell membrane as glycoprotein and
glycolipids, components of cell receptors for
(hormone, drugs, viruses,bacteria).
 Function of cell membrane:
 1_ simple diffusion
 2_facilitated diffusion
 3_active transport
 4_selective transport
 5_phagocytosis
 6_pinoctosis
 7_exocytosis
 8_sodium_potassium pump
Cytoplasmic Organelles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 There are 2types of endoplamsmic reticulum, namely , rough and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
 Rough or Granular ER
 It's formed of a network of rough surfaced interconnected
cisternae and tubular and is responsible for protein synthesis.
 Functions of ER :
 a_synthesis,segregation,storage,and packing of protein.
 b_Delivery of packaged protein to Golgi apparatus.
 c_Protection of cytoplasm from formed hydrolytic enzymes.
 Smooth or Agranula ER:
 It's appears as anastomosing tubules with no ribosomes .
 Functions :
a_synthesis of lipid,and steroid hormones in liver
cells and endocrine cells.
b_synthesis of glycogen in liver cells.
c_play a role in formation of HCL in stomach cells.
d_play a role in muscular contraction(Calcium ions).
e_Detoxification of excess drugs or hormones
f_Play a role in formation of platelets.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus:
It's is a membrane bound organelle which plays important role in
the secetory functions of cells and is responsible for accumulating
concentrating,packaging,storing and adding specific products to
the secretion.

Functions of Golgi Apparatus:

1_Accumulate,concentrate,and package Secretory products of
cells.
2_Rich in sulfotransferase enzyme which adds sultfates to certain
secretory products.
3_Rich in sugar transferase enzyme which adds carbohydrates to
certain secretory products.
4_Keep cell membrane and cell coat in good condition .
Golgi Complex (Golgi Apparatus)
 Lysosomes :
Lysosomes are spherical membranous organelles
containing hydrolytic enzymes whose main function is
intracellular digestion.

Types of Lysosomes:
1_Primary Lysosome: homogeneous rounded vesicles.
2_Secondary Lysosome : heterogeneous rounded bodies
containing ingested and digested elements.
 Functions of Lysosomes:
 1_concerned with intracytoplasmic digestion.
 2_Defend the body against invading organism.
 3_Digest old mitochondria .
 4_Hydrolyeses resorbed protein preventing their
escape in urine(kidney tubule cells).
 5_Facilitate penetration of sperm through oocytes
barriers.
 6_Concerned with post_mortem changes (suicidal
bags) during cell death as in hypoxia, ischemia, and
bacterial infection.
lysosome
Mitochondria:
They are membrane bounded organelles which
possesstheirown DNA and perform oxidative
phosphorylation concerned with the production of
ATP and also play a role in lipid synthesis. They are
absent in RBCs.
Functions:
1_They supply energy (ATP) to all cellular activities
2_Calcium and magnesium ions stored as dark granules .
3_Catalyze the enzymatic reaction mitochondria.
 Peroxisomes (Microbodies).
 Peroxisomes are self_replicating organelles that
contain oxidative enzymes.
 1_ Peroxisomes are membrane_limited,
enzyme_containing vesicles somewhat larger than
primary Lysosomes.
 2_Peroxisomes contain more than 40 oxidative
enzymes, especially urate oxidative,D_amino acid
oxidaes, hydroxy acid oxidase , and catalase.
 Functions:
 1_Beta_oxidation of fatty acids.
 2_Hydrogen peroxide degradation.
Mitochondria
 Non_ membranous organelles
Ribosomes.
Ribosomes are rounded or oval cytoplasmic bodies formed of
RNA and protein responsible for protein synthesis.
Orgain:The ribosomes RNA is formed in the nucleolus from
where they pass to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores.
Different forms of ribosomes:
1_Free Ribosomes
2_Attached Ribosomes
3_Nissl's Bodies
4_Polysomes
5_Microsomes
Functions of ribosomes:
1_Free Ribosomes form protein for local use.
2_Attached Ribosomes form protein for export.
Centrioles:
Centrioles are 2 perpendicular cylindrical structures, each
composed of 9 microtubules triplets(9*3),both of which
constitute the core of the microtubule organized center (MTOC).

Functions
1_During mitosis the Centriole pair duplicates and migrates to
opposite pole where they become surrounded by(MTOC)
microtubule organelles center.
2_The Centriole divided into procentriole which organizes the
development of specialized microtubules in motile cilia and
flagella.
3_The Centriole also organizes the cytoplasmic microtubular
network in normal interphase cells.
 Cilia:
Cilia are long, motile hair_like processes present at the free
surface of ciliated cells and whose function is to move
fluids ,mucus, or ovum from one place to another.
Structure:
3parts:
_basal body
_ the shaft(axoneme)
_ rootlet.
Site:
_In ciliated epthelia of the respiratory system {e.g trachea and
bronchi}
_other epithelial cells such as the hair cells of the vestibular
apparatus in the inner ear.
Cilia of Tracheal Epithelial Cells
 Cytoskeleton
 It forms the skeleton of the cell responsible.It maintains the
specific shape of the cell.
Consist of:
 1_Microtubules :present in all kinds of cells.
 Size:A cylindrical filamentous structure of variable length and
about 250Å in diameter.
 Composition: of protein called tubulin.
 Location:most anchored near Centriole.
Functions:
 a_Facilitate particles transport in cytoplasm.
 b_Concerned movement of cilia.
 c_Form mitotic spindle during mitosis.
 2_Microfilament
These are accurate threads.
Types:
_action filament _mainly in muscle cells
_myosin filament _ in muscle cells
3_Intermediate filaments:variety of cells
e.g.neurofibrils of nerve cells.
Functions of microfilaments:
1_In muscle cells _muscular contraction.
2_In certain blood cells_ help in ameboid movement.
3_In blood platelets_ retraction of blood cleavage.
4_In dividing cells _help in forming cleavage.
5_In microvilli _ play a role in movements of microvilli.
Cytoskeleton
 The Cell lnclusion :
These are temporary non_living components of the cytoplasm
which appear and disappear at different periods of the cell life ,
and less actively involved in cell metabolic activity.

The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipids droplets,

pigments, and crystals.
Types of cell inclusion:
1_ stored food (* carbohydrates * fat )
2_pigments :
Exogenous pigments:* Carotene pigments * Dust pigments *
Minerals * Tattoo marks)
Exogenous pigments:(* Hemoglobin * Hemosiderin * Bilirubin
* Melanin * Lipofuscin * Crystals)
 Nucleus
The nucleus is typically a rounded or oval mass of protoplasm
within the cytoplasm of a cell.
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which encloses
euchromatin, heterochromatin , and one or more nucleoli, and
undergoes mitosis during cell division.
It is found in all cells except the mature RECs, reticulocytes, and
platelets.
Number:
_Mononucleated:cells with one nucleus are common.
_Binucleated:liver cells and superficial cells of transitional
epithelium.
_Multinucleated:osteoclasts and skeletal muscle fibers.
_Anucleated:mature RECs.
 Shape

Rounded to oval(liver cells)

Flattened(endothelial cells)

Horseshoe_shape( indented) ( large lymphocytes and monocytes)

Segmented or lobulated(neutrophils).

Position:

_Central;e.g. simple cuboidal cells, mast cell

_Eccentric; plasma cell.

_Peripheral;e.g. fat cell, skeletal muscle.

_Basal ;e.g. simple columnar cell.

 Functions of the nucleus:
 1_In the interphase the DNA molecules are used in
directing protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
 2_In the cell division these genetic information are
inherited to the daughter cells.
 The nucleus is not able to do these 2functions at the
same time.
 Nuclear membrane:
 It's double membrane at bounded of the nucleoplasm ; it has
regularly spaced pores covered by a disk_like nuclear pores
complex and a space or cisterna about 150 nm wide between two
layers ;
 _The outer membrane is continuous at intervals with the
endoplasmic recticulum.
 _The inner nuclear membrane is attached to peripheral chromatin.
Functions of nuclear membrane:
 1_It separated the nucleus from the surrounding cytoplasm.
 2_It allows exchange of materials between nucleus and
cytoplasm through nuclear pores.
 Chromatin:
Chromatin is the genetic material of the nucleus , consisting of
dexoyribonucleoprotein, which occurs in two forms during the
phase between mitotic divisions:
1_as heterochromatin, seen as condensed, readily stainable
clumps.
2_as euchromatin, dispersed lightly staining or non staining
material.

During mitotic division the chromatin condenses in to

chromosomes.

Two types of chromatin:

1_condensed chromatin
2_extended chromatin.
 Functions of chromatin;
 1_It directs and guides protein synthesis in the cell in order to
produce the special protein required by the cell to perform it's
specialized function.
 2_It stores the specific genetic information on its genes and
transmits them through successive generation.
 Nucleolus:
nucleoli are one or more small dense round basophilic
bodies with in the non dividing (interphase) nucleus that
consists of protein, DNA, and ribosomal RNA.They play
role in ribosome manufacture (and therefore protein
synthesis).
Function of Nucleus;
1_Synthesis of rRNA around nucleolar genes.
2_rRNA is conjugated with protein and stored in the
granular part until it migrates though nuclear pores to
reach the cytoplasm as ribosome subunits.
 Mitosis:
Mitosis is continuous process. It can, however, be divided into
various stages, for convenience description.
These stages are:
1_prophase.
2_Metaphase.
3_Anaphase.
4_Telophase.
Interphase;
It is the stage between 2 consecutive mitotic divisions.
During interphase period;
_Genetic material,DNA, is duplicated.
_Chromosome are not visible as distinct structures.
_Chromatin granules ,however,can be seen.
 1_Prophase:
it involves the following changes.
_Gradually the nuclear membrane break down
_Nucleus and nucleolus disappear as cytologically distinct
structures.
_46«pairs» of chromosomes become visible under LM
_The two pairs of Centrioles separate from each other and
migrate to opposite poles of the cell.
_A small area on one side of each Centriole serves as a
microtubule organizing certain from which the lengthening
microtubules are assembled .(These are usually called
continuous or interpolar microtubules).
The continuous microtubules plus the chromosomal microtubules
form the mitotic spindle.
 2_Metaphase:
_Chromosomes get condensed and thus shortened , Each
Chromosomes consists of 2 chromatids joined at the
centromere.The karytype, the display of human Chromosomes
for analysis , is taken from metaphase as these are best visualized
in this stage.
_Centromeres of all the chromosomes come to lie in the
equatorial plane. This plane bisects a line joining the two
Centrioles , at right angles . limbs of chromosomes , however ,do
not lie in the equatorial plane.
The centromere has 2 small disk_shaped areas know as
kinetochores.
These kinetochores are microtubule organizing centers from
which chromosomal microtubules are assembled. The fully
assembled chromosomal microtubules connect the kinetochores
of each pair chromatids to Centrioles in poles of the cell.
 3_Anaphase:
_The centromere joining paired chromatids divide to produce 92
chromatids (daughter chromosomes)46chromosomes move
toward one pole of the cell and 46 moves toward the other pole.
_Chromosomal microtubules are attached to chromosomes at
their kinetochores. Chromosomes are actively pulled toward the
cell pole as the microtubules shorten by depolymerization.
 4_Telophase:
_Chromosomes in each daughter cell become uncoiled to form
the chromatin characteristic of interphase nucleus.
_Nucleoli are reformed . Nuclear membrane develops in each
daughter cell . The separation and segregation of nuclear material
into 2 separate nuclei is called karyokinesis.
_Cytokinesis commences when a cytoplasmic constriction
develops in the mid_portion of the cell , called a cleavage furrow ,
which will eventually separate the dividing cell into 2 daughter
cells . Actin and myosin filaments are said to play a role.