Activity 4 Genetics

"Understanding the Chemical Foundation of Heredity"
INTRODUCTION
This topic dives into the molecular basis of inheritance in which it explorie the structure
and function of DNA, the molecule that carries genetic information It examines how
DNA replicates and how it encodes genetic instructions and how these instructions are
translated into proteins, the building blocks of life By understanding the chemical
mechanisms underlying heredity, we can gain insights into the process of evolution.
CONCEPT OF THE GENE

A gene is a part or segment of DNA that contains the instructions for making or
producing proteins and to control other genes these proteins or RNA molecules plays
critical part in the structure, function, and regulation of the cells, tissues, and organs in
an organism.
Concept of a Gene
The concept of a gene has evolved over time but the main idea remains the same it's
the unit of inheritance. Below shows the concept of the gene.
DNA Sequence
Genes are composed of DNA a molecule shaped like a twisted ladder there is a part of
this ladder that are made up of pairs of chemical bases which are the adenine (A),
thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) each specific sequence of these bases
determines the genetic code.
Protein Synthesis
Most genes provide instructions for making proteins, which are complex molecules
essential for life. The DNA sequence is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated
into a specific protein.
Inheritance
Genes are passed down from parents to offspring. This inheritance process explains
why children resemble their parents.
Genetic Variation Differences in gene sequences among individuals lead to genetic
variation, which is the basis for evolution and diversity.
Gene Expression The process of turning on or off a gene to produce a protein is called
gene expression. This regulation is crucial for proper development and function.
DNA as the genetic code
DNA as a genetic code refers to the idea that DNA carries the information or
instructions in order to build and maintain an organism the instructions were encoded
in the sequence of nucleotides in which it is a building block of DNA it states that the
genetic code is a system of rules that it translates the sequence of the nucleotides into
a pattern of proteins and the structural component of the the cell.
There are several type for how the DNA as the genetic code function first would be
DNA Replication it ensures the genetic material is passed on accurately to new cells in
order to avoid mutations then we have Transcription it's is a process in which the DNA
is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA) then Translation it is where the mRNA is used
by ribosomes to synthesize proteins and lastly Protein Function the Proteins perform
cellular functions based on their structure which is determined by the DNA sequence.
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF DNA
Below will be discussed different types of molecular structure of dna in which that how
they part take in the DNA formation.
Double Helix
The structure of DNA is described as a double helix which resembles a twisted or twirly
ladder It consists of two long strands of nucleotides running in opposite directions
these strands are coiled or rolled around each other held together by hydrogen bonds.
Nucleotides
The building blocks of DNA are nucleotides which are made up of three components
which are.
Phosphate group or (PO₄³⁻)
Deoxyribose sugar (a five-carbon sugar)
Nitrogenous base (one of four types: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), or guanine
(G))
Base Pairing
In the double helix specific protein or nitrogenous base pair together to form the double
helix figure or double helix dna.
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) using two hydrogen bonds.
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G) using three hydrogen bond
DNA in chromosomes is organized into a compact structure to fit inside a cell's nucleus
first the DNA wraps around proteins called histones to form nucleosomes in which it
resembles beads on a string. The nucleosomes coil further into chromatin which can be
loose euchromatin or tightly packed heterochromatin during cell division the chromatin
condenses even more to form visible chromosomes each consisting of two identical
sister chromatids joined at the centromere this organization ensures that the DNA is
both protected and accessible for processes like gene expression and cell division.
DNA replication
DNA replication is a critical process in cell division where the DNA is copied to ensure
each new cell has an identical set or pair of genetic information below will show the
breakdown or process of how DNA replication takes place.
1. Initiation
DNA replication begins at specific locations on the DNA called "origins of replication."
The enzyme helicase unwinds the double helix separating the two strands of DNA. This
creates two single-stranded DNA templates. To prevent the unwound strands from
reannealing, single-strand binding proteins (SSBs) bind to them, stabilizing the structure.
2. Primer Formation
The enzyme primase synthesizes short RNA primers on each template strand. These
primers provide a starting point for the next enzyme DNA polymerase which adds
nucleotides to the growing DNA strand.
3. Elongation
DNA polymerase III is the primary enzyme responsible for adding new nucleotides in the
5' to 3' direction on the new strand. On the leading strand, it works continuously as the
DNA is unwound. On the lagging strand, which is oriented in the opposite direction,
replication occurs in short segments known as Okazaki fragments, as DNA polymerase
can only synthesize in the 5' to 3' direction.
4. Ligation
The enzyme ligase seals the gaps between the newly synthesized DNA fragments on
the lagging strand, creating a continuous DNA strand.
5. Error Correction
Despite the high accuracy of DNA polymerase, errors can still occur during replication.
To correct these errors, cells use a proofreading mechanism. DNA polymerase has a
built-in proofreading function: as it adds nucleotides, it checks each one for correctness.
If an incorrect nucleotide is added, the polymerase detects the mismatch, removes the
wrong base using its 3' to 5' exonuclease activity, and replaces it with the correct one.
6. Finalization
Once the replication is complete, the DNA strands rewind into their double helix
structure. The result is two identical DNA molecules each containing one original
parental strand and one newly synthesized daughter strand in a process known as semi-
conservative replication.
ERRORS in DNA REPLICATION

Errors in DNA replication can lead to mutations if incorrect nucleotides are incorporated
into the new DNA strand and are not properly corrected. DNA polymerase may
occasionally add the wrong base, such as adenine instead of guanine, resulting in a
mismatch. While DNA polymerase has a proofreading function to detect and correct
these errors, some mistakes can slip through. If these errors aren't fixed by
proofreading or other repair mechanisms like the mismatch repair system, they can
become permanent. Additionally, DNA polymerase might sometimes insert or skip
nucleotides, causing insertions or deletions in the DNA sequence. If a mutation occurs
in a gene, it can alter the protein produced by that gene, potentially disrupting normal
cell function. While many mutations are harmless, others can lead to diseases, including
cancer, if they affect important genes involved in cell growth and regulation.Each group
should provide practical examples, such as how DNA mutations can affect animals or
plants.
Real Life Examples

Below will give a example that relates dna mutations to real life situation In plants or
animals.
A specific mutation can prevent the development of seeds in fruits this mutation has
been exploited by humans to produce seedless varieties of fruits like grapes
watermelons, and bananas It benefits consumers by providing seedless fruits that are
easier to eat.
While for animals white spotting is a common DNA mutation in many animals,
including dogs, cats, and horses. It occurs when genes responsible for producing
pigment are altered, resulting in white patches of fur or hair. While often considered a
harmless cosmetic trait, in some cases, it can be linked to health issues like deafness in
certain dog breeds.
Despite its potential drawbacks, white spotting remains a popular trait in many
domesticated animals. It can enhance their appearance and make them more
distinctive. However, it's important for breeders and owners to be aware of the potential
health implications associated with certain white spotting patterns.
REFERENCES
National Human Genome Research Institute
(NHGRI). (n.d.). What is a gene? Genome.gov.
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Gene
National Institutes of Health (NIH). (n.d.).

Genetics Home Reference. Genetics Home Reference.
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/
Pennisi, E. (2021). The tangled tale of the gene.

Science, 371(6533), 1042-1045.

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"Understanding the Chemical Foundation of Heredity"

CONCEPT OF THE GENE

ERRORS in DNA REPLICATION

Real Life Examples

National Institutes of Health (NIH). (n.d.).

Pennisi, E. (2021). The tangled tale of the gene.

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