DNA REPLICATION

AND RECOMBINATION
CABAHUG, ALTHEA
DACULA, RAZEL
LANDAR, HELAENA BEATRIZE
LOZADA, MA. CHARLINA NICOLE
VENTIC, AILEN MARIE
 Table of contents

DNA Replication and DNA Organization

01 Recombination 02 in Chromosomes
A.) Molecular basis of A.) Hierarchal levels of
gene function organization
- Replication
- Transcription
- Translation

B.) Recombination and

DNA Repair
01.
DNA Replication
and Recombination
What is DNA Replication?
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a
copy of itself during cell division. t must first copy (or
replicate) its entire genome so that each resulting
daughter cell ends up with its own complete genome.
 DNA Replication Process
1. The first step in DNA replication is to ‘unzip’ the double helix structure of
the DNA Molecule

2. This is carried out by an enzyme called helicase which breaks the hydrogen
bonds? holding the complementary bases of DNA together (A with T, C with G).

3. The separation of the two single strands of DNA creates a ‘Y’ shape called a
replication ‘fork’. The two separated strands will act as templates for making the
new strands of DNA.

4. One of the strands is oriented in the 3’ to 5’ direction (towards the replication fork),
this is the leading strand. The other strand is oriented in the 5’ to 3’ direction (away
from the replication fork), this is the lagging strand. As a result of their different
orientations, the two strands are replicated differently:
 DNA Replication Process
(Leading Strand)

1. A short piece of RNA? called a primer? (produced by an enzyme called primase)

comes along and binds to the end of the leading strand. The primer acts as the
starting point for DNA synthesis.

2. DNA polymerase? binds to the leading strand and then ‘walks’ along it, adding
new complementary? nucleotide? bases (A, C, G and T) to the strand of DNA in the
5’ to 3’ direction

3. This sort of replication is called continuous.

 DNA Replication Process
(Lagging Strand)
1. Numerous RNA primers are made by the primase enzyme and bind at various
points along the lagging strand.

2. Chunks of DNA, called Okazaki fragments, are then added to the lagging strand also
in the 5’ to 3’ direction.

3. This type of replication is called discontinuous as the Okazaki fragments will need
to be joined up later.

4. nce all of the bases are matched up (A with T, C with G), an enzyme called
exonuclease strips away the primer(s). The gaps where the primer(s) were are then
filled by yet more complementary nucleotides.

5. The new strand is proofread to make sure there are no mistakes in the new DNA
sequence.
 DNA Replication Process
(Lagging Strand)

1. Finally, an enzyme called DNA ligase? seals up the sequence of DNA into two
continuous double strands.

2. The result of DNA replication is two DNA molecules consisting of one new and one
old chain of nucleotides. This is why DNA replication is described as semi-
conservative, half of the chain is part of the original DNA molecule, half is brand
new.

3. Following replication the new DNA automatically winds up into a double helix.
 What is Transcription?
Transcription occurs in the nucleus, where DNA is used as a
template to create mRNA. This mRNA carries the genetic code to
the cytoplasm. Transcription is performed by enzymes called RNA
polymerases, which link nucleotides to form an RNA strand (using
a DNA strand as a template).Transcription is the process of copying
a segment of DNA into RNA. The segments of DNA transcribed
into RNA molecules that can encode proteins are said to produce
messenger RNA. Other segments of DNA are copied into RNA
molecules called non-coding RNAs.
 What is Translation?
Translation happens in the cytoplasm, where mRNA is read by
ribosomes. Ribosomes use the mRNA code to assemble amino
acids into a protein according to the genetic instructions. It
takes the information passed from DNA as messenger RNA
and turns it into a series of amino acids bound together with
peptide bonds. This process creates the functional proteins
that carry out various functions in the body.
 What is DNA
Recombination?
• Genetic Recombination is a process by which a segment of DNA is broken and
then joined to a different DNA molecule.
• Recombination is of great revolutionary significance, as ot brings about
variation.
• Thus, recombination provide a means for spreading of favourable alleles and a
means to eliminate an unfavourable al
• Recombination was first recognized as the process responsible for crossing-over
and exchange of DNA segments between homologous chromosomes during
meiosis of eukaryotic cells, and was subsequently implicated in the integration of
transferred DNA into bacterial genomes after conjugation, transduction, and
transformation.
Mechanism of Recombination
• Basically, there are three theories:
1. Breakage and Reunion
2. Breakage and Copying
3. Complete Copy Choice

Types of Recombination
1. Homologous recombination
2. Non-homologous recombination
 What is DNA Repair?
• DNA has a specific base sequence and the main objective of biological system is
to maintain these sequences of DNA from one generation to another. In a
multicellular organism, the death of a single somatic cell due to DNA damage is
less dangerous than to replicate its damaged DNA, as it gives rise to tumor or
other cancerous growth.
• Thus, cell must possess an efficient repair system to avoid cell death or
mutation
• This repair system removes many spontaneous errors that arises due to
chemical mutagens and radiations and also many damages arose during
replication.
Types of DNA repair
• Most cells possess for different categories of DNA
repair system. (Lindal and Wood, 1999)
1. Direct Repair System - Direct Repair System
2. Excision Repair - These pathway is divided
into two categories
 1. Base Excision Repair
Involves removal of a damaged nucleotide base, and excision of a
short piece of the polynucleotide around the AP site created, and
resynthesized with DNA polymerase.

2. Nucleotide Excision Repair

- Has a much broader specificity than base excision system.
- Used to correct extensive type of damage.
- Similar to base excision except that it is not preceded by selective
base removal, and a longer stretch of poly nucleotide is excised.
 Mismatch Repair System
- It corrects the mismatch resulting from errors in replication.
- Once a mismatch is found, the repair system excises part of
the daughter polynucleotide and fills in the gap, in a manner
similar to base and nucleotide excision repair.
- E. coli has three mismatch repair systems called 'long patch',
'short patch', and 'very short patch'.
 Recombination Repair
- Is used to men double-strand breaks.
- Double-strand break repair process involves four set of genes.
(Critchlow and Jackson, 1998) These genes specify a multi-
component protein complex that directs a DNA ligase to the break.
- Recombination repair process is also called "Non-homologous
End Joining (NHEJ)", including that there is no need of homology
between two molecules whose end are being joined.
- NHEJ is also a type of recombination, as it is used to join
together molecules that were not previously joined, producing new
combinations.
 Results of Defects in DNA Repair
- DNA repair is very important as it can be analyzed by the
number and severity of inherited human diseases that are
linked with the defects in one of the repair processes.

- A few diseases are linked with defects in the transcription

coupled component of nucleotide excision repair.
02.
DNA Organization
in Chromosome
• Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes are
relatively simple DNA Molecules

• Bacterial and Viral chromosome are usually:

- A single nucleic acid molecule
- Largely devoid of associated proteins
- Much smaller than eukaryotic
chromosomes
 VIRUSES
Chromosomes of Viruses consist of single- or double-
stranded DNA or RNA.
 BACTERIA
Bacterial chromosomes are double-stranded DNA and are
compacted into a nucleoid. DNA in bacteria may be associated
with HU and H1 DNA- binding proteins.
 SUPERCOILING

• Supercoiling Facilitates
Compaction of the DNA of
Viral and Bacterial
Chromosomes
• Most closed circular DNA
molecules in bacteria are
slightly underwound and
supercoiled.
 Topoisomerases
Cut one or both DNA strands and wind or unwind the helix
before resealing the ends. Specialized Chromosomes Reveal
Variations in the Organization of DNA

Polytene chromosomes and Lampbrush

chromosomes
Are very large and can be visualized by light
microscopy.
 Polytene Chromosomes

• Have distinctive banding patterns

• Represent paired homologs
• Are composed of many DNA strand

Polytene chromosomes
have puff regions where
the DNA has uncoiled and
are visible manifestations
of a high level of gene
activity.
 Lampbrush Chromosomes

• Are large and have extensive

DNA looping.
• Found in oocytes in the
diplotene stage of meiosis.
• DNA Is Organized into
Chromatin in Eukaryotes
• Eukaryotic chromosomes are
complexed into a nucleoprotein
structure called chromatin.
• Chromatin is bound up in
nucleosomes with histones
H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

• Electron microscopic
observations of chromatin
have revealed its fibers are
composed of a linear array
of spherical particle.
 Nucleosomes
Nucleosomes are condensed several times to form the
intact chromatids.
 Chromatin Remodelling
Must occur to allow the DNA to be accessed by DNA
binding proteins.

Histone Tails
Are important for histone modifications such as
acetylation, methylation, and phosphorylation.

Euchromatin
Is uncoiled and active, whereas heterochromatin
remains condensed and is inactive.
 Repetitive DNA

Sequences are repeated

many times within
eukaryotic chromosomes.
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Demonstrate Complex
Organization
Characterized by
Repetitive DNA
 Satellite DNA
Highly repetitive and consists of short repeated
sequences.
 Centromeres

• Are the primary

constrictions along
eukaryotic
chromosomes
• Mediate chromosomal
migration during
mitosis and meiosis
 Telomeric DNA
Sequences consist of short tandem repeats that contribute to
the stability and integrity of the chromosome.
 HIERARCHAL LEVELS OF
ORGANIZATION
1. Nucleotides
These are the fundamental units composing DNA. Structurally, they consist of a
phosphate group, a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), and one of four nitrogenous bases—adenine,
thymine, cytosine, or guanine. The arrangement of these bases forms the genetic code, determining
the unique instructions for an organism's functions and traits.

2. DNA
Assembled from sequences of nucleotides, DNA serves as the repository of genetic
information in living organisms. Its double-helix structure enables it to store, replicate, and pass on
hereditary details across generations.
 HIERARCHAL LEVELS OF
ORGANIZATION
3. Genes
Segments of DNA, genes act as the blueprints for creating proteins or functional RNA
molecules. These molecules dictate various characteristics and play a crucial role in the regulation of
biological processes, from metabolism to growth and development.

4. Chromosomes
These organized structures of DNA exist within the nucleus of cells. In humans, each cell
contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. The chromosomes not only safeguard the genetic material during cell
division but also facilitate the precise distribution of genetic information to new cells.

5. Genome
The complete set of an organism's genetic material, the genome encompasses all genes and
non-coding sequences. It's not just a static library of information but a dynamic entity that interacts with
the environment, playing a fundamental role in how organisms respond and adapt to changes.
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