TYPES OF RESERVOIRS AND THEIR PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES

RESERVOIRS: A reservoir rock is one that has porosity and permeability that
allow it to contain a significant amount of extractable hydrocarbon, AND
contains hydrocarbon.
A non-reservoir rock may have porosity that is too low or permeability that is
too low, or zero hydrocarbon saturation.
Therefore, the major control is often the basic lithology. E.g. Shales often contain
HC with high saturations, but have porosities and permeabilities that are much
too low for the HC to be extractable
The volume of reservoir rock in a single zone depends upon the area of the zone
A (often obtained from seismic interpretation), and the thickness of the
reservoir rock in the zone h (from wireline log interpretation and zonation).
Thus, the bulk volume of reservoir; Vbulk = A× h.

THE ESSENTIAL ELEMEMTS OF HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS.

For a HC reservoir to exist, we need the following to be available at the same

location
➢ A source rock containing the original organic remains that can generate
hydrocarbon
➢ Pressure and temperature conditions suitable to convert organic remain
into oil and gas.
➢ Reservoirs should be significantly thick and laterally extensive to allow
commercial accumulation of HC.
➢ The porosity and permeability must be enough to store and transmit
fluids.
➢ Migration pathway from the source rock to the reservoir rock.
➢ Trapping mechanism has to be in place to inhibit fluids movement and
permits accumulation.
➢ Common fluids present in reservoirs are water, oil, gas and/or gas
condensate.

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TYPES OF RESERVOIRS.
Reservoirs are classified on the basis of the dominant physical, chemical and
biological processes responsible for their formation.
Here, we will be mainly concerned with two broad classes; namely Clastics and
carbonate reservoir rocks.

1: CLASTICS: Clastics are the most common sedimentary rocks drilled in oil field.
They include gravels, sands and clays, along with their consolidated forms
conglomerates, sandstones and shales. Therefore, Clastics are those rocks
formed from pre-existing rocks whose constituents were transported by some
mechanisms (wind, water, glacial) to the area of deposition.

2: CARBONATES: Carbonates are ionic complexes of CO3-2and divalent metallic

cations such as Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Ba, Sr, Mn, along with a few less common
others. The dominant processes of carbonate formation include biogenic and
biochemical or formation by plants or animal, skeletons or organically
influencedprecipitation.
Main Carbonate Lithologies are:
Limestone: Limestone, with specific gravity of 2.71 is applied to those rocks in
which the carbonate fraction is greater than 50% CaCO3 and is composed mainly
of Calcite or Aragonite.

Dolostone: The term dolostone is reserved for those rocks which are composed
mainly of the mineral dolomite (Calcium Magnesium Carbonate-CaMg(CO3)2. It is
formed as a result of the alteration of calcite and has a specific gravity of 2.87.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASTICS AND CARBONATE RESERVOIRS.
Some of the differences between Clastics and Carbonate include;
Majority of clastic grains have their origin some distance from the site of
their deposition (Allochthonous) whilst carbonate grains are formed at or
very close to their eventual site of deposition (Autochthonous).

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 Greater proportion of Carbonate grains are precipitated by, or with the
assistance of plants or animals where as clastics are transported and
deposited by wind, water, glacial.
Clastic grains are composed of quartz and feldspar where as carbonate
grains are dominated by ionic complexes of CO3-2divalent metallic cations
that are easily soluble.
Many carbonate grains are composed mainly of broken shells of marine
animals, which may be transported only a short distance whilst clastics
and made of graves, sands and clays.
Because the majority of clasts and matrix in carbonate sediments are
composed initially of various forms of calcium carbonate, they are more
soluble than most clastic rocks.
Thus, Carbonate sediments are likely to undergo earlier dissolution
and/or cementation than clastics.
PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIRS.
The rock properties/characteristics that affect well log measurements include
the following:
Porosity, Permeability, Lithology, Mineralogy, Water Saturation and the
Resistivity of a rock. It is worthy to note that Porosity and Permeability are the
MAIN reservoir characteristics.

POROSITY: Total Porosity is defined as the volume of voids (pore) space within
a rock, expressed as a percentage or fraction of the total volume of the rock. It is
a measure of the rock’s storage capacity. It is usually symbolised be a Greek
letter phi (∅).

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 (∅)= …………………………. 1
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒌

EFFECTIVE POROSITY: The amount void space that is interconnected, and thus
able to transmit fluids, is called effective porosity. It is therefore the ratio of
interconnected pore volume to the bulk volume.

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POROSITY (∅)-% QUAILITY DESCRIPTION

0-5 Negligible

5-10 Poor

10-15 Fair

15-20 Good

20-30 Very Good

>30 Excellent

POROSITY TYPES:
Primary Porosity: This consists of pore space that results from primary
depositional texture (Eg. Space between grains or within fossils)
Secondary Porosity: The pore space generated by post-depositional processes
such as dissolution of grains, fracturing, cementation etc.

PERMEABILITY(K): Permeability of a rock (K) is the measure of the capacity to

transmit fluid under potential gradient. The unit of permeability is Darcy or
Millidarcy (1/1000th Darcy). It was named after a French hydrogeologist who
investigated the flow of water through filter beds in order to design a oublic
drinking fountains of the city of Dijon in 1856.
𝑘𝐴Δ𝑃
Q= 𝑙𝜇

Where:
Q= flow rate of fluid (cm3/sec)
k= permeability (Darcy)
A= Cross-sectional area (cm2)
Δ𝑃 =Change in pressure (atmosphere)
l= length (cm)
𝜇=Viscosity
The permeability of a rock is governed primarily by the size of the pores. The
larger the pore size, the higher the permeability.

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One Darcy is defined as that permeability that will permit a fluid of one
centipoise viscosity to flow as at rate of one cubic centimetres per second
through a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre when the pressure
gradient is one atmosphere per centimetre.
TYPES OF PERMEABILITY
Absolute Permeability: The ability of a rock to transmit a single fluid, when it is
completely saturated with that fluid is called absolute permeability.
Effective Permeability: It refers to the ability of a rock to transmit one fluid in
the presence of another fluid when the fluids are immiscible.
Relative Permeability: Is the ration between effective permeability of a fluid at
partial saturation and the permeability at 100% saturation (absolute
permeability). Thus, a the relative permeability of a formation’s water is zero,
the formation produces water-free hydrocarbons ( ie, the relative permeability
to HC is 100%).
FACTORS THAT CONTROL AND/OR MODIFY POROSITY AND
PERMEABILITY.
The porosity and permeability of rocks depend on both the original texture and
diagenetic history of the sediments. The main controls therefore include, but the
not limited to the following:
Grain Size: In theory, porosity is independent of grain size as it’s merely a
measure of the proportion of pore space in the rock, not the size of pores.
Permeability however decreases with decrease in grain size because the size of
pores and pore throats will also be smaller.
Sorting: In poorly sorted sediments, smaller grains can accommodate
themselves between the larger ones, leading to a reduction both in the
percentage of the pore space and the size of the pores. Thus, for a give grain
shape, porosity and permeability decrease with decreasing grain sorting and
Vice versa.
Packing: The more closely packed the grains, the lower the porosity and
permeability.
Fabric: Rock fabric will have the greatest influence on porosity and permeability
when the grains are non spherical (ie. are either disc-like or rod-like). The

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porosity and permeability of the sediments will decrease with increased
alignment of the grains.
Diagenesis (eg. Compaction,cementation etc). Diagenesis is the totality of
chemical and physical processes, which occur after deposition of sediment and
during burial, which turn sediments into sedimentary rock. Diagenetic processes
like compaction, cementation and precipitation of authigenic clays tend to
reduce porosity and permeability, whilst dissolution may increase porosity and
permeability.
Clay Minerals: Significant reduction of permeability • May react with drilling
fluids, or injection water • May inhibit cementation, and sometimes preserve
porosity.
The common clay components of sandstones are DETRITAL and
AUTHIGENIC clays.
Detrital clay laminae reduce vertical flow. Authigenic clay fills and lines pores
in reservoir.

Fig-2: Detrital & Authigenic Clays

CLAY TYPES:

Kaoline- Al2Si2O5(OH)4: Fills porespace, blocks porethroats. Booklets and

hexagonal plates and Changes macro pores to micro pores

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Fig-2: Kaolin

Illite-K2Al4(Si6Al2)O20(OH)4; Small fibres, lines porespace, blocks

porethroats, and Changes macro pores to micro pores. Hairy illite greatly
reduces permeability.

Fig-3: Illite

Chlorite- Mg10Al2(Si6Al2)O20(OH)16: Chlorite is platy, lines porespace and

blocks porethroats. It looks like Small “cocks-comb”, can coat grains
andmakes microporosity. TheFe rich chloritereacts with mud acid and
blocks pores.

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Fig-4: Chlorite

Smectite- Al4(Si8)O20(OH)4:Small “cocks-comb” like features, Swells

greatly in size if water ions change. Itcoats grains, makes
microporosity and also blocks porethroats.

Illite is very conductive, so wirelinelogs underestimate oil in zones occupied

by illite• It reacts with low salinity mud to swell and block pores.

Fig-5: Smectite

Finally, detrital clay coatings around sand grains can catalyse pressure
solution, and so promote chemical compaction.

Clay present

Fig-6: Clay Minerals promote compaction.

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PETROPHYSICS: It is the study and application of the relation between log data
and rock/fluid properties.
WELL LOGS.
A well log is a collection of data from measurements made in a well and usually
presented in a long strip chart paper format that is specified by the API.
For the purpose of well log interpretation, rocks are classified in a very specific
way. This method is very useful since many of the responses from well logging
tools reflect physical and chemical properties of the rocks. The rock categories
include;

Sabsteones-SiO2: Anything that is SiO2 shows up in well log as sandstone. Thus

silts and cherts are considered as very small grains of sandstones because the
classification is purely on chemicalbasis.

Limestone-CaCO3:Limestone is calcium carbonate. Since chalk results in the

same response on logs as calcium carbonate, it is classified as a limestone
Dolomite-CaMg(CO3)2:Dolomite differs strongly from limestone on well log
readings. Physically, dolomite differs from limestone in density, hardness etc.
Shale: Consists of various clay minerals and other components.

WIRELINE LOGGING (WL).

Wireline logging is done from a logging truck, sometimes referred to as “mobile
laboratory”. They are made using highly specialised equipment entirely separate
from that used for drilling.
Onshore, a motorized logging truck is used which brings its array of surface
recorders, computers and a logging drum and cable to the drill site. Offshore, the
same equipment is installed in a small cabin left permanently on the rig. Both
truck and cabin use a variety of interchangeable logging tools, which are lowered
into the well on the logging cable.
LOGGING WHILE DRILING (LWD).
Logging while drilling, also referred to as formation evaluation while drilling
(FEWD) technique was introduced to provide similar information to wireline
logging. However, as opposed to wireline logging where the tool string is

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lowered into the well at end of a wireline cable after the hole is drilled, the
sensors in LWD are integrated into drill collars (CD’s) and the measurements are
made while well is being drilled.
Some of the advantages of LWD over WL include:
Real time data is obtained for steering a well.
Pre-invasion profiles and data prior to hole washing out or if there is a
risk of losing the hole.
Data is obtained in situations where wireline acquisitions are difficult. Eg
in horizontal wells.

BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT
Where the hole is drilled into a formation, the rock plus the fluids in it (the rock-
fluid system) are altered in the vicinity of the borehole.
The borehole and the rock surrounding it are constrained by the drilling mud,
which affects logging measurements.
See diagram of porous and permeable formation penetrated by a borehole filled
with drilling mud.
Hole Diameter (dh)
The borehole diameter may be determined by the outside diameter of the drill
bit, but the diameter may be;
▪ Smaller than bit size because of build up of mud cake on porous and
permeable formations, or
▪ Larger than bit size due to washout and/or collapse of shale and poorly
cemented rocks
Drilling Mud Resistivity (Rm)
Wells are drilled with bits and special fluids called drilling mud as a circulating
fluid. Drilling mud is useful because;
✓ The mud helps remove cuttings from the well bore
✓ Lubricatesand cools drill bit
✓ Maintains an excess of borehole pressure over formation pressure
The excess of the of borehole pressure over formation pressure prevents
blowouts. The density of the mud is usually kept high enough so that hydrostatic
pressure in the mud column is greater than the formation pressure. Such

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pressure difference forces some of the drilling fluid to invade porous and
permeable formations.
As invasion occurs, many of the solid particles (ie., clay minerals from the drilling
mud) are trapped on the side of the borehole and form mud cake (having
resistivity of (Rmc).
Fluid that filters into the formation during invasion is called mud filtrate (with
resistivity of (Rmf)

INVADED ZONE
The zone in which much of the original fluid is replaced by mud filtrate is called
the invaded zone. It consists of a flushed zone (of resistivity Rxo, saturationSxo)
and transition or annulus zone (of resistivity Ri). The flushed zone occurs close
to the borehole where mud filtrate has almost completely flushed out the
formations HCs and/or water (Rw).
The transition or annulus zone, where a formation’s fluid and mud filtrate are
mixed, occurs between the flushed zone and the uninvaded zone (Rt).The
uninvaded zone is defined as the area beyond the invaded zone where the
formation’s fluids are uncontaminated by mud filtrate.

LOG INTERPRETATION:
Interpretation is determining what the log is saying.
The objectives of well logging are to determine the properties of the rock, which
are potential sources of HC. The logs are used to determine specifically:
❖ Lithology
❖ Porosity
❖ Fluid Content
❖ Saturation.
The interpretation process can be summarised into the following headings.
Correlation and depth match Logs.
➢ Interpret Lithology
➢ Identify the permeable and non-permeable beds on the logs.

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 ➢ Determine and Divide the beds into zones consisting of water bearing and
hydrocarbon zones.
➢ Determine the porosity of the zones of interest.
➢ Determine the hydrocarbon saturation of the zones of interest.

LITHOLOGY INDICATORS AND SHALE VOLUME.

Strictly speaking, we should use the term mineralogy not lithology. Lithology is
often used to describe the solid (matrix) portion of a rock while mineralogy is
the chemical composition. Logs therefore respond to the mineralogical
composition of a formation. The mineralogical indicators/Logs include:
Gamma Ray (GR), Spontaneous Potential (SP), Caliper, Neutron-Density
Combination, Resistivity and Photo-electric (PE).
GAMMA RAY (GR)
The GR measure the naturally occurring gamma ray radioactivity of the rocks in
the earth. The GR detector therefore measures the intensity of gamma rays
caused by radioactive minerals (i.e K, U, Th).
GR distinguishes shale from non-shale, and is used to quantify the volume
fraction of shale. Shale has high gamma ray values (usually greater than 40 API
units) due to radioactive minerals whilst non-shale has low GR values (usually
20-40 API values).Partly shally formations have GR values between clean rock
and shale. Shale volume (Vsh) from GR is calculated by:

𝐺𝑅 − 𝐺𝑅𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝑉𝑠ℎ(𝐺𝑅) =
𝐺𝑅𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝐺𝑅𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
Where
Vsh(GR)= Volume fraction of shale from GR
GR= GR reading from zone of interest.
GRclean= GR reading of clean rock
GRshale= GR reading of 100% shale.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS: The GR is affected by
Large holes, large washouts, heavy minerals, thin beds; all of which reduce the
measured GR. Under standard conditions, correction charts are used to correct
the GR readings.

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SPONTANEOUS/SELF POTENTIAL(SP).
The SP measures naturally occurring voltages (potentials) occurring in the
wellbore opposite porous and permeable formations.
The measurement consists of an electrode on the logging tool, and an electrode
at the surface (such as in the mud pit). The voltage difference between these two
electrodes is made. Voltage is due to a combination of shale formations acting as
a semi-permeable membrane between the formation water and the borehole,
and also to a potential at the junction of mud filtrate and formation water in the
formation. Therefore, the saltier the formation, the larger the SP separations
from the shale line. SEE diagram
The SP indicates shale Vs non-shale, calculate the volume of shale fraction, used
to calculate water resistivity and also a binary permeability indicator; but does
not tell HOW much the permeability is.
An SP excursion to the left of the shale line (clean, permeable rocks lie on the left
with lower Voltage) is normally taken as a negative SP, measured from the shale
line eg -45 MV. The shale line is thus taken as zero voltage. Usually, SP follows
GR, but when they disagree, the GR is a better shale indicator. Vsh is calculated
from SP via:

𝑆𝑃−𝑆𝑃𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
Vsh(SP)= 𝑆𝑃𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒−𝑆𝑃𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛; Where

Vsh(SP)= Volume fraction of shale from SP

SP= SP reading in ZOI (read off log)
SPclean= SP reading of clean rock (non-shaly rock read off log)
SPshale= SP reading of 100% shale
Thus, SP calculation is very similar to GR Vsh calculations and charts could also
be used.SEE EG.The mainenvironmental effect on the SP is bed thickness. If a bed
is too thin, the full SP will not develop, but charts exist to correct for this effect.

POROSITY LOGS
The main porosity logs include.
1: Density log:

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It measures the formation bulk density and determines porosity of the
formation.
The pad device presses against borehole wall, which detects the emissions from
the formation. While the density is usually interpreted in conjunction with the
neutron curve, it is probably the best individual porosity measurement if wehave
a good borehole condition. Quantitatively, we can determine the porosity from
density log by using;

𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑔−𝜌𝑚𝑎
POR= where
𝜌𝑓−𝜌𝑚𝑎

𝜌𝑙𝑜𝑔= log measured formation density gcm-3

𝜌f= density of fluid. 1gcm-3 is almost always used depending on the drilling fluid
used.
𝜌ma= density of matrix (grains of rock)
Common matrix densities are:
Sandstone= 2.65 gcm-3
Dolomite= 2.71 gcm-3
Limestone= 2.87gcm-3
When qualitatively using a log with density porosity, be sure and check the
matrix density and fluid density the service company used. The main
environmental effects on the density measurements are washed out hole, and
rugose hole. Both cause density logs to see mud and thus read too lowa density,
too high pososity.

2: Neutron Log
Measures the hydrogen content of the formation which is then converted to an
equivalent water filled porosity. Neutron particles are emitted from
radioactive/chemical sources such as potassium-beryllium. The fast neutrons
collide with atomic nuclei and are slowed down by hydrogen. The rate at which
the netrons are been slowed down by hydrogens is determined by the detectors,
which are used to infer the porosity of the formation. The neutron log when
combined with the density log has been a very successful combination.

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3: Acoustic
It measures the travel time of sound in a formation and used to calculate
porosity.

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