CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms. Shagun Jain, student of B.Tech. Applied Petroleum Engineering
with specialization in Gas Stream, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun underwent a training program in our organization from 6 th June to 5th July, 2018.
She has successfully completed her Training on “Constraints of CBM and Progressive
Cavity Pump Torque Calculations” in CBM Project, Shahdol, Reliance Industries Limited.

Mr. Dharmesh Tailong

Head-Drilling and Completion
Reliance Industries Limited – CBM
Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh, India.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to acknowledge all those whose inspiration and wisdom helped me in
completing my summer internship.

On behalf of my college I would like to extend my gratitude towards “Reliance Industries Limited”
for giving me an opportunity to pursue my summer internship program in such a renowned
organization.

First and foremost I would like to thank Mr. Dabbeeru Srinivas (Head- HR) for considering my
candidature as summer intern. I am deeply indebted to Mr. Dharmesh Tailong whose help,
stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me to complete my summer internship
successfully. I am also thankful to the entire HR team of RIL that facilitated my internship.

I take an opportunity to express my gratitude and sincere thanks to Mr. S.K Singh (Site Head), RIL
CBM Projects, for providing excellent facilities to complete the training on “CBM Operations”.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all the people who were directly or indirectly involved
in my internship for all their help, support interest and valuable hints.

Shagun Jain
B.Tech (IVth Year)
Applied Petroleum Engineering with specialization in Gas Stream

University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun

 INDEX
SECTION I
1) Introduction
2) Different Sectors of Reliance
i) Exploration and Production of Oil and Gas
ii) Petroleum Refining and Marketing
iii) Petrochemicals and Polymers
iv) Textiles
v) Telecommunication

SECTION II
1) CBM Blocks’ Geological Set-Up
2) Geological Information – General Geology and Stratigraphy
3) Geology of Area
4) Generalized Stratigraphy of Area
5) General Behaviour of a CBM Well
i) Storage Mechanisms in Coal Seams
ii) Transport Mechanisms in Coal Seams
iii) Desorption in Coal Seams
iv) Diffusion in Coal Seams
6) Role of Coal Rank in CBM
7) Coal Cleat System
8) Difference between CBM and Conventional Gas

SECTION III – PROGESSIVE CAVITY PUMPS

1) Introduction
2) Principle and Working
3) PCP Configuration Overview
4) Stator and Rotor String Description
5) Design Criteria
i) Lobe Ratio
ii) Eccentricity
iii) Stator Pitch/Cavity Formation
iv) Rotor Diameter and Rotation
6) System Design
i) System Design Volume
ii) System Design Pressure
iii) Factors affecting Flow Losses
7) Torque and Power Requirements
8) Specifications of PCPs used in Sohagpur
9) Optimization of Pump Intake Depth
10) Optimization of Pump RPM
11) Pump Sizing
12) PCP – Operational Symptoms, Identification of Root Cause and Troubleshooting Chart
13) Applications
14) Advantages and Limitations

SECTION IV – PCP TORQUE CALCULATION

1) Formulas Used
2) Case Studies

SECTION V – CONSTRAINTS OF CBM AND THEIR POSSIBLE

SOLUTION
1) Land Acquisition
2) Failure in Attainment of Continuous Dewatering
3) low Permeability
4) Sand Production
5) Water Influx during Drilling
6) Fractured Dolerite
7) Scale Formation
8) Surface Water Discharge
9) Other Issues
i) Air Pollution and Flaring
ii) Methane Migration to Aquifers
iii) Pipelines and Compressor Stations
 SECTION I
1) INTRODUCTION:
Reliance is one of the largest exploration and production players in India having a balanced domestic
conventional and unconventional hydrocarbon portfolio. RIL’s upstream business comprises the
complete chain of activity starting from exploration, appraisal, development and production of
hydrocarbons. Reliance domestic portfolio comprises of six conventional oil and gas blocks in Panna
Mukta Tapti (PMT), Krishna Godavari, Mahanadi, Gujarat Saurashtra, & Cambay Basins and two
Coal Bed Methane (CBM) blocks in Sohagpur East and West in Madhya Pradesh.

2) DIFFERENT SECTORS OF RELIANCE:

1. Exploration and Production of Oil & Gas:
RIL’s upstream business comprises the complete chain of activity starting from exploration, appraisal,
development and production. Reliance entered the Exploration and Production (E&P) business by
becoming a 30% partner in an unincorporated joint venture with British Gas and ONGC in the Panna
Mukta and Mid and South Tapti blocks. Besides Panna Mukta and Tapti (PMT) blocks

Fig 1.1: Upstream Plant

RIL also acquires five conventional oil and gas blocks in Krishna Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery Palar,
Gujarat Saurashtra & Cambay Basin and two Coal Bed Methane (CBM) blocks in Sohagpur East and
West in Madhya Pradesh. Reliance has acquired two offshore blocks in Myanmar. Reliance entered
into three Joint Ventures in the Marcellus and Eagle Ford plays in the fast-growing US shale gas
industry. Oil and gas is currently being produced from our PMT blocks and KG D6 blocks in India
and shale gas JVs in the US. The operations of reliance are:
 1. Conventional: In 2002, Reliance struck gas in the D1-D3 field of KG D6 block. RIL is producing
natural gas from the gas fields D1-D3 since April 1, 2009, and light crude oil from the D26 oil field in
KG D6 block, since September 17, 2008. Both projects have been commissioned in a record time – the
D1-D3 fields in about six and half years, and the D26 field in just a little over two years - from
discovery.
These fields rank amongst one of the largest green-field deepwater oil and gas production facilities in
the world. D1-D3 fields are the first and only deepwater producing fields in India and remains among
the most complex reservoirs in the world. Reliance, along with its partners, has committed ~$6 billion
for second wave of projects in KG D6 over the next few years.
2. Coal Bed Methane: Development activities are underway in 2 CBM blocks (Sohagpur East and
West) with first gas in 2017. As part of CBM development program, Reliance has drilled more than
200 wells and set up two Gas Gathering Stations and 8 Water Gathering Stations.
Reliance Gas Pipeline Limited (RGPL), one of the subsidiary of RIL operates 300 KM of natural gas
pipeline from Shahdol in Madhya Pradesh to Phulpur in Uttar Pradesh to transport gas from RIL’s
CBM blocks.
The CBM project is the largest surface footprint hydrocarbon project of the country.

3. US Shale Gas: Reliance’s upstream joint ventures in US Shale gas include a 45% working interest
(WI) partnership with Pioneer Natural Resources in the Eagle Ford shale play and a 40% WI
partnership with Chevron and a 60% WI partnership with Carrizo Oil & Gas in the Marcellus Shale
play.
All JVs remain focused on high-grading of development activities, improving costs and efficiencies
and managing the low price environment through prioritizing well capex in the most prolific areas.

2. Petroleum Refining & Marketing:

The Jamnagar manufacturing division is the world's largest refining hub and petrochemical complex
including gasification plant.

1. DTA Refinery: Crude processing capacity of 668,000 Barrels Per Stream Day (BPSD), the
Jamnagar refinery is a trendsetter and has won several awards, including the prestigious
'International Refiner of the Year' award. It also enjoys the distinction of housing some of the
world's largest units, such as the Fluidized Catalytic Cracker (FCC), Coker, Paraxylene and
Polypropylene plants. Fuels from Jamnagar refinery are exported to several countries across
the world. This complex refinery is future ready and can produce gasoline and diesel of any
grade.
2. SEZ Refinery: The sixth largest in the world – in the Special Economic Zone at Jamnagar.
This refinery has a capacity for processing 580,000 BPD of crude. The company also markets
 petroleum fuels in several African countries through its subsidiary Gulf Africa Petroleum
Corporation (GAPCO).
3. Petrochemicals & Polymers:
Reliance develop products that provide world-class experiences to their customers across a range of
applications – packaging, agriculture, automotive, housing, and healthcare among others. Reliance is
the world's largest integrated producer of polyester fiber and yarn.

1. Polymers
2. Polyesters
3. Fiber Intermediates
4. Aromatics

Fig 1.2. Refinery

4. Textiles:
From its plant at Naroda, Reliance spearheaded the manufacturing and marketing of the most iconic
brand in the history of textiles in India – 'Vimal'. Manufacturing division at Naroda houses one of the
largest and most modern textile complexes in the world, an achievement recognized by The World
Bank.

1. Fabrics
2. Apparel
3. Auto Furnishing
5. Telecommunication:
The application Jio4GVoice brings the 4G communication suite to all smartphones. Reliance’s
cumulative investment in spectrum assets is Rs 34,000 crores. Reliance Jio has laid more than 2.5 lakh
kilometers of fiber-optic cables, covering 18,000 cities and over one lakh villages, with the aim of
covering 100% of the nation’s population by 2018. It has an initial end-to-end capacity to serve more
than 100 million wireless broadband and 20 million Fiber-to-Home customers.
 SECTION II
1) CBM BLOCKS’ GEOLOGICAL SET-UP
Sohagpur CBM blocks are part of the South Rewa basin which forms the central part of the Gondwana
super group. Sohagpur Gondwana basin is east-west elongated occurring at the southern part of South
Rewa Gondwana master basin. A complete sequence of Gondwana rocks from Upper Carboniferous
Talchir Formation to Lower Cretaceous lameta formation occurs in this Coal field. Structurally it is a
half graben. A major east-west normal fault, namely Bamhani Chilpa fault transverses the basin. The
CBM block forms the down thrown segment of this fault.

The CBM block is situated in the northern down thrown segment of this major fault along which
Raniganj and Barakar Formations are juxtaposed. A vast tract of coal bearing Barakar formations is
exposed to the south of Bamhani – chilpa fault. The barakar sediments are bounded by the
outcropping Talchir along southern and eastern fringes of the coalfield. Successive younger sediments
of Barren Measures outcrop towards south near Burhar, Raniganj outcrops in a large part of CBM
block, followed by Pali and Parsora further north, while the younger lameta beds are found outside the
CBM block towards southwest. The Gondwanas are intruded by Upper Cretaceous Trap derived
doleritic intrusive, which at times has devolatilized the coals.

2) GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION – GENERAL GEOLOGY

& STRATIGRAPHY
The Gondwana Coal basins of India form a tree pronged rift system along the major river valleys viz.
Damodar- koel, son- Mahanadi and Pranhita – Godavari. Rajmahal basin occurs as a subsidiary at
right angle to Damodar basin towards east. Rewa intra-cratonic basin, which is a part of Son
Mahanadi belt and where in Sohagpur Coalfield is situated , displays a complete sequence of
Gondwana sediments with maximum thickness of about 4km reportedly encountered in Tikki-1 well
drilled at about 60km north of CBM blocks by ONGC for oil & gas exploration.

Sohagpur Coalfields forms a part of typical half graben basin with its northern boundary faulted
against the Pre Cambrian basement rocks, while the southern contact is unconformable. The general
trend of different litho units is WNW-ESE to E-W with northerly low dip 3 deg to 5 deg. The coal
basin is divided into two sub-basins by an east-west trending regional intrabasinal Bamhani – chilpa
fault having down throw towards north. The CBM block is situated in the northern down thrown
segment of this major fault along which Raniganj and Barakar Formations are juxtaposed. A vast tract
of coal bearing Barakar formation is exposed to the south of Bamhani- chilpa Fault.
The barakar sediments are bounded by the outcropping Talchir along southern and eastern fringes of
the coalfield. Successive younger sediments of Barren measures outcrop towards south near Burhar,
Raniganj outcrops in a large part of CBM block, followed by Pali and Parsora further north, while the
younger Lameta beds are found outside the CBM block towards southwest. The Gondwanas are
intruded by Upper Cretaceous Trap derived doleritic intrusive which at times has devolatised the
coals.

Barakar formation is the major coal bearing zone. It contains five persistent coal seams at depth range
of 250-1000 meters in the block with average cumulative thickness of 12-25 meters. Along with these
major seams local seam have been observed confined to few area. In addition, multiple coal seams of
Raniganj Formation with cumulative thickness in the range of 2-12 meters occurring at shallow depths
of 50-340 meters are also present. The target coal seams in the barakar formation are expected at 340-
1000m depth.

3) GEOLOGY OF AREA
Rocks of Raniganj Formation are exposed over most part of the CBM block. The Raniganj rocks are
composed of fine to coarse- grained sandstone, grey shale, carbonaceous shale and thin impure coal
bands. The Barren Measure rocks underline the Raniganj rocks and are encountered only in subsurface
in the block. The Barren Measures are characterized by coarse-grained sandstone, heteroliths, and
green to chocolate shale. The rocks of Barakar Formation, encountered only in borehole and not
exposed in the block area, comprise coarse to fine cycles of sandstone towards upper part, and fine to
medium grained garnetiferous sandstone in the lower part. Carbonaceous shale and five coal seams are
an integral part of the upper part of Barakar Formation. Fault induced joints and extension joints are
observed in the Raniganj rocks exposed in the block area.
 4) GENERALIZED STRATIGRAPHY OF AREA

AGE FORMATION LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION TH(m)

Soil- loose with occasional boulders and
Recent 0-15
pebbles of sand and kankar.
Upper Cretaceous to

Dolerite – greenish black, very hard and

Igneous intrusive 50-200
compact
Lower Paleocene

Dominantly fine grained micaceous

sandstone interbedded with the medium to
Upper Permian

coarse grained sandstone, argillaceous to 50-600

Raniganj
calcareous matrix with gray shale,
carbonaceous shale and coal.

Dominantly medium to coarse sandstone,

90-100
hard with bands of chloritic shale.
Grey to greenish grey shale/clay, fine to
Middle Permian

coarse sandstone often chloritc, hard and 120-150

Barren Measures compact.

Coarse to fine sandstone with interbands of

25-50
green chloritic shale.
Coarse grained arkosic sandstone,
feldspathic matrix with coal, hale and 200-300
carbonaceous shale
Lower Permian

Barakar
Fine to medium grained garnetiferous
sandstone with thin coal, carbonaceous shale 100-150
and grey shale.
Upper Carboniferous
to Lower Permian

Greenish grey boulder bed, sandstone,

Talchir 90-350
needle shales and tillites.
 5) GENERAL BEHAVIOR OF A CBM WELL
Productivity of CBM wells depends primarily upon permeability within micro-fractures. Typical
values for cleat-permeability range from a few milli-Darcy to a few tens of milli-Darcy. Generally, the
cleats in coal-beds are initially saturated with water. This water must be produced before gas can start
desorbing from the matrix into these micro-fractures. This initial phase of water production is known
as "dewatering". In this phase, gas production starts to build-up and reaches a maximum value. This
stage requires disposal of huge amount of water, which has a significant impact on environment.
Unlike produced water from conventional oil and gas, much of CBM produced water may be put to
beneficial use, such as agricultural use (irrigation of crops, hydroponic system), livestock watering,
industrial use (dust control, equipment washing, power generation) or some water flood projects
(depending on the quality of produced water). In other cases it requires to treat produced water using
chemical methods.

Fig 2.1 CBM Production Curve

1. Storage Mechanisms in coal seams:

Gas can exist in a coal seam in two ways. It can be present as free gas within the natural porosity of
the coal (joints and fractures), and it can be present as an adsorbed layer on the internal surfaces of the
coal. The fine micro pore structure of coal has a very high storage capacity for methane. Methane
molecules adsorb to the micro pore walls. Because the bulk porosity of the coal cleat system is small
(less than five percent) and the initial gas saturation in the coal cleats is typically low (less than ten
percent), most of the gas-in-place in coals (greater than ninety percent) is adsorbed in the coal matrix.
The adsorbed gas volume is significant even in coals that have gas saturated cleat systems at initial
reservoir conditions.
For example, a water saturated coal containing 375 scf/ton of adsorbed gas has the same gas-in-place
as a conventional sandstone reservoir at 400 psi with 51 percent effective gas porosity, and the same
gas-in-place as a conventional sandstone reservoir at 1,600 psi with thirteen percent effective gas
porosity. For most coal seams, the quantity of gas held in the coal is primarily a function of coal rank,
ash content, moisture content, and the pressure of the coal seam. The adsorbed capacity of a coal seam
varies non-linearly as a function of pressure. This relationship is best described using a Langmuir
isotherm. The following figure shows typical desorption isotherms as a function of coal rank.

Fig 2.2 Graph between volume absorbed and pressure

To estimate coal bed methane gas-in place, you must determine both the gas content of the coal as it
exists at initial reservoir conditions (pressure and temperature) and the desorption isotherm, which
describes how methane will be released as pressure is reduced. Both variables must be obtained from
core analysis. The gas content of coal generally is determined by directly measuring the amount of gas
desorbed from a coal after recovery. This measurement defines the amount of gas in the coal at initial
reservoir pressure and temperature. The desorption isotherm is determined by grinding the coal to a
fine mesh and systematically measuring the amount of gas that the coal can contain at various
pressures. The isotherm, therefore, defines the upper limit gas concentration (i.e., maximum
adsorptive capacity) as a function of pressure. The isotherm is quantified by determining the Langmuir
parameters from the test data. Determining the gas content and the desorption isotherm by core testing
is extremely important for estimating the gas-in-place and for estimating well reserves. The desorption
isotherm and gas content are necessary for analyzing coal bed methane reservoirs and simulating
recovery of methane from coal bed methane wells.

Water is stored in coals in two ways: as bound water in the coal matrix and as free water in the coal
cleat system. The bound water in coals is formed as a byproduct of the coalification process. Matrix
bound water is not mobile and has not been shown to significantly affect methane recovery from coal.
The free water contained in the cleat system is mobile at high water saturations (greater than thirty
percent). Many blanket coal deposits are active aquifer systems and thus are 100 percent water
saturated in the cleat system. Coals that are not aquifers may have initial water saturations less than
100 percent. The minimum mobile water saturation of the coal cleat system is determined by relative
permeability testing of cleated coal samples. Data published in the literature suggest that a typical
irreducible water saturation for a well cleated coal is in the range of twenty to fifty percent of the
interconnected cleat volume.

2. Transport Mechanisms in coal seams:

Most of the gas present in coal seams is physically adsorbed on the internal surfaces of the un-
fractured coal “matrix.” Gas production from coals occurs by a three-stage process in which gas:

1. Flows from natural fractures

2. Desorbs from the cleat surfaces (natural fractures)
3. Diffuses through the coal matrix to the cleats. This process is shown in the following figure.

Fig. 2.3 Transport Mechanism

 3. Desorption in coal seams:
Desorption is the process by which methane molecules detach from the micro pore surfaces of the coal
matrix and enter the cleat system where they exist as free gas. The desorption isotherm defines the
relationship between the adsorbed gas concentration in the coal matrix and the free gas pressure in the
coal cleat system, as shown in the following figure.

In the desorption stage, the desorption isotherm is the link between the flow in the matrix system
(where flow is controlled by concentration gradients) and flow in the cleat system (where flow is
controlled by pressure gradients). The relationship between gas concentration and pressure is a
nonlinear function that is generally defined by the Langmuir Equation shown below.
(𝑉1 ∗ P)
𝐶= (0.031 ∗ 𝜌)
(𝑃1 + P)

Where,

C = Matrix gas concentration, scf/ft3

V1 = Dry, ash-free Langmuir volume constant, scf/ton

P = Pressure in fracture system, psia

P1= Langmuir pressure constant, psia

ρ= Bulk density, g/cm3

Fig 2.4 Graph

 4. Diffusion in coal seams:
Diffusion is a process in which flow occurs via random molecular motion from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower concentration. Smith and Williams have found that diffusion in coal
is a combination of Knudsen diffusion, bulk diffusion, and surface diffusion, depending on the coal
structure and pressure. The process of the molecular diffusion of methane in the coal matrix is shown
in the following figure:

Fig 2.5 Diffusion

6) ROLE OF COAL RANK IN CBM:

Most commercial coalbed methane projects are in coals within the rank range of sub-bituminous to
low volatile bituminous, which usually provide optimum gas content and natural permeability. Rank is
most influenced by temp, pressure, length of burial and generally increases with increasing depth.
Vitrinite reflectance or fixed carbon content of a coal can be used to determine rank. Vitrinite
reflectance is determined by average measurements of reflected light, usually from the surface of
vitrinite in polished coal samples. Vitrinite reflectance for bituminous coals usually are in range of
0.5% to 1.5%

7) COAL CLEAT SYSTEM

Cleat is miner’s term for the natural system of the vertical fractures that have formed in most coals.
Cleat formation is mainly contributed to shrinkage curing the coalification process. The cleat system
in coal comprises two sets of fractures known as the face and butt cleats.
Face cleats, the dominant set of fractures, are oriented parallel to the maximum compressive stress and
are relatively planar and persistent. The face cleat spacing may range from one tenth of an inch to
several inches. Butt cleats are perpendicular to the face cleats and tend to be discontinuous and non-
planar. Butt cleats commonly terminate against face cleats.
 8) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CBM AND CONVENTIONAL GAS

S.NO. CONVENTIONAL GAS COAL BED METHANE

1 Inorganic reservoir rock Organic reservoir rock

2 Reservoir and source rock independent Reservoir and source rock same
Gas storage by adsorption on micropore
3 Gas storage in macropores, real gas law
surfaces
4 Macropore size Micropore size

Diffusion through micropores by Fick’s Law

5 Darcy flow of gas to wellbore
Darcy flow through fractures

Gas content from cores. Cannot get gas content

6 Gas content from logs
from logs

Gas to water ratio increases with time in latter

7 Gas to water ratio decreases with time
stages

8 Permeability not stress dependent Permeability highly stress dependent

Well interference detrimental to Well interference helps production. Must drill

9
production multiple wells to develop.

Production schedule according to set

10 Initial negative decline
decline curves

Hydraulic fracturing may be needed to Hydraulic fracturing required in most of the

11
enhance flow basins
 SECTION III

PROGRESSIVE CAVITY PUMPS

1) INTRODUCTION

Progressive Cavity Pumps derive their name from the unique, positive displacement pump that evolved
from the helical gear pump concept first developed by Rene Moineau in the late 1920s. These pumps
are most commonly referred as PCP and are also called Screw pumps or Moineau pumps. They are
increasingly being used for artificial lift and other challenging situations like heavy oil, high sand
production, gas wells, directional and horizontal wells, and also for dewatering of CBM wells.

2) PRINCIPLE AND WORKING

Progressing cavity pumps (PCPs) are a special type of rotary positive displacement pump where the
produced fluid is displaced axially at a constant rate. This characteristic enables progressing cavity
pumps to produce viscous, abrasive, multiphase and gaseous fluids and slurries over a wide range of
flow rates and differential pressures.

Progressing cavity pumps are comprised of two helicoidal gears (rotor and stator), where the rotor is
positioned inside the stator. The combination of rotational movement and geometry of the rotor inside
the stator results in the formation of cavities that move axially from pump suction to pump discharge.

Rotors are typically machined from high-strength steel and then coated with a wear resistant material to
resist abrasion and reduce stator/rotor friction. Stators consist of steel tubular with an elastomer core
bonded to the steel. The elastomer is moulded into the shape of an internal helix to match the rotor.

Cavities are created by the geometry of the rotor and stator where the stator has one more lobe than the
rotor. The cavities are moved axially along the pump by the rotating motion of the rotor. The motion of
the rotor is a combination of a clockwise rotation of the rotor along its own axis and a counter
clockwise rotation of the rotor eccentrically about the axis of the stator. Because the volume of each
cavity remains constant throughout the process, the pump delivers a uniform non-pulsating flow. The
total pressure capability of the pump is determined by the maximum pressure that can be generated
within each cavity times the total number of cavities.
The stator is run into the well on the bottom of the production tubing, while the rotor is connected to
the end of the rod string. The PCP delivers a constant flow that is proportional to the size of the cavity
and rotational speed of the rotor. Pressure increases in a linear fashion from inlet to outlet.

Rotation of the rod string at surface is powered by a hydraulic or direct drive system, which causes
the rotor to spin within the fixed stator, resulting in fluid production at surface.

The volume capacity (production rate) of the pump is dependent upon the cavity size and the pump rate
of rotation. The cavity size is determined by the rotor eccentricity and pitch. Long pitches and high
eccentricity result in high displacement (high production volume) per rotor revolution. Short pitch
pumps reduce the fluid velocity through the pump which reduces abrasive wear on the pump from
fluids that contain particulate matter. Relatively long pitches relative to eccentricity are used for less
viscous liquids such as water, while relatively short pitches relative to eccentricity are used for more
viscous liquids such as heavy oil.

PC pumps are manufactured with a variety of stator/rotor tooth combinations. Typically artificial lift
applications use a two-tooth stator and a single tooth rotor pump referred to as single-lobe pump.
Higher stator/rotor tooth combinations, such as 3/2, are used to achieve higher volumetric and lift
capacity although with higher torque requirements.
 3) PCP CONFIGURATION OVERVIEW

Stator and Rotor are the two key features that differentiate PCP systems from other forms of artificial
lift are the downhole PC pumps and the associated surface drive systems. Although other major
components, such as the production tubing and sucker rod strings, are found in other downhole lift
systems, the design and operational requirements typically differ for PCP applications.

These are some of the major components of a PC Pump:

A) DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT
1. Stator

The stator consists of a steel tube, which encases an elastomer mold designed to achieve a specific
geometric configuration (a double helical structure). The stator is attached to the end of the tubing
string and run into the well prior to the rotor or rods.

2. Rotor

The rotor is the moving (rotating) component of the PCP and is held from the surface by the drive
string, which is typically a conventional or continuous sucker rod. The rotor has contact with the stator
elastomer along the seal line.

The rotor is machined to exacting tolerances and plated with chrome or chrome alternatives. The
chrome provides a protective coating that minimizes abrasion, friction and corrosion damage. For each
rotation of the rotor, fluid will move one pitch length of the stator.

3. Stop Bushing (Tag Bar or Tag Sub)

It consists of a steel rod that is fastened width wise across the middle of a short tubing pup joint. It is
connected to the bottom of the stator and provides the following:
  Landing spot during the spacing out of the rotor
 Stand-off length of 30cm (1ft) for the possible elongation of the rod string when the pump is
running
 Suction inlet for the pump
 Prevention of components falling downhole in the event of a failure

4. Torque Anchor (No Turn Tool (NTT))

As the rotor turns clockwise, the friction created against the stator causes the tubing to also rotate
clockwise. This friction is accompanied by vibrations which can create a risk of tubing back off. The
cam-loc torque anchor is designed with slip blocks that are activated with a cam mechanism. The drag
blocks centralize the tool and provide the frictional interference to deploy the slips by forcing them
outwards when right hand torque is applied. The cam drives the slips into contact with the casing ID.
The NTT used here is based on the spring mechanism. It has 2 rigid slips and one floating slip. On
rotating it in the clockwise direction, the floating slip grips the casing which prevents the tubing
rotation and chances of back-off. Large vertical teeth securely grip the casing, preventing clockwise
rotation, but allowing for vertical movement as the tubing expands or contracts.

5. Sucker Rods and Pony Rods

Sucker rods are typically used in the PCP system to transmit the rotational movement from the surface
drive unit to the rotor of the pump.
 6. Centralizers

They are necessary for minimizing the rod tubing contact, which causes frictional wear to the rods and
tubing. Rod centralizers stabilize the rod string and reduce or eliminate rod tubing wear.

The non-rotating centralizers are inserted between rod couplings and utilize the following three parts:

a) A spindle, manufactured from tool steel is heat treated, stress relieved and induction surface
hardened in wear area with API male threads at both ends.
b) A sleeve, resistant to sand embedment, impervious to aromatics and hydrogen sulphide, with a
temperature rating of 120°C (250°F), which rotates freely around the spindle.
c) A rod coupling; for each centralizer a second rod coupling is required.

B) SURFACE EQUIPMENT

1. Drive Head

 The drive system includes a prime mover, speed reducer, bearing housing and seal assembly.
 The drive head is designed to support the weight of the sucker rod string and discharged fluid
column (a spherical roller type thrust bearing carries the vertical load), and to transmit the
rotation necessary for operation of the PCP.
 Drive heads are driven by electric or hydraulic motors with belts and pulleys or through in-line
gear.
 The stuffing box is used to isolate the Drivehead from the wellbore fluid.
 The durable Oryx Seal provides a no leak mechanical seal between the Drivehead and wellbore
fluid.
 The hollow shaft enables the polished rod to pass through the Drivehead to retract the rotor from
the stator while maintaining the seal at the wellhead.
 The backspin brake is an essential part of the Drivehead system. The first function of the brake is
to control the backspin speed and to keep it below 30rpm. The second function is to liberate the
potential energy accumulated in the system, torque in the rod string and hydrostatic head, in case
of a stuck rotor.
 2. Power Unit

Power units provide either electric or hydraulic power to single or multiple well production sites. The
units can be specified to use diesel, propane or natural gas to generate electricity or to provide
hydraulic power. Natural gas can be provided directly from the well, such as from casing gas or a fuel
gas source.

3. Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) Unit

Primary function of a VFD is to provide energy savings. By controlling speed of a pump rather than controlling
flow through use of throttling valves, energy savings can be substantial.
Adjustable frequency drive (inverter) is most commonly used. It converts standard plant power (230 or
460 V, 60 Hz) to adjustable voltage and frequency to power AC motor. The frequency applied to AC
motor determines motor speed. VFD gives power to the three phase induction motor mounted on the
drive-head at desirable frequency. VFD can be used to limit parameters in order to prevent mechanical
failures of sucker rods. The limit could be either set by limiting the current or torque values.
 4) STATOR AND ROTOR STRING DESCRIPTION
1. Stator Assembly

S.No. Item Connection

1. Tail Pipe 2 7/8”
2. NTT or Torque Anchor 2 7/8” EUE; Box to Pin
3. Crossover 2 7/8” EUE Pin to 3 ½” EUE Box
4. Tag Bar/Stop Bushing 3 ½” EUE; Pin to Pin
5. Stator 3 ½” EUE; Box to Box
6. Orbital Tube 3 ½” EUE; Pin to Pin
7. Crossover 3 ½” EUE Box to 2 7/8” EUE Box
8. Tubings 2 7/8” EUE Tubings

2. Rotor Assembly

S.No. Item Connection

1. Rotor 1” API Pin
2. Coupling 1”; Box to Box
3. Pony Rod 1” API Pin to Box
4. Sucker Rod 1” API Pin to Box
5. Shear Coupling 1” API Pin to Box
6. Sucker Rod 1” API Pin to Box
7. Sleeve, Spindle, Coupling Assembly -
8. Sucker Rod 1” API Pin to Box
9. Sub Coupling 1” API Box to 7/8 API Box
10. Polished Rod 7/8” Pin to Pin

5) DESIGN CRITERIA

Basic geometry of the PCPs is governed by the following four parameters:

1. Lobe Ratio
It is the number of lobes of rotor with respect to the stator. Stator has one more lobe than the
rotor. In PCP, it is generally 1:2 or 3:4. It defines the number of cavities generated and
displacement volume capacity of pump.
2. Eccentricity
It is the difference between rotor major and minor diameters. Eccentricity is the radius of the
circle the rotor head traces about the stator centreline. By geometry for a 1:2 pump the
eccentricity is the difference between the rotor head and rotor centers.

3. Stator Pitch/Cavity Formation

A pitch is an axial distance between the start of a particular lobe and its end (a 360-degree wrap
around). One cavity starts where the other ends. Stator pitch is two times the pitch of rotor. At
any cross-section the number of separate cavities is equal to the number of lobes on the stator.
 4. Rotor Diameter and Rotation
Rotor diameter should be equal to inner diameter of rubber element inside the stator. Rotor
rotates about its own axis in a clockwise direction at the pump speed “N”. Rotor rotates
eccentrically about the stator axis in a counter-clockwise direction at the pump speed times the
number of lobes on the rotor.

6) SYSTEM DESIGN

In selecting a pump, the two most critical requirements are:

 the pump should have sufficient displacement capacity

 the pump should have sufficient pressure capability to overcome the net lift required for the
application
 A) System Design Volume

In order to monitor the pump performance the following calculations should be run.

1. Pump Displacement:

V = C *e*d*p
Where,
V = Pump Displacement (m3/day/rpm or bbls/day/rpm)
d = Minor Rotor Diameter (mm or in)
e = Pump Eccentricity (mm or in)
p = Stator Pitch Length (mm or in)
C = Constant (SI: 5.7E-6 or IP:5.94E-1)

2. Designed Fluid Rate

The designed fluid rate is the maximum rate at which the pump must operate.
Qdesign = 100*Qact/ η
Where,
Qdesign = Design Pumping Rate (m3/day or bbls/day)
Qact = Required Fluid Rate (m3/day or bbls/day)
η= Volumetric Pump Efficiency

3. Minimum Required Pump Displacement

The design fluid rate is higher than the actual fluid rate due to pumping inefficiencies.
Vmin = Qdesign/N
Where,
Vmin = Minimum Required Pump Displacement (m3/day/rpm or bbls/day/rpm)
Qdesign = Design Pump Rate (m3/day or bbls/day)
N = Pump Rotational Speed (rpm)

B) System Design Pressure

1. Net Lift
The minimum required pressure capability is determined by the net lift requirements of the pump and is
the difference between discharge and intake pressures.
Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake
Where,
Plift = Net Lift Required (KPa or psi)
Pdischarge = Pump Discharge Pressure (KPa or psi)
Pintake = Pump Intake Pressure (KPa or psi)

2. Pump Intake Pressure

Pump intake pressure is a function of the casing head pressure plus pressures due to the gas and liquid
column above the pump intake in the casing/tubing annulus.
Pintake = Pchp + Pgas + Pliquid

Where,
Pintake = Pump Intake Pressure (KPa or psi)
Pchp = Casing Head Pressure (KPa of psi) Pgas
= Gas Column Pressure (KPa or psi) Pliquid =
Liquid Column Pressure (KPa or psi)

3. Pump Discharge Pressure

The pump discharge pressure is the sum of tubing head pressure, flow losses and hydrostatic pressure due to
the liquid column in the tubing.

Pdischarge = Pthp + Pliquid + Plosses

Where,
Pdischarge = Pump Discharge Pressure (KPa or psi)
Pthp = Tubing Head Pressure (KPa or psi)
Pliquid = Liquid Column Pressure (KPa or psi)
Plosses = Tubing Flow Losses (KPa or psi)

4. Gas or Liquid Column Pressure

Pressure exerted by a gas or liquid column can be calculated by:
Pcolumn = H𝜌C
Where,
Pcolumn = Gas or Liquid Column Pressure (KPa or psi)
H = Vertical Column Height (m or ft)
𝜌 = Fluid or Gas Density (kg/m3 or lbs/ft3)
C =Constant (SI: 9.81E-3 Imperial: 6.94E-3)
 C) Factors Affecting Flow Losses
 affected by viscosity of fluid
 fluid flow along the tubing
 fluid flow across rod string couplings, guides and centralizers
 elevated flow rates

7) TORQUE AND POWER REQUIREMENTS

A) Torque
Torque can be defined as the energy required to turn the rotor and move the fluid against a pressure.
Pump torque is comprised of a hydraulic and friction component.

Frictional Torque
Friction torque is the energy required to overcome the interference fit between the rotor and stator.
Friction torque is dependent on interference fit, type of rotor coating, stator elastomer, lubricating
properties of the fluid and pump length.

Hydraulic Torque
Hydraulic torque is directly proportional to differential pressure and pump displacement.

Thydraulic = CVPlift

Where,
Thydraulic = Hydraulic Pump Torque (N.m or ft.lbs)
V = Pump Displacement (m3/day/rpm or bbls/day/rpm)
Plift = Differential Pump Displacement (KPa or psi)
C = Constant (SI: 0.111 Imperial: 8.97E-2)
Conversion: 1.355 N.m/fl.lb
Thus the total pump torque is-

Ttotal = Thydraulic + Tfriction

Ttotal = Total Pump Torque (N.m or ft.lbs)

Tfriction = Pump Friction Torque (N.m or ft.lbs)
 B) Power
The power required to drive the pump is a function of total pump torque.

Ppump = CTtotalN

Where,

Ppump = Pump Power (kW or hp)

Ttotal = Total Pump Torque (N.m or ft.lbs)
N = Pump Rotational Speed (rpm)
C = Constant (SI: 1.05E-4 Imperial: 1.91E-4)

8) SPECIFICATIONS OF PCPs USED IN SOHAGPUR

Depending upon the dewatering requirement, the following PCP models were used in CBM project,
Shahdol -

 60TP1300-This model can give flow rate of 12 m3/day at zero head and 100 rpm and can be
operated for the differential head of 1300 m.
 100TP1200-This model can give flow rate of 20 m3/day at zero head and 100 rpm and can be
operated for the differential head of 1200 m.
 300TP1200-This model can give flow rate of 60 m3/day at zero head and 100 rpm and can be
operated for the differential head of 1200 m.
 400TP900-This model can give flow rate of 80 m3 /day at zero head and 100 rpm and can be
operated for the differential head of 900 m.

The pumps (manufactured by KUDU Industries Inc.) which are being used currently -

 76K900- This model can give flow rate of 76 m3/day at 100 rpm and zero head. Head rating is
900 m.
 76K1200- This model can give flow rate of 76 m3/day at 100 rpm and zero head. Head rating is
1200 m.
 33K900- This model can give flow rate of 33 m3/day at 100 rpm and zero head. Head rating is
900 m.
 33K1200- This model can give flow rate of 33 m3/day at 100 rpm and zero head. Head rating is
1200 m.
 9) OPTIMIZATION OF PUMP INTAKE DEPTH
The Pump intake depth is kept above the Top Perforation in the initial dewatering stage. This is done
since there is a high chance of the Hydraulic Fracturing sand flow back into the well bore. Thus, if the
PID is kept lower then there will be frequent workover operations required to clean the sand column.
Moreover, there will be a high chance of the pump getting stuck in the sand column and being lost as
fish since we cannot wash-out the sand accumulated around the pump due to higher Pump outer
diameter.

On average a 70 m sump has been drilled below the Bottom Perforation in the SW Wells completed in
phase 1. This has been done for the express purpose of accumulating the solids flowing from the
reservoir into the well. There are two major contributing seams in SW wells. Seam V and Seam III. The
top perforation is generally at Seam V, while Seam III is present between the Top and Bottom
perforations. So, once there is significant gas breakout in the well, there is a very high chance of gas
intake through the pump. This creates a gas lift effect, as is observed by the low torque values
experienced in the pumps installed in these wells. PCP’s are designed to handle around 30% gas intake,
but if this gas quantity increases then it leads to gas permeation in the pump elastomer as well as
elastomer swelling resulting in spikes in torque trend. Additionally, the dewatering is extremely
inefficient in such cases.

Thus the PID has to be lowered to below Seam III in Stage 2. This is done to offset the harmful effect
of high gas intake through the pump while at the same time allowing for a sufficient sump of around
100-150 m range to accommodate the sand flow back in the well bore. On the basis of field
observation, it is believed that around 5% of the sand placed in the well during hydraulic fracturing
operations will flow out during the initial life cycle of the well. To put this into perspective, we place
7000 m equivalent of sand column in a 5.5 in casing into a well on average, so by expecting a 5% flow
back, the well will accumulate a sand column of around 350 m before the sand influx reduces
significantly. This will need an average of around 3 work over jobs to clear sand. So at this stage we
need to maintain a balance between reducing the gas intake through the pump while at the same time
providing more sump for sand fill up in the well bore to avoid frequent work over jobs.

In Stage 3, when we see that approximately around 350 m of sand column has been cleaned from the
well we can safely lower the PID in most wells to 20 m below the bottom perforation. Doing this still
accounts for a 50 m sump on average.
 10) OPTIMIZATION OF PUMP RPM
The ideal water level drop rate prescribed by the subsurface team is in the range of 5 to 10 m/day.
Targeting higher dewatering rates will create additional differential pressure on the coal seams and may
result in increased solids influx into the well bore. This will lead to frequent work over jobs. On the
other hand, if lower dewatering rates are achieved it will result in sub optimal dewatering causing
delayed gas desorption from coal seams.

It is recommended to ramp up or ramp down RPM’s in steps of 20 to minimize the risk of sudden
pressure shocks to the reservoir and allow for better monitoring of reservoir response to the changing
dewatering rates. Scheduled visit to every well site within a week and collection of the water level and
water rate data by physical measurement methods is done by the production team.

There are two data sources on the basis of which the water level is determined and ultimately the pump
RPM is optimized –

 Water Level by Echo Gun

 Corrected water level by Algorithm
 Torque derived water levels – CFER simulated charts

It has been observed that the water level obtained by the Echo gun typically has an error margin due to
two factors – noise and two phase column consisting of gas and water in the annulus. This is due to the
fact that acoustic waves return from the top of the two phase column. Thus there is a need to correct the
water level measured by echo gun by making use of correlation for two phase column. It is also
necessary to cross check the corrected water level with torque derived water level to ensure correction
of error in water level due to noise, if any. Once the actual water level is determined, then the water
level drop rates are calculated and then changes are made by increasing or decreasing the RPM.

The other factors which influence RPM are gas intake through pump and sand produced on surface. In
cases where the pump intake is above Seam 3, there is a very high chance of gas intake through the
pump. When there is gas intake through the pump, it simulates a gas lift effect which results in
abnormally low values of torque being observed. This is direct effect of less power required by the
motor to lift the water from the well bore as its job is being done by the gas providing artificial support.

If the PID was kept above Seam 3 in wells, there was a very high sand column being tagged in
workover jobs and thus it was decided to typically allow for 150 m sump in these wells to prevent
frequent W/O jobs. Installing a gas anchor will prove counterproductive in such cases as it will get
clogged up with the solids and result in pump starvation. One way forward can be the use of tailpipe to
increase the intake to below Seam 3 which will limit the gas intake while at the same allow for a
sufficient sump for solids settlement.

It is prudent to limit the RPM in such cases. Although it lessens the dewatering rate resulting in lesser
gas production, there are two major benefits –

 Gas permeation effect in the elastomer is reduced as the gas intake is limited. This results in
lesser elastomer damage as the pump is designed for 30% gas handling.
 Lesser amount of solids influx in the well bore. This is a direct result of the solids being
dislodged due to high gas flow rates.

When the well has been significantly dewatered, the pump submergence will decrease. According to
the pump performance charts supplied by the pump manufacturer, the discharge of the pump will
decrease as the submergence decreases due to pump slippage. This effect begins to be seen when the
submergence goes below 150 m. This would amount to pump starvation. Moreover, if the pump
submergence goes below 75 m, there is a very high risk of the pump getting burnt due to dry run. Thus
in these cases it is recommended to reduce the RPM. In some wells this has also resulted in increased
THP on the surface, which is also indicative of better pump discharge performance.

11) PUMP SIZING

In a CBM well the water influx rates from the reservoir are the highest at the start of well life and
gradually decreases with time. A typical CBM well profile is shown below.
Progressive Cavity Pumps can be run at a maximum speed of 500 and a minimum speed of 50 as per
the pump manufacturer. However, practically speaking, pumps installed in wells tend to show stick slip
effect if the RPM is reduced below 80. The higher RPM range is dependent upon the pulley ratio. This
is detailed in the table below:

Maximum Motor RPM Pulley Ratio Maximum Pump RPM

1500 3.5 428
1500 4.7 319
1500 6.2 242

On the higher side, the maximum RPM has been capped at 250 due to tubing integrity issues
experienced. Thus, realistically the RPM’s range between 80-250 across the field.

Keeping these RPM ranges in mind, the pump sizing is optimized for target dewatering rates.

Since the water rates are highest at the start of well life, the pump to be installed in the well is
dependent on the water rate it can produce at 250 RPM. By following this methodology, the same
pump can be utilized over a continued time period by progressively decreasing the RPMs. This results
in lower dewatering rates which will match the reduced water influx into the wellbore from the
reservoir and still enable us to maintain the targeted W/L drop rates of around 5 m/day.

Now, in cases where the water level drop rates exceed 5 m/day even at 80 RPM, the pump is
downsized. Due to very high water level drop rates, the pump submergence gets reduced rapidly and
there is a high chance of both pump burnout plus solids influx because of significant pressure
differential being created across the coal seams.

Thus, in downsizing the pump, these points need to be taken into active consideration –

 Targeted dewatering rate to achieve W/L drop rates of 5 m/day.

 Pump inventory available.

For example, if dewatering the well at 50 m3/day will allows in achieving drop rates of 5 m/day, then
options of going in with either a 15 m 3/day or a 33 m3/day pump must be considered. The smaller pump
will be able to deliver the water rates at higher RPM’s. The pumps are downsized in order of
decreasing dewatering capacity. E.g. 76 to 33 to 15 m3/day.
 12) APPLICATIONS

Use of a PCP system should be evaluated for situations that are:

 High-viscosity oil wells

 High-sand-cut wells
 Low-productivity wells
 Gassy wells
 Directional- and horizontal-well applications
 Hostile fluid conditions
 High-speed operations (see discussion of impact in Rod and tubing design for PCP systems
 Coalbed-methane and water-source wells
 Elevated-temperature applications

13) ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

PCP systems have several unique design features and operating characteristics that favour their
selection for many applications. Some of these are:

 High overall system energy efficiency, typically in the 55 to 75% range.

 Ability to produce high viscosity fluids.
 Ability to produce high concentrations of sand or other produced solids.
 Ability to tolerate high percentages of free gas.
 No valves or reciprocating parts to clog, gas lock, or wear.
 Good resistance to abrasion.
 Low internal shear rates (limits fluid emulsification through agitation).
 Relatively low power costs and continuous power demand (prime mover capacity fully
utilized).
 Low capital and operating cost.
 Relatively simple installation and operation.
 Generally low maintenance.
 Low profile surface equipment.
 Low surface noise levels.
PCP systems, however, also have some limitations and special considerations:

 Limited production rates (maximum of 800 m3/d [5,040 B/D] in large-diameter pumps, much
lower in small-diameter pumps).
 Limited lift capacity (maximum of 3000 m [9,840 ft]). Note that the lift capacity of larger
displacement PC pumps is typically much lower.
 Limited temperature capability (routine use to 100°C [212°F], potential use to 180°C [350°F]
with special elastomers).
 Sensitivity to fluid environment (stator elastomer may swell or deteriorate on exposure to
certain fluids, including well treatment fluids).
 Subject to low volumetric efficiency in wells producing substantial quantities of gas.
 Sucker rod strings may be susceptible to fatigue failures.
 Pump stator may sustain permanent damage if pumped dry for even short periods.
 Rod-string and tubing wear can be problematic in directional and horizontal wells.
 Most systems require the tubing to be pulled to replace the pump.
 Vibration problems may occur in high-speed applications (mitigation may require the use of
tubing anchors and stabilization of the rod string).
 Paraffin control can be an issue in waxy crude applications (rotation as opposed to reciprocation
of the rod string precludes use of scrapers for effective wax removal).
 Lack of experience with system design, installation, and operation, especially in some areas.
 SECTION IV

PCP TORQUE CALCULATION

FORMULAS USED:

The total pump torque is-

Ttotal = Thydraulic + Tfriction

Where,

Thydraulic = CVPlift

C = consant = 0.111 for SI units

V = Pump Displacement (m3/day/rpm)

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

Pdischarge = Pthp + Pliquid in tubing + Plosses

Pintake = Pchp + Pgas + Pliquid

Here,
Pthp = Tubing Head Pressure = 2 bar = 200 KPa
Pchp = Casing Head Pressure = 8 bar = 800 KPa
Plosses = Assumed to be zero

And,

Tfriction = 108 KPa

(as given by the manufacturer)
Well A

PID = 604m
Water Level = 88m
Total Depth = 672m
Pump Used = 76K900

Pthp = 800 KPa

Pliquid in tubing = 𝜌*g*H

1000 * 9.81 * 604 = 5925240 Pa = 5925.24 KPa

Plosses =0

Pdischarge = 800 + 5925.24 + 0 = 6725.24 KPa

Pchp = 200KPa

Pgas = 𝜌*g*H
0.8 * 9.81 * 88 = 690.624 Pa = 0.69 KPa

Pwater = 𝜌*g*H
1000 * 9.81 * (604 - 88) = 5061960 Pa = 5061.96 KPa

Pintake = 200 + 0.69 + 5061.96 = 5262.65 KPa

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

= 6725.24 – 5262.65 = 1462.59 KPa

Thydraulic = C*V*Plift
= 0.111 * 0.76 m3/day/rpm * 1462.59 KPa
= 123.384 N.m

Tfriction = 108 N.m

Total Torque = Thydraulic + Tfriction

= 123.384 + 108
= 231.384 N.m
Well B

Pump Intake Depth = 889m

Water Level = 389m
Total Depth = 946.3m
Pump Used = 33K1200

Pthp = 800 KPa

Pliquid in tubing = 𝜌*g*H

1000 * 9.81 * 889 = 8721090 Pa = 8721.09 KPa

Plosses =0

Pdischarge = 800 + 8721.09 + 0 = 9521.09 KPa

Pchp = 200KPa

Pgas = 𝜌*g*H
0.8 * 9.81 * 389 = 3052.872 Pa = 3.053 KPa

Pwater = 𝜌*g*H
1000 * 9.81 * (889 - 389) = 4905000 Pa = 4905 KPa

Pintake = 200 + 3.053 + 4905 = 5108.053 KPa

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

= 9521.09 – 5108.053 = 4413.037 KPa

Thydraulic = C*V*Plift
= 0.111 * 0.33 m3/day/rpm * 4413.037 KPa
= 161.649 N.m

Tfriction = 108 N.m

Total Torque = Thydraulic + Tfriction

= 161.649 + 108
= 269.649 N.m
Well C

Pump Intake Depth = 469.9m

Water Level = 303m
Total Depth = 541.4m
Pump Used = 33K900

Pthp = 800 KPa

Pliquid in tubing = 𝜌*g*H

1000 * 9.81 * 469.9 = 4609719 Pa = 4609.719 KPa

Plosses =0

Pdischarge = 800 + 4679.719 + 0 = 5409.719 KPa

Pchp = 200KPa

Pgas = 𝜌*g*H
0.8 * 9.81 * 303 = 2377.944 Pa = 2.378 KPa

Pwater = 𝜌*g*H
1000 * 9.81 * (469.9-303) = 1637289 Pa = 1637.289 KPa

Pintake = 200 + 2.378 + 1637.289 = 1839.667 KPa

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

= 5409.719 – 1839.667 = 3570.052 KPa

Thydraulic = C*V*Plift
= 0.111 * 0.33 m3/day/rpm * 3570.052 KPa
= 130.771 N.m

Tfriction = 108 N.m

Total Torque = Thydraulic + Tfriction

= 130.771 + 108
= 238.771 N.m
Well D

Pump Intake Depth = 697.28m

Water Level = 210m
Total Depth = 754.31m
Pump Used = 76K1200

Pthp = 800 KPa

Pliquid in tubing = 𝜌*g*H

1000 * 9.81 * 697.28 = 6840316 Pa = 6840.3168 KPa

Plosses =0

Pdischarge = 800 + 6840.3168 + 0 = 7640.3168 KPa

Pchp = 200KPa

Pgas = 𝜌*g*H
0.8 * 9.81 * 210 = 1648.08 Pa = 1.648 KPa

Pwater = 𝜌*g*H
1000 * 9.81 * (697.28 - 210) = 4780216.8 Pa = 4780.2168 KPa

Pintake = 200 + 1.648 + 4780.2168 = 4981.8648 KPa

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

= 7640.3168 – 4981.8648 = 2658.452 KPa

Thydraulic = C*V*Plift
= 0.111 * 0.76 m3/day/rpm * 2658.452 KPa
= 224.267 N.m

Tfriction = 108 N.m

Total Torque = Thydraulic + Tfriction

= 224.267 + 108
= 332.267 N.m
Well E

Pump Intake Depth = 713.76m

Water Level = 462m
Total Depth = 776.61m
Pump Used = 33K1200

Pthp = 800 KPa

Pliquid in tubing = 𝜌*g*H

1000 * 9.81 * 713.76 = 7001985.6 Pa = 7001.9856 KPa

Plosses =0

Pdischarge = 800 + 7001.9856 + 0 = 7801.9856 KPa

Pchp = 200KPa

Pgas = 𝜌*g*H
0.8 * 9.81 * 462 = 3625.776 Pa = 3.625 KPa

Pwater = 𝜌*g*H
1000 * 9.81 * (713.76 - 462) = 2469765.6 Pa = 2469.7656 KPa

Pintake = 200 + 3.625 + 2469.7656 = 2673.3906 KPa

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

= 7801.9856 – 2673.3906 = 5128.595 KPa

Thydraulic = C*V*Plift
= 0.111 * 0.33 m3/day/rpm * 5128.595 KPa
= 187.8604 N.m

Tfriction = 108 N.m

Total Torque = Thydraulic + Tfriction

= 187.8604 + 108
= 295.8604 N.m
Well F

Pump Intake Depth = 405.64m

Water Level = 65m
Total Depth = 903.93m
Pump Used = 76K900

Pthp = 800 KPa

Pliquid in tubing = 𝜌*g*H

1000 * 9.81 * 713.76 = 3979328.4 Pa = 3979.3284 KPa

Plosses =0

Pdischarge = 800 + 3979.3284 + 0 = 4779.3284 KPa

Pchp = 200KPa

Pgas = 𝜌*g*H
0.8 * 9.81 * 65 = 510.12 Pa = 0.51 KPa

Pwater = 𝜌*g*H
1000 * 9.81 * (405.64 - 65) = 3341678.4 Pa = 3341.6784 KPa

Pintake = 200 + 0.51 + 3341.6784 = 3542.1884 KPa

Plift = Pdischarge - Pintake

= 4779.3284 – 3542.1884 = 1237.14 KPa

Thydraulic = C*V*Plift
= 0.111 * 0.76 m3/day/rpm * 1237.14 KPa
= 104.365 N.m

Tfriction = 108 N.m

Total Torque = Thydraulic + Tfriction

= 104.365 + 108
= 212.365 N.m
 SECTION V

CONSTRAINTS OF CBM AND THEIR

POSSIBLE SOLUTION
1) LAND ACQUISITION

Land Acquisition is one of the biggest issues for the development of Unconventional Resources. The
production from an unconventional well is very less as compared to what we get from a conventional
well. This is because the gas is not concentrated at a particular location. Rather it is found in combined
state (adsorbed in coal in case of CBM) and has a huge areal extent. Therefore, the need to drill a large
number of wells in the development phase is necessary for effective drainage. So, land acquisition is a
big challenge as it is cost intensive and also affects the environment. For the wells which drilled in
forest areas, many trees are cut. The result of this type of dispersed industrial development on the
countryside is catastrophic. Wildlife corridors are disrupted. Edge effects created by the cutting up of
habitats into smaller and smaller pieces threaten biodiversity by disturbing the ecological balance of
nature and the release and distribution of toxic compounds adds to the cumulative impact. Moreover,
the local communities also get disturbed due to drilling and production activities. Connecting the wells
from the well site to GGS also requires underground pipelines which are laid beneath farms, roads, etc.
which also enrages the villagers.

Solution:
Directional drilling (In-Seam drilling) should be considered as an option. Although the special
downhole equipment (for kick-off in soft formation and higher deviation) will be expensive but
considering it as one-time investment, and comparing it with the decreased land acquisition cost, the
increased production due to increase in the exposed coal surface, better hydraulic fracturing and
lesser environmental damage, it can be considered after a proper cost analysis if it is found to be
economically viable.
 2) FAILURE IN ATTAINMENT OF CONTINOUS
DEWATRERING

It is believed that if continuous dewatering without any failures is achieved in CBM fields, then the gas
will automatically be smoothly produced in an economic manner. But some temporary mechanical
failures hamper the functioning of the completion equipment. This leads to decreased or ceased
production which brings out the need of workover throughout the life of the well.

Some of the examples of workover are:

(i) Pump Failure

(ii) High torque
(iii) Sucker Rod Snapped
(iv) Tubing Puncture
(v) Tubing Snapped
(vi) Tubing Unscrew
(vii) Sucker Rod Unscrew
(viii) Change of Pump Position
(ix) Sand Production
(x) Scaling

Solution:
Eliminating workover is an impossible target but it can definitely be reduced. Some of the suggested
methods are:

 Optimizing production keeping in mind the abrasive resistance of the elastomer is necessary
because if a high percentage of sand is pumped out continuously, it may lead to abrasive wear
of the rotor and stator. Adding additional seal lines reduces the pressure per sealed cavity
which reduces the effect of abrasives.
 Running a pump with larger displacement per RPM and lower pump speed reduces velocity of
the particles within the pump preventing abrasive wear.
 The well must be properly swabbed after acid job till the pH of the fluid is back to its original
level to avoid acid attack on the rotor and stator.
 Proper space-out is mandatory keeping in mind every small factor to avoid the pump locking up
and other torsional stresses.
 To avoid elastomer swell, dry run and burning of the elastomer due to friction, the selection of
pump model, elastomer-fluid compatibility check and PID selection must be appropriate so
that
 it does not require frequent changes. To achieve this, a complete study of bottom-hole
temperature, % free gas, gas composition must be known. Also, the producing fluid level of the
pump needs monitoring.
 If dry run is the result of high percentages of free gas, lowering the pump setting depth or
running a gas anchor will limit the gas entry.
 There are some mechanical failures like tubing punctures and sucker rods being worn out, and
to reduce this, centralizers should be used for each sucker rod and the pump should be
operated at an optimum RPM which will decrease the vibrations.

3) LOW PERMEABILITY

The permeability of unconventional gas resources like CBM is extremely low i.e. below 0.1 mD.
Therefore, it becomes mandatory to hydraulically fracture the coal seams and increase their
permeability in order to create paths for the gas to flow. These fractures propagate perpendicular to the
plane with lowest stresses and parallel to the plane of highest stress. Due to poor cementing, the
chances of channelling are increased during the hydraulic fracturing job. Also, if there is an insufficient
knowledge about the stress profile of the formation, the fracture might propagate in the vertical
direction which may connect the coal seam and the overlying or underlying formation. If this formation
is a water bearing sandstone, then this might lead to continuous dewatering without any gas production
as the pressure won’t get decreased till the critical value for desorption.

Hydraulic fracturing pumps a mixture of heavy chemicals, water, sand and/or other materials down an
extraction well under extremely high pressure in order to achieve the desired fracturing. Hydraulic
Fracturing raises serious concerns because of the chemicals being used and their impact on the local
ecology. If the coal bed aquifer is tributary to surface water or other groundwater aquifers, chemical
contamination can spread into domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies. Because hydraulic
fracturing typically precedes the water extraction phase, much of the fracturing fluid will be pumped
out of the aquifer along with the bulk of the groundwater. Where surface discharge is used to dispose of
the extracted groundwater, the fracturing fluid is discharged along with the groundwater directly into
local waterways, potentially contaminating water sources relied upon by local communities. It has been
seen that many of the chemicals used for HF are highly toxic, water soluble, volatile, and highly
mobile. Coal bed aquifers often contain potable or high-quality water and the injection of fracturing
fluids into such water sources can permanently contaminate a viable source of water.
Solution:
To prevent such a loss of investment and causing harm to the environment, pre-frac tests need to be
done on each well to get a better knowledge about the stress orientation of the coal seams in order to
plan the HF job in a much more effective and productive manner.

4) SAND PRODUCTION

The CBM wells need to be continuously dewatered in order to produce natural gas. All the wells are
hydraulically fractured, and proppants are pumped during the job to keep the fractures open. During the
flow of water from these fractures in the production phase, some of this proppant comes along with the
water and settles in the sump. As this sand level increases and reaches the pump intake depth, it
hampers the water production and may also wear out the pump. Therefore, such sand production
requires frequent workover jobs, which in itself is a big constraint.

Solution:
As the permeability even after the HF job is low, therefore gravel packing cannot be used. The only
changes which we can make are:

(i) increasing the total depth of the well i.e. the sump
(ii) using resin coated proppants or sand wedge so that they bind the near well bore proppants
and prevent them from accumulating in the sump, thereby reducing the sand production.

5) WATER INFLUX DURING DRILLING

Water bearing zones are frequently encountered while drilling. In unconventional fields with low
permeability, underbalanced drilling (air drilling) is carried out. The bit used here is ‘hammer bit’.
When a zone with high water influx is encountered, then the hammering action of the bit gets affected
which results in a lesser rate of penetration.

Solution:
The only remedy for this constraint is to shift from air drilling to mud drilling.

6) FRACTURED DOLERITE

Drilling Dolerite is in itself a limitation of CBM in this field as the ROP gets significantly reduced. But
fractured dolerite is an even bigger constraint as dolerite is impermeable, and mud cake cannot be
formed in case of mud drilling. In air drilling, the hammering action of the bit further disturbs the
formation which leads to caving in. This can also lead to a stuck up situation.
Solution:
While drilling Dolerite, we must continuously monitor and optimize the drilling parameters. In case of
mud drilling, Dolerite should be drilled with a mud of higher specific gravity. This will help in lifting
the dolerite cuttings and a better hole cleaning.

7) SCALE FORMATION

The water coming from the coal seams contains carbonate salts which are responsible for scale deposits
on the tubing and casing. This scale deposition reduces the effective volume to transport of gas and
water which leads to a decrease in production.

Solution:
The only solution for this constraint is injection of biodegradable scale inhibitors in the formation to
reduce frequent acid jobs.

8) SURFACE WATER DISCHARGE

Because surface discharge is the most common disposal option for the extracted coal bed water, the
compositional characteristics of coal bed water can have a tremendous impact on the surrounding
ecology. The quality of coal bed water varies considerably from well to well and basin to basin, but, on
average, the deeper the coal bed, the more saline the water becomes. Other compositional elements
typically seen in extracted coal bed water include:

 Major Cations (positively charged ions such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, & calcium)
 Major Anions (negatively charged ions such as chlorine, sulfate, & hydrogen carbonate)
 Trace Elements & Metals (iron, manganese, barium, chromium, arsenic, selenium, & mercury)
 Organics (hydrocarbons and additives which may be carcinogenic in nature like benzene,
toluene, ethyl-benzene).

As many farmers make use of stream and river diversion to water their crops and grazing fields, the
surface discharge of coal bed water can negatively impact local agriculture.

SOME OTHER ISSUES INCLUDE:

 AIR POLLUTION AND FLARING

Large quantities of methane, nitrogen oxides (NOX) and other pollutants are emitted from site
equipment, diesel generators and trucks. Further emissions of methane and airborne pollutants occur as
the gas is processed and pressurised in sprawling temporary infrastructure. Flare stacks burn off
unwanted gases and cause more toxic emissions.

 METHANE MIGRATION TO AQUIFERS

The Coal Bed Methane (CBM) process along with hydraulic fracturing releases methane from coal
seams. The gas wells themselves are the most common pathway for methane migration (leakage) but
once released, methane can also migrate through the overlying geology. This can lead to high levels of
methane in streams, aquifers and eventually drinking water. Methane contributes about 100 times more
than carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas.

 PIPELINES AND COMPRESSOR STATIONS

A sprawling temporary gas infrastructure is needed to connect thousands of sites across the landscape.
The pipelines used for transporting gas and waste create the additional danger of leaks and explosions.
Pipeline construction cuts scars across the countryside and blights surrounding areas with planning
restrictions. Noise pollution and further emissions of methane and airborne pollutants occur as the gas
is processed and pressurised.